Section 1.4-1.

5
Section 1.4
 Everystudent of this class is a
bright student
◦ Ahmad is a student of this class

 Ahmad is a bright student

◦T / F ?
 Everystudent of this class is a
bright student
◦ Ahmad is a student of this class

 Ahmad is a bright student

◦T / F ?

Need for additional

rules
 5>3

◦ T/F ?
 5>3

◦ T/F ?

x >3
◦ T/F ?
 5>3
◦ T/F ?
 x>3
◦ T/F ? Not a proposition

 x>3
◦ Statement with variable
x>3
 Statement with variable

 Variable
◦x
 Property
◦ “is greater than 3”
x>3
 Statement with variable

 Variable/Subject
◦x
 Property/Predicate/Proposional
Function
◦ “is greater than 3”
x>3
◦ Statement with variable

Denoted by P(x)
◦ P denotes the predicate
 “is greater than 3”
 x>3  P(x)
◦ P denotes the
predicate “is greater
 Variable
than 3”
◦x

 P(4) T/F ?
 Predicate
◦ “is greater than 3”
 P(2) T/F ?
 P(x):= x is a divisible by 5

◦ P(75) T/F ?

◦ P(73) T/F ?
 P(x):= word x contains the letter n

◦ P(Naraan) T/F?

◦ P(Karachi) T/F?
 Let A(x) denote the statement
◦ “Computer x is under attack by an intruder.”
 Suppose that of the computers on
campus, only CS2 and MATH1 are
currently under attack by intruders.

 What are truth values of A(CS1), A(CS2),

and A(MATH1)?
 Let Q(x, y) denote the statement
◦ “x = y + 3.”

 What are the truth values of

◦ Q(1, 2)
◦ Q(3, 0)
 Let A(c, n) denote the statement
◦ “Computer c is connected to network
n,”
 Wherec is a variable representing
a computer and n is a variable
representing a network.
 Let A(c, n) denote the statement
◦ “Computer c is connected to network n,”
 Suppose that the computer MATH1 is
connected to network CAMPUS2, but
not to network CAMPUS1.

 What are the values of A(MATH1,

CAMPUS1) and A(MATH1, CAMPUS2)?
 Let R(x, y, z) denote the statement
◦ “x + y = z.”
 Whatare the truth values of the
propositions
◦ R(1, 2, 3)
◦ R(0, 0, 1)
When we assign values
to the variables in a
Predicate, it becomes a
Proposition
A predicate may involve more
than one variables
◦ n-ary Predicate

 Value of a Propositional Function

◦ (True/False)
Propositional
Functions can be seen
as Boolean Functions
(functions with
boolean return type)
from the perspective of
a Programmer
 if (x%2 == 0)
◦ return true;
 else

◦ return false;
 if (x%2 == 0) • IsEven (5)
◦ return true; T/F
 else • IsEven (50)
◦ return false; T/F
 Domain/Universe of Discourse
◦ Universal Quantifier
◦ Existential Quantifier
 The universal quantification of
P(x) is the statement
◦ “P(x) for all values of x in the
domain.”
 The universal quantification of
P(x) is the statement
◦ “P(x) for all values of x in the
domain.”
◦ “P(x) is TRUE for all values of x in
the domain.”
 Thenotation ∀xP(x) denotes the
universal quantification of P(x).
◦ Here ∀ is called the universal
quantifier.
 We read ∀xP(x) as “for all x P(x)”
or “for every x P(x).”

 An element for which P(x) is false

is called a counterexample of
∀xP(x).
 The existential quantification of
P(x) is the proposition
◦ “There exists an element x in the
domain such that P(x).”
 We use the notation ∃xP(x) for the
existential quantification of P(x).
◦ Here ∃ is called the existential
quantifier.
When we quantify
(using ∀ or ∃) the
variables in a Predicate,
it becomes a
Proposition
Recall:
When we assign values
to the variables in a
Predicate, it becomes a
Proposition
1. When we assign values to the
variables in a Predicate, it
becomes a Proposition

2. When we quantify the variables

in a Predicate (using ∀ or ∃), it
becomes a Proposition
 Let P(x) be the statement
◦ “x + 1 > x.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xP(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 Let P(x) be the statement
◦ “x + 1 > x.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xP(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
True
 Let Q(x) be the statement
◦ “x < 2.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xQ(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 Let Q(x) be the statement
◦ “x < 2.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xQ(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
False
 Let Q(x) be the statement
◦ “x < 2.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xQ(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
3 is a
Counterexample
 Let P(x) be the statement
◦ “x2 > 0.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xP(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 Let P(x) be the statement
◦ “x2 > 0.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xP(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
False
 Let P(x) be the statement
◦ “x2 > 0.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∀xP(x),
◦ Where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
False
0 is Counterexample
 Whatis the truth value of ∀xP(x),
where P(x) is the statement
◦ “x2 < 10”
◦ and the domain consists of the
positive integers not exceeding 4?
 Whatis the truth value of ∀xP(x),
where P(x) is the statement
◦ “x2 < 10”
◦ and the domain consists of the
positive integers not exceeding 3?

True
 What does the statement ∀xN(x)
mean if N(x) is “Computer x is
connected to the network”?
◦ the domain consists of all computers
on campus
 Whatdoes the statement ∀xN(x)
mean if N(x) is “Computer x is
connected to the network”?
◦ the domain consists of all computers
on campus
 “Every
computer on campus is
connected to the network.”
 What is the truth value of
◦ ∀x(x2 ≥ x)
 if
the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 What is the truth value of
◦ ∀x(x2 ≥ x)
 if
the domain consists of all real
numbers?

False
 What is the truth value of
◦ ∀x(x2 ≥ x)
 if
the domain consists of all real
numbers?

0.5 is a
Counterexample
 What is the truth value of
◦ ∀x(x2 ≥ x)
 if the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 What is the truth value of this
statement if the domain consists of
all integers?
 What is the truth value of
◦ ∀x(x2 ≥ x)
 if the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 What is the truth value of this
statement if the domain consists of
all integers?
True
 Let P(x) denote the statement
◦ “x > 3.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∃xP(x),
◦ where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 Let P(x) denote the statement
◦ “x > 3.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∃xP(x),
◦ where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
True
 Let P(x) denote the statement
◦ “x > 3.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∃xP(x),
◦ where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
True
4 is a witness
 Let Q(x) denote the statement
◦ “x = x + 1.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∃xQ(x),
◦ where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
 Let Q(x) denote the statement
◦ “x = x + 1.”
 Whatis the truth value of the
quantification ∃xQ(x),
◦ where the domain consists of all real
numbers?
False
 Whatis the truth value of ∃xP(x),
where P(x) is the statement
◦ “x2 > 10”
◦ and the universe of discourse
consists of the positive integers not
exceeding 4?
 Whatis the truth value of ∃xP(x),
where P(x) is the statement
◦ “x2 > 10”
◦ and the universe of discourse
consists of the positive integers not
exceeding 4?

True
 Whatis the truth value of ∃xP(x),
where P(x) is the statement
◦ “x2 > 10”
◦ and the universe of discourse
consists of the positive integers not
exceeding 3?

False
 Generally, an implicit assumption is
made that all domains of discourse for
quantifiers are nonempty. Note that if
the domain is empty, then ∀xP(x) is
true for any propositional function
P(x) because there are no elements x
in the domain for which P(x) is false.
 Note that if the domain is empty,
then ∃xQ(x) is false whenever
Q(x) is a propositional function
because when the domain is
empty, there can be no element x
in the domain for which Q(x) is
true.
 Rules of Inference for
Quantified Statements
 Combining Rules of
Inference for Propositions
and Quantified Statements
 Show that the premises “Everyone
in this discrete mathematics class
has taken a course in computer
science” and “Marla is a student in
this class” imply the conclusion
“Marla has taken a course in
computer science.”
 Let D(x) denote
◦ “x is in this discrete mathematics
class,” and
 Let C(x) denote
◦ “x has taken a course in computer
science.”
 Show that the premises “A student
in this class has not read the
book,” and “Everyone in this class
passed the first exam” imply the
conclusion “Someone who passed
the first exam has not read the
book.”
 Let C(x) be
◦ “x is in this class,”
 B(x) be
◦ “x has read the book,” and
P (x) be
◦ “x passed the first exam.”
 Universal Modus Ponens

 Universal Modus Tollens

 ...
Different Rules for Universal
& Existential Quantifiers
 ∀
• →
 ∃
• ∧
What do the statements
◦ ∀x < 0 (x2 > 0),
◦ ∀y = 0 (y3 = 0), and
◦ ∃z > 0 (z2 = 2)
mean, Where the domain in each
case consists of the real numbers?
 ∀x < 0 (x2 > 0)  ∀x (x < 0 → x2 > 0)

 ∀y = 0 (y3 = 0)  ∀y (y = 0 → y3 = 0)

 ∃z > 0 (z2 = 2)  ∃z (z > 0 ∧ z2 = 2)

Higher than all logical
operators from propositional
calculus
 Thequantifiers ∀ and ∃ have
higher precedence than all logical
operators from propositional
calculus.
 Forexample, ∀xP(x) ∨ Q(x) is the
disjunction of ∀xP(x) and Q(x). In
other words, it means (∀xP(x)) ∨
Q(x)
◦ rather than ∀x(P(x) ∨ Q(x)).
 ∃x(x + y = 1)
◦ x is bound,
◦ but y is free
 ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ∨ ∀xR(x)
◦ all variables are bound.
 The scope of the first quantifier, ∃x, is
the expression P(x) ∧ Q(x)
◦ because ∃x is applied only to P(x) ∧ Q(x),
and not to the rest of the statement.
 Similarly, the scope of the second
quantifier, ∀x, is the expression R(x)
 ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ∨ ∀xR(x)
 we could have written above
statement using two different
variables x and y, as
◦ ∃x(P(x) ∧ Q(x)) ∨ ∀yR(y),
 because the scopes of the two
quantifiers do not overlap.
 Statements involving predicates and
quantifiers are logically equivalent if
and only if they have the same truth
value no matter which predicates are
substituted into these statements and
which domain of discourse is used for
the variables in these propositional
functions.
 We use the notation S ≡ T to
indicate that two statements S and
T involving predicates and
quantifiers are logically
equivalent.
 We can distribute a universal
quantifier over a conjunction
 We can also distribute an
existential quantifier over a
disjunction
∃x(P(x)∨Q(x))≡∃xP(x)∨∃xQ(x)
 We cannot distribute a universal
quantifier over a disjunction
 Similarly we cannot distribute an
existential quantifier over a
conjunction
∃x(P(x)∧Q(x)) ≢∃xP(x)∧∃xQ(x)
De Morgan's Laws
 De Morgan's Laws for Quantifiers
 Whatare the negations of the
statements
◦ “There is an honest politician”
◦ “All Americans eat
cheeseburgers”
 “There is an honest politician”
◦ “Every politician is dishonest.”

 “AllAmericans eat
cheeseburgers”?
◦ “Some American does not eat
cheeseburgers”
 Whatare the negations of the
statements
◦ ∀x(x2 > x)
◦ ∃x(x2 = 2)
◦ ∀x(P(x)→Q(x))
 ￢∀x(x2 > x) ≡∃x(x2 ≤ x)

 ￢∃x(x2 = 2) ≡∀x(x2 ≠ 2)

 ￢∀x(P(x)→Q(x))≡∃x(P(x)∧￢Q(x))
Isn't it Fun !!!
 Express the statement “Every
student in this class has studied
calculus ” using predicates and
quantifiers.
“Every student in this class has
studied calculus”.
◦ C(x):= “x has studied calculus.”
◦ Domain:= Students of this class

∀xC(x)
“Every student in this class has studied
calculus”.
◦ C(x):= “x has studied calculus”
◦ S(x):=“person x is in this class”
◦ Domain:= All human beings

∀x(S(x) → C(x))
“Some student in this class has
visited Mexico”
◦ M(x):= x has visited Mexico
◦ Domain:= Students of this class

∃xM(x)
“Some student in this class has visited
Mexico”
◦ M(x):= x has visited Mexico
◦ S(x):=“person x is in this class”
◦ Domain:= All human beings

∃x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
“Every student in this class has
visited either Canada or Mexico”
◦ ∀x (S(x) → (C(x) ∨ M(x)))
 C(x)?
 Usepredicates and quantifiers to
express the system specifications
◦ “Every mail message larger than one
megabyte will be compressed”
◦ “If a user is active, at least one
network link will be available”
“Every mail message larger than
one megabyte will be compressed”
◦ S(m, y):=“Mail message m is larger
than y megabytes,”
◦ C(m):=“Mail message m will be
compressed.”
“Every mail message larger than
one megabyte will be compressed”
 S(m, y):=“Mail message m is larger than
y megabytes,”
 C(m):=“Mail message m will be
compressed.”
◦ ∀m(S(m, 1) → C(m))
“If a user is active, at least one
network link will be available.”
 A(u):=“User u is active,”
 S(n, x):=“Network link n is in state
x,”
“If a user is active, at least one
network link will be available.”
 A(u):=“User u is active,”
 S(n, x):=“Network link n is in state
x,”
 ∃u A(u) → ∃n S(n, available)
 “All lions are fierce.”
 “Some lions do not drink coffee.”

 “Some fierce creatures do not drink

coffee.”
◦ P(x) := “x is a lion”
◦ Q(x) := “x is fierce”
◦ R(x) := “x drinks coffee”
 “All lions are fierce.”  ∀x(P(x) → Q(x))

 “Some lions do not  ∃x(P(x) ∧ ￢R(x))

drink coffee.”
 “Some fierce
creatures do not  ∃x(Q(x) ∧ ￢R(x))
drink coffee.”
◦ P(x) := “x is a lion”
◦ Q(x) := “x is fierce”
◦ R(x) := “x drinks
coffee”
 “All lions are fierce.”  ∀x(P(x) → Q(x))

 “Some lions do not  ∃x(P(x) ∧ ￢R(x))

drink coffee.”
 “Some fierce
creatures do not  ∃x(Q(x) ∧ ￢R(x))
drink coffee.”
◦ P(x) := “x is a lion”
◦ Q(x) := “x is fierce”
◦ R(x) := “x drinks
coffee”
See any inference ?
 “All
hummingbirds are richly
colored.”
 “No large birds live on honey.”
 “Birds
that do not live on honey
are dull in color.”
 “Hummingbirds are small.”
 “All
hummingbirds are richly
colored.”
 “No large birds live on honey.”
 “Birds
that do not live on honey
are dull in color.”
 “Hummingbirds are small.”
See any inference ?
 P(x):= “x is a hummingbird”
 Q(x):= “x is large”
 R(x):= “x lives on honey”
 S(x):= “x is richly colored”
 “All hummingbirds are  ∀x(P(x) → S(x))
richly colored.”
 “No large birds live on  ￢∃x(Q(x) ∧ R(x))
honey.”
 “Birds that do not live  ∀x(￢R(x)→￢S(x))
on honey are dull in
color.”
 “Hummingbirds are  ∀x(P(x)→￢Q(x))
small.”
◦ P(x):= “x is a
hummingbird”
◦ Q(x):= “x is large”
◦ R(x):= “x lives on honey”
◦ S(x):= “x is richly colored”
Section 1.5
 Nested Quantifiers
◦ One Quantifier within scope of
another Quantifier
 ∀x∀y(x + y = y + x)

 ∀x∃y(x + y = 0)
 ∀x∀y∀z(x+(y + z) = (x + y) + z)

 ∀x∀y((x>0) ∧ (y < 0) → (xy < 0))

 Critical when different Quantifiers

 P(x, y):= “x + y = y + x”

 ∀x∀yP(x, y) T/F?
 ∀y∀xP(x, y) T/F?
 Critical when different Quantifiers

 Q(x, y):=“x + y = 0”

 ∃y∀xQ(x, y) T/F?
 ∀x∃yQ(x, y) T/F?
 Q(x, y, z):=“x + y = z”

 ∀x∀y∃zQ(x, y, z) T/F?
 ∃z∀x∀yQ(x, y, z) T/F?

 Domain:=Real numbers
 The sum of two positive integers
is always positive
 The sum of two positive integers
is always positive

 ∀x∀y((x>0) ∧ (y>0) → (x+y > 0))

 Every
real number except zero has
a multiplicative inverse
 Every
real number except zero has
a multiplicative inverse

 ∀x((x ≠ 0) → ∃y(xy = 1))

 ∀x(C(x) ∨ ∃y(C(y) ∧ F(x, y)))

◦ C(x):=“x has a computer”

◦ F(x, y):=“x and y are friends”
◦ Domain:=all students in FAST Lhr
 ∀x(C(x) ∨ ∃y(C(y) ∧ F(x, y)))
 C(x):=“x has a computer”
 F(x, y):=“x and y are friends”
 Domain:=all students in FAST Lhr
 Every
student in FAST Lhr has a
computer or has a friend who has
a computer
 ∃x∀y∀z

◦ ((F(x, y)∧F(x, z)∧(y≠ z))→￢F(y,z))

 F(x, y):=“x and y are friends”

 Domain:=all students in FAST Lhr
 ∃x∀y∀z
◦ ((F(x, y)∧F(x, z)∧(y≠ z))→￢F(y,z))
 F(x, y):=“x and y are friends”
 Domain:=all students in FAST Lhr

 There is a student in FAST Lhr none of

whose friends are also friends with
each other
 “If
a person is female and is a
parent, then this person is
someone’s mother”
 F(x):=“x is female”
 P(x):=“x is a parent”
 M(x, y):=“x is the mother of y.”
 “If a person is female and is a parent,
then this person is someone’s
mother”
 F(x):=“x is female”
 P(x):=“x is a parent”
 M(x, y):=“x is the mother of y.”
 ∀x((F (x) ∧ P(x)) → ∃yM(x, y))
 ∀x∃y((F (x) ∧ P(x)) → M(x, y))
 “Everyone has exactly one best
friend”

 B(x, y):=“y is the best friend of x”

 “Everyone has exactly one best
friend”

 B(x, y):=“y is the best friend of x”

 ∀x∃y(B(x,y)∧∀z((z≠y)→￢B(x, z)))
 “There is a woman who has taken a
flight on every airline in the world.”
 P(w, f ):=“w has taken f ”
 Q(f, a):=“f is a flight on a”
 the domains of discourse for w, f , and
a consist of all the women in the
world, all airplane flights, and all
airlines, respectively
 “There is a woman who has taken
a flight on every airline in the
world.”
 P(w, f ):=“w has taken f ”
 Q(f, a):=“f is a flight on a”

 ∃w∀a∃f (P(w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))

 Express the negation of the statement
 ∀x∃y(xy = 1)
 so that no negation precedes a
quantifier.

 Hint: Successively apply De Morgan’s

Laws
 ￢∀x∃y(xy = 1) ≡ ∃x￢∃y(xy = 1)

 ∃x￢∃y(xy = 1) ≡ ∃x∀y￢(xy = 1)

 ∃x∀y￢(xy = 1) ≡ ∃x∀y(xy ≠ 1)
 “There does not exist a woman
who has taken a flight on every
airline in the world.”
 RECALL

◦ “There is a woman who has taken a

flight on every airline in the world.”
 P(w, f ):=“w has taken f ”
 Q(f, a):=“f is a flight on a”

 ∃w∀a∃f (P(w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))

 “There does not exist a woman
who has taken a flight on every
airline in the world.”

 ￢∃w∀a∃f (P(w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))

 ￢∃w∀a∃f (P(w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))
≡ ∀w￢∀a∃f (P(w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))
≡ ∀w∃a￢∃f (P(w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))
≡ ∀w∃a∀f￢(P (w, f ) ∧ Q(f, a))
≡ ∀w∃a∀f (￢P(w, f )∨￢Q(f, a))
int A[0 ... n-1]
 An array is a systematic arrangement
of similar objects
 Every object has a position/location
associated with it
 An object can be accessed using its
position/location/index in the array
 A=〈3, 41, 52, 26, 38, 57, 9, 49〉
 Number of Positions
8

 A[0…7]=〈3, 41, 52, 26, 38, 57, 9, 49〉

 A=〈3, 41, 52, 26, 38, 57, 9, 49〉
 Number of Positions
◦ 8 (from 0 to 7)
 Object/Number at position 4
◦ 38
 A[4]=38
 A[7]=?, A[2]=?, A[9]=?, A[3]=?,
 A=〈3, 41, 52, 26, 38, 57, 9, 49〉
 A[7]=49

 A[2]=52

 A[9]=Inavlid

 A[3]=26
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∃i A[i]=15
◦ Domain=???
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∃i A[i]=15
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}
◦ Note that here we are quantifying the
position, not the value!
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∃i A[i]=15
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}

 A=〈3, 41, 52, 26, 15, 57, 9, 49, 5,

13〉
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∃i A[i]=15
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}

 A=〈3, 41, 15, 26, 15, 57, 9, 4, 7,

9〉
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∃i A[i]=15
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}

 A=〈3, 41, 15, 26, 15, 57, 9, 4, 7,

9〉
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∀i A[i]=i
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∀i A[i]=i
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}

 A=〈0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9〉
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∀i ∀ j ((i<j)A[i]<A[j])
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∀i ∀ j ((i<j)A[i]<A[j])
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}

 A=〈15, 23, 32, 34, 45, 46, 77, 81,

89, 130〉
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∀i ∀ j ((i<j)A[i]>A[j])
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}
 A[0…9] such that
◦ ∀i ∀ j ((i<j)A[i]>A[j])
◦ Domain={0,1,2,3,…,9}

 A=〈77, 63, 54, 51, 47, 43, 12, 9,

?, ?〉
 A=〈77, 63, 54, 51, 47, 43, 12, 9〉
 B[1…8] such that
 ∀i ∃j (B[i]=A[j])
 ∀i (B[i]=A[j] →¬∃k (k≠i ∧ B[k]=A[j]))
◦ Domain for i, j, k={0,1,2,3,…,7}

 B=?
 A=〈77, 63, 54, 51, 47, 43, 12, 9〉
 B[1…8] such that
 ∀i ∃j (B[i]=A[j])
 ∀i (B[i]=A[j] →¬∃k (k≠i ∧ B[k]=A[j]))
◦ Domain for i, j, k={0,1,2,3,…,7}

 B=Any permutation of A