Part A: Chapter 6: Bending

In this chapter we will determine the stress in a beam

or shaft caused by bending. The chapter begins with a
discussion of how to find the variation of the shear and
moment in these members. Then once the internal
moment is determined, the maximum bending stress
can be calculated. First we will consider members that
are straight, have a symmetric cross section, and are
made of homogeneous linear elastic material.
Afterward we will discuss special cases involving
unsymmetric bending and members made of
composite materials. Consideration will also be given
to curved members, stress concentrations, inelastic
bending, and residual stresses.
 Plan of the chapter
6-1 Shear and moment diagrams
6-2 Graphical method for construction of
V and M diagrams
6-3 Bending deformation of a straight member
6-4 The flexure formula
6-5 Unsymmetric bending
6-6 Composite beams*
6-7 Reinforced concrete beams*
6-8 Curved beams*
6-9 Stress concentration*
6-1 shear and moment diagram
Members that are slender and support loadings that
are applied perpendicular to their longitudinal axis are
called beams.
In general beams are long, straight bars having a
constant cross-sectional area.
Often they are classified as to how they are supported.
For example, a simply supported beam is pinned at
one end and roller supported at the other, a
cantilevered beam is fixed at one end and free at the
other, and an overhanging beam has one or both of its
ends freely extended over the supports (Fig. 6–1)
 Shear V and bending moment M diagrams

Expressing V and M as functions of their

arbitrary position x along the beam’s axis, and
plotting these functions “shear and moment
diagrams”.
The maximum values of V and M are
obtained directly from these graphs.
Shear and moment diagrams provide
detailed information about the variation of
the shear and moment along the beam’s axis,
they are often used by engineers to decide
where to place reinforcement materials
within the beam or how to proportion the
size of the beam at various points along its
length.
 Beam sign convention

The positive directions are as follows:

the distributed load acts upward on
the beam, the internal shear force
causes a clockwise rotation of the
beam segment on which it acts, and
the internal moment causes
compression in the top fibers of the
segment such that it bends the
segment so that it “holds water”.
 Example 6-1
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam
shown in Fig. 6–4a.
 0<x<4

V = 6 – (3 x)

M = (6 x - 1.5 x²)
 *Example 6-2
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. 6–5a.
Solution for example 6-2
 *Example 6-3
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. 6–6a.
 Solution for example 6-3
Support Reactions. The distributed load is divided into
triangular and rectangular component loadings and these
loadings are then replaced by their resultant forces. The
reactions have been determined as shown on the beam’s
free-body diagram, Fig. 6–6b.
Shear and Moment Functions. A free-body diagram of
the left segment is shown in Fig. 6–6c. As above, the
trapezoidal loading is replaced by rectangular and
triangular distributions. Note that the intensity of the
triangular load at the section is found by proportion. The
resultant force and the location of each distributed
loading are also shown. Applying the equilibrium
equations, we have
 Example 6-4
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. 6–7a.
 Solution
Support Reactions. The reactions at the supports are shown
on the free-body diagram of the beam, Fig. 6–7d.
Shear and Moment Functions. Since there is a discontinuity of
distributed load and also a concentrated load at the beam’s
center, two regions of x must be considered in order to
describe the shear and moment functions for the entire
beam.
Shear and Moment Diagrams. Equations 1 through 4 are
plotted in Fig. 6–7d.
6-2 Graphical method for construction of
V and M diagrams
In cases where a beam is subjected to several different
loadings, determining V and M as functions of x and then
plotting these equations can become quite tedious. In this
section a simpler method for constructing the shear and
moment diagrams is discussed—a method based on two
differential relations, one that exists between the distributed
load and shear, and the other between the shear and
moment.
Notice that all the loadings shown on the segment act in their
positive directions according to the established sign
convention, Fig. 6–3. Also, both the internal resultant shear
and moment, acting on the right face of the segment, must be
changed by a small amount in order to keep the segment in
equilibrium. The distributed load, which is approximately
constant over x, has been replaced by a resultant force wΔx
that acts at 1/2 (Δx) from the right side. Applying the
equations of equilibrium to the segment, we have
Figure 6-8
Equations: 6-3; 6-4
Regions of concentrated force and
moment (jumps)
 Jump in shear diagram
A free-body diagram of a small segment of the beam in Fig. 6–
8a taken from under the force is shown in Fig. 6–10a. Here
force equilibrium requires: V + F – (V + ΔV) = 0; F = ΔV (6-5)
Thus, when F acts upward on the beam, then the change in
shear, ΔV, is positive so the values of the shear on the shear
diagram will “jump” upward. Likewise, if F acts downward, the
jump (ΔV) will be downward.
 Jump in moment diagram
When the beam segment includes the couple moment M0,
Fig. 6–10b, then moment equilibrium requires the change in
moment to be: M + ΔM – M0 – V Δx – M = 0
Letting Δx = 0; ΔM = M0 (6-6)
In this case, if M0 is applied clockwise, the change in moment,
ΔM, is positive so the moment diagram will “jump” upward.
Likewise, when M0 acts counterclockwise, the jump (ΔM) will
be downward.
 Example 6-5
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. 6–11a.
 Solution
Support Reactions. The reaction at the fixed support is shown on
the free-body diagram, Fig. 6–11b.
Shear Diagram. The shear at each end of the beam is plotted first,
Fig. 6–11c. Since there is no distributed loading on the beam, the
slope of the shear diagram is zero as indicated. Note how the force
P at the center of the beam causes the shear diagram to jump
downward an amount P, since this force acts downward.
Moment Diagram. The moments at the ends of the beam are
plotted, Fig. 6–11d. Here the moment diagram consists of two
sloping lines, one with a slope of +2P and the other with a slope of
+P. The value of the moment in the center of the beam can be
determined by the method of sections, or from the area under the
shear diagram. If we choose the left half of the shear diagram,
 Example 6-6
Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the beam shown in
Fig. 6–12a.
 Solution
Support Reactions. The reactions are shown on the free-
body diagram in Fig. 6–12b.
Shear Diagram. The shear at each end is plotted first, Fig.
6–12c. Since there is no distributed load on the beam,
the shear diagram has zero slope and is therefore a
horizontal line.
Moment Diagram. The moment is zero at each end, Fig.
6–12d. The moment diagram has a constant negative
slope of −M0>2L since this is the shear in the beam at
each point. However, here the couple moment M0
causes a jump in the moment diagram at the beam’s
center.
6-3 Bending deformation of a straight
member
The discussion will be limited to beams having a cross-
sectional area that is symmetrical with respect to an axis, and
the bending moment is applied about an axis perpendicular to
this axis of symmetry, as shown in Fig. 6–18.
Consider the undeformed bar in Fig. 6–19a, which has a
square cross section and is marked with horizontal and
vertical grid lines. When a bending moment is applied, it
tends to distort these lines into the pattern shown in Fig. 6–
19b. Here the horizontal lines become curved, while the
vertical lines remain straight but undergo a rotation. The
bending moment causes the material within the bottom
portion of the bar to stretch and the material within the
top portion to compress. Consequently, between these two
regions there must be a surface, called the neutral surface,
in which horizontal fibers of the material will not undergo a
change in length, Fig. 6–18. As noted, we will refer to the z
axis that lies along the neutral surface as the neutral axis.
Note the distortion of the lines
due to bending of this rubber bar.
The top line stretches, the
bottom line compresses, and the
center line remains the same
length. Furthermore the vertical
lines rotate and yet remain
straight.
Normal strain distribution
Equations 6-7 ; 6-8
 6-4 The Flexure Formula
like the normal strain variation, σ will vary from zero
at the member’s neutral axis to a maximum value,
σmax, a distance c farthest from the neutral axis.
Because of the proportionality of triangles, Fig. 6–
23b, or by using Hooke’s law, σ = Eε, and Eq. 6–8, we
can write: σ = - (y/c)σmax (6-9)
The sign convention established here is significant. For positive
M, which acts in the +z direction, positive values of y give
negative values for σ, that is, a compressive stress, since it
acts in the negative x direction. Similarly, negative y values
will give positive or tensile values for σ.
Location of neutral axis
 Equation for NA (6-10)
In other words, the first moment of the member’s cross-
sectional area about the neutral axis must be zero. This
condition can only be satisfied if the neutral axis is also
the horizontal centroidal axis for the cross section.*
Therefore, once the centroid for the member’s cross-
sectional area is determined, the location of the neutral
axis is known.

*Recall that the location y for the centroid of an area is

defined from the equation
and so the centroid lies on the reference (neutral) axis.
 Bending moment
Bending Moment. We can determine the stress in
the beam if we require the moment M to be equal to
the moment produced by the stress distribution
about the neutral axis. The moment of dF in Fig. 6–
24 is dM = y dF. Since dF = σ dA, using Eq. 6–9, we
have for the entire cross section, eq. 6-11
Normal stress / Flexure formula
The integral represents the moment of inertia of the
cross-sectional area about the neutral axis.* We will
symbolize its value as I. Hence, Eq. 6–11 can be
solved for σmax and written as:
σmax = Mc/I (6-12)
σ = My/I (6-13)
σmax = the maximum normal stress in the member,
which occurs at a point on the cross-sectional area
farthest away from the neutral axis
M = the resultant internal moment, determined from
the method of sections and the equations of
equilibrium, and calculated about the neutral axis of
the cross section
c = perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to a
point farthest away from the neutral axis. This is where
smax acts.
I = moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area about
the neutral axis
 Section modulus S
A bending design requires a determination of
the beam’s section modulus, a geometric
property which is the ratio of I to c, that is,
S = I/c. Using the flexure formula, σ = Mc/I, we
have: Sreq = Mmax/[σ],specified in design
codes; [σ] = σallow
afterwards the shear strength is checked.
 Example 6-11
A beam has a rectangular cross section and is subjected to the
stress distribution shown in Fig. 6–25a. Determine the internal
moment M at the section caused by the stress distribution (a)
using the flexure formula, (b) by finding the resultant of the
stress distribution using basic principles.
 Example 6-12
The simply supported beam in Fig. 6–26a has the cross-
sectional area shown in Fig. 6–26b. Determine the absolute
maximum bending stress in the beam and draw the stress
distribution over the cross section at this location. Also, what
is the stress at point B?
 *Example 6-14
The member having a rectangular cross section, Fig.
6–28a, is designed to resist a moment of 40 N.m. In
order to increase its strength and rigidity, it is
proposed that two small ribs be added at its bottom,
Fig. 6–28b. Determine the maximum normal stress in
the member for both cases.