ntended Learning Outcomes At the end of this section, applies pressure to an inked surface lying on a medium

the students must be able to demonstrate the following (i.e., cloth or paper to transfer the ink). Gutenberg's
outcomes: 1discuss the general historical development hand mold printing press led to the creation of the
of the Information Age; 2examine ethical and moral metal movable type. Later, the two inventions were
dilemmas of the InformationAge; and 3propose combined to make the printing faster and drastically
solutions to address the spread of disinformation and reduced the printing costs of documents. From this
fake news. The Advent of the Information Age invention also, a new branch of print media was
Information Age, also known as Computer Age, Digital introduced and was known as "the press."
Age, or Age of New Media, is a historical period
FIGURE 2.Gutenberg's Printing Press. The invention of
beginning in the mid-20th century, whose defining
the printing press then ushered in the era of mass
characteristic is a rapid shift from traditional industries
communication. This permanently reformed the
to an economy driven by the need for information
structure of society. The political and religious
access and control. It is a period of rapid growth of
authorities were threatened due to the growing literate
information, which can be easily accessed through both
population. The middle class was distinguished from the
traditional media (e.g, newspaper, television, and radio)
domination of the elite educated and learned class. Due
and the manipulation of information through the
to the rapid increase of vernacular languages in Europe,
computer and computer networks. John Waters,
proto-nationalism had grown as well. Although this did
President and Creative Director of Waters Design
not stop the production of modified printing press like
Associates, Inc., describes the Information Age as a time
rotary press run by steam and used in industrial scale
when information got ahead of humankind and grew at
printing in the 19th century (Hodges, 2012). As the
a speed that we were unprepared to handle. The
years progressed, communications needed calculations
beginning of the Information Age was set up through
due to advancing trade and industry. Back then,
the invention of the transistor in 1947 by American
computers were people who compiled actuarial tables
physicists John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, and the
and did engineering calculations. During World War II,
optical amplifier in 1957 by American physicist Gordon
the Allies (Great Britain, the United States, and the
Gould. Both were necessary for the development of
Soviet Union) -countries that opposed the Axis powers
computing and computers and fiber-optic
(Germany, Japan, and Italy)-were challenged by a
communications, setting the stage for the explosion of
serious shortage of human computers for military
information through their efficient methods of
calculations. When soldiers left for war, the shortage
transmitting information. However, the building blocks
got worse, so the United States mechanized the
of the Information Age were farther back in the past.
problem by building theHarvard Mark 1, a 50-feet long
These building blocks include the development of
electromechanical computer, which was capable of
writing systems across ancient civilizations, such as that
doing calculations in seconds that took people hours. At
of the ancient Sumerian Cuneiform from 3000 B.C., the
the same time, the British also needed mathematicians
ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics from 2900 B.C., and the
to crack the German navy'sEnigma code. The Enigma
ancient Chinese small seal script during the Qin Dynasty
code was used by the Germans to transcribe their
in 200 B.C. Ancient antecedents of the modern book
messages in encryption using a machine called Enigma
also contributed to the unfolding of the Information
which looked like an oversized typewriter(Freiberger et
Age. These include the ancient Egyptian papyrus roll
al., 2018). FIGURE 3."Enigma M4" Cypher Machine. Alan
around 500 BC, the parchment codex of the Roman
Turing, an English mathematician, was hired in 1936 by
Empire around 100 A.D, the ancient Chinese wood-
the British top-secret Government Code and Cipher
block printing and paper in 105 A.D.
School at Bletchley Park to break the Enigma code. His
HieroglyphicsCuneiformChinese small seal script FIGURE
code-breaking work became an industrial process
1.Ancient writing systems. From manual, tedious, and
having 12,000 people working three shifts day in and
slow ancient printing methods, in which the cloth,
day out. To counteract this, the Nazis had made the
paper, or other medium was brushed or rubbed
Enigma machines more complicated having
repeatedly to complete the transfer of ink, the printing
approximately 104 possible permutations. Turing
press was invented by German goldsmith Johannes
designed Bombe, an electromechanical machine that
Gutenberg in 1440. The printing press is a device that
allowed the British to read all daily German naval
Enigma traffic by searching through the permutations. home Pages where they could place text and graphics to
This contribution of Turing and the British team at sell products. Shortly, airline tickets, hotel reservations,
Bletchley saved millions of lives since the invention books, and even cars and homes could be purchased
shortened the war by as much as two years (Munro, online. Colleges and universities Posted research data
2012). on the Internet so students could find Valuable
information without leaving their dormitories.
FIGURE 4.Alan Turing. At this point, the antecedents of
Companies soon discovered that work could be done at
the Information Age had all taken place, and humankind
home and submitted online, so a whole new class of
would wake up to a world where news and information
telecommuters began to earn a living from home
would be very vast that they just can no longer
offices. New forms of communication were introduced.
remember everything. Science and
Electronic mail, or E-mail, was a convenient way to send
computerhistoriansaliketracetheformalbeginningsofthe
a message to associates or friends. Messages could be
Information Age to the work of the American
sent and received at the convenience of the individual.
mathematician, electrical engineer, and cryptographer
A letter that took several days to arrive could be read in
Claude E. Shannon. Shannon was a researcher at Bell
minutes. Internet service providers set up electronic
Laboratories, where he met Turing in 1943. At the age
chat rooms. These were open areas of cyberspace
of 32, Shannon wrote a landmark paper proposing that
where interested parties could join in a conversation
all information can be encoded as a series of ones and
with strangers. Advocates of the Internet cited its many
zeroes. Through this, he demonstrated that all
advantages.The commercial possibilities were limitless.
information media, from telephone signals to radio
Convenience was greatly improved. Chat rooms and e-
waves to television images can be transmitted without
mail allowed individuals to converse who may never
any error using his framework. A generation with
have had the opportunity in the past, Educational
"electronic brains" was born by the 19705 who wanted
opportunities were greatly enhanced because of the
their own personal computers (PCs). Thus, in 1975,
wealth of knowledge now placed at the fingertips of any
some hobbyists, who were also members of the
wired individual. Surfing the net became a pastime in
Homebrew Computer Club, became eager with the
and of itself. Very quickly, from 1973 onwards, the
potential of the new silicon chips that would allow them
Internet paved the way for social networking and gave
to build their own computers. One of the members of
rise to the creation of various social media platforms,
this club, Steve Wozniak, built a simple computer
which served a plethora of functions, such as instant-
around the 8080-microprocessor hooked up to a
messaging applications, conferencing and bulletin-board
keyboard and television in 1976. Then, his friend Steve
forum system, exchanging e-mails, game-based social
Jobs called the computer Apple I and sold replicates of
networking, business-oriented social networking,
this machine to a Silicon Valley shop. A year earlier, Bill
messaging, video and voice calling service, blogging, and
Gates realized that PCs needed software and sold his
image and video hosting. With the Internet's fast
Microsoft programs (Computer History Museum).
development, anti-Internet sentiments also became
FIGURE 5.Apple I, also called Apple-1 or Apple
rampant. Critics charged that the Internet created a
Computer 1. The Internet was developed during the
technological divide that increased the gap between the
1970s by the United States Department of Defense,
haves and have-nots. Those who could not afford a
mainly by scientists to communicate with other
computer or a monthly access fee were denied these
scientists. One early problem faced by Internet users
possibilities. Many decried the impersonal nature of
was with speed. Phone lines could only transmit
electronic communication compared to a telephone call
information at a limited rate. The development of fiber-
or a handwritten letter. Hate groups were using the
optic cables allowed for billions of bits of information to
Internet to expand their bases and recruit new
be received every minute. Companies like Intel
members. The unregulated nature of the Internet
developed faster microprocessors so personal
allowed pornography to be broadcast to millions of
computers could process the incoming signals at a more
homes. Protecting children from these influences, or
rapid rate.
even from meeting violent predators would prove to be
In the early 1990s, the World Wide Web was developed difficult.
largely for commercial purposes. Corporations created
Evolutions of the Information Age in the 2010s In the Think about the possibilities with social media platforms
last decade, the Information Age saw even greater of the 2010s, such as Facebook, Iwitter, and Instagram.
leaps, so much that it came to be known as a "decade of Individuals can do so much more, most of which were
disruption. These were made possible through the constraints of the 2000s social networks. Moreover,
significant technological advancements and societal the social media of the 2010s were no longer just for
shifts, which occurred in the 2010s. These shifts individual users, they have become sites for companies,
continued to capitalize on the more sophisticated news organizations, and governments to efficiently
information theory and technologies, which were connect with their audience and communicate
established during the early years of the period. In the information in real time. Social media transformed into
2010s, mobile communication upgraded from 3G to 4G one-stop platforms for information, which captured the
networks. If 3G networks kicked off an age of calling, attention and preoccupied a significant amount of the
texting, and Internet connectivity for mobile phone user's time. Advertisers took notice of this shift and, in
users, the introduction of the 4G network offered turn, poured more of their advertising spending on
Internet speeds up to ten times than that of its social media platforms and search engines and less on
predecessor. Download speeds increased from 1.5 to 15 traditional media. In fact, in 2019, digital advertising
megabits per second (Mbit/s. This development made it overtook traditional advertising such as on TV and radio,
possible to download an 800MB video from five hours in terms of the overall volume of advertising spending.
in a 3G network to 43 seconds in 4G. It is this transition It is during this decade that social media platforms and
from 3G to 4G, which sped up mobile application industries, such as Facebook and Google, saw meteoric
technology so that people are able to do even more on growth. Between 2010 and 2020, the number of social
their mobile devices and away from their desktop media users around the world tripled from 970 million
computers. This evolution is most strikingly evidenced to 2.96 billion.
by the popularity of streaming services, such as Netflix
FIGURE 7.A drastic increase in social media users took
and Spotify, mobile shopping on e-commerce sites, such
place between 2010 and 2020. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
as Lazada and Shopee, and the use of social media on
and big data science and technology also took off in the
the go. As such, industries such as smartphone
last decade. As users transact online-making payments,
manufacturing, social media, e-commerce, and
searching and viewing online, and using mobile apps-
streaming services all benefited greatly from this
gigabytes of digital trail is left behind, which can be
Information Age leap of the 2010s. This also translated
mined and sifted through to spot patterns, create
to a drastic increase on the daily time spent by users on
instructions for search engines, offer real-time
their mobile devices-what was only 32 minutes in 2011
directions, and even geo-target users for digital
became 132 minutes in 2019. FIGURE 6. Statistical data
advertising. Today, it is not uncommon to find that an
showed an increase in the average daily time spent
advertising material pops up on your social media
online via mobile phones (gray bars) while time spent
timeline, after a recent search elsewhere, Say on
online via desktop computers (black bars) decreased
Google. Geotagging, or the process of appending
worldwide from year 2011 to 2019. Social media also
geographic coordinates on the location of a mobile
brought people's lives "online" in the 2010s. During the
device, has become very common on the Internet. All
time of desktop computers, users went to social media
these have become Possible in the 2010s because of the
platforms to log events that happened in the past day,
emergence of Al algorithms which continue to learn and
week, or month. Platforms were like virtual scrapbooks,
advance their capabilities of understanding more
where users uploaded their collection of experiences
complex and prolific datasets (i.e., big data). E-
after the fact. Friendster was the world's most popular
commerce, social media, and search engines are the
social network in the 2000s, where users could contact
primary beneficiary of this shift. Between 2010 and
other users, maintain those contacts, and share and
2019, the volume of data created globally on the
leave online content and media, such as testimonials. It
Internet has exploded from only two zetabytes to 41
was a social network that was rather passive. But as
zetabytes. Moreover, through Al algorithms, from only
social media engagement shifted to the smartphone,
9% of the 2010 data, 13% of 2019 data were made
what used to be laidback social networking became an
available in structured formats, making it easy to index,
instantaneous broadcast of life events and experiences.
tag, or reference them for various purposes. This has
opened a gold mine of data which advanced the the offshoots of 5G technology are seen in the adoption
frontiers of information science, marketing and of connected devices in homes, cities, and enterprises.
advertising, and communications. FIGURE 8.From 2010 Smart cities will be more common as sectors and
to 2019, massive volumes of information data were industries in society move to connect devices to gather
created and made available online. and analyze real-time data, which will make processes
more efficient, with downtime reduced and free time
Finally, if you are a user of Amazon Cloud Drive,
available to attend to new products and initiatives.
Dropbox, Google Drive, OneDrive, or iCloud, you
Although some may, in fact, already be enjoying 5G
basically enjoy the advantages of the 2010s shift of data
connections, especially in city centers and business
storage to the cloud (i.e., cloud storages). Prior to this,
districts in the country, the trajectory is towards the
you may remember using physical CD-ROMs, floppy
mass adoption of this technology so that every possible
disks, or flash drives, which were very popular during
industry or enterprise can benefit from it. For this to
the 2000s. However, as datasets grew bigger and more
happen, capital and investment coupled with supportive
complex, and sophisticated and faster networks sped up
government policies will be required. In turn,
the transfer of data over the Internet, physical storage
manufacturers of connected devices, semiconductor
was abandoned in favor of off-premises storage and
companies, network providers, and even telemedicine
web-based software programs. Not only are these
can benefit greatly from 5G technology. In this decade,
emerging data storages more efficient, they also easily
cloud computing is expected to evolve into edge or
beefed up data capacity and allowed for remote and
edge computing, which is the deployment of computing
flexible access to files and data between different
and storage resources right at the data source, without
devices. Cloud-based storage is an example of this
the need to transmit data across a large digital network.
Businessefficiencyandprocessstreamliningreachednewh
This shift is driven by the continued decline of
eightsascloudcomputingenabled organizations and firms
computing costs, network infrastructure improvements,
to conduct critical activities in digital environments. The
and more sophisticated AI algorithms. The proximity to
software industry, which is the primarybeneficiary of
data which edge computing offers facilitates faster
this shift, quickly migrated from physical storage to the
insights,
new business model of data storage-software-as-a-
improvedresponsetimes,andbetterbandwidthavailability
service. In this business model, companies earn by
,deliveringstrongerbusiness benefits. From the
collecting subscriptions revenues and offer real-
wearables on your wrist to drone-enabled crop
timesoftwareupdates,remoteaccess,andcentralizeddata
management, edge computing taps on the benefits of
storage.Thegrowthofcloudstorageis unprecedented in
instantaneous data interpretation. Through edge
the last decade. In 2010, over 90% of all data was stored
computing, the age of robotic surgery, autonomous
in local servers; but, by 2019, public cloud storage took
vehicles, gaming, and smart factories are expected to
around 30% of this share and is expected to take over
reach new heights in the 2020s. For it to flourish, a
both consumer and enterprise cloud storage in the next
robust local digital infrastructure and extensive 5G
decade. FIGURE 9. Cloud-based storage is preferred
buildout across a geographic location will be required.
over consumer and enterprise cloud storage.
In terms of industries that will benefit, foremost will be
As they happen - 2020s Information Age Shifts cloud infrastructure companies, device makers, AI
developers, smart factories, the streaming gaming
As the world continues to push the boundaries of industry, autonomous vehicle producers, and robotic
information science, more evolutions in information surgery. FIGURE 10.The future of 5G technology.
science and technology are expected to drive industries Healthcare will go digital in the 2020s through AI
in the 2020s and beyond. Interestingly, we find diagnoses and telemedicine. The world's aging
ourselves in the middle of some of these shifts as they population will cause increasing pressure to make
happen in this decade. If the 2010s saw the shift from healthcare more efficient. The need to reduce costs,
3G to 4G networks, causing internet speeds faster than improve patient outcomes, and optimize physicians'
ever, the 2020s will see the 4G base technology evolve time bring AI and telemedicine together to reduce
into 5G, which would mean even faster Internet speeds. disruptions to current
5G networks will then allow even more sophisticated
functions and processes using the Internet. Even now,
healthcare standards across the world. The potential of 3.Technical assistance - Industry 4.0 will also establish
telemedicine was realized during the outbreak of the the technological prerequisites of systems able to assist
COVID-19 pandemic. When in-person doctor and humans in decision-making and problem-solving and
hospital visits were impossible, telemedicine was the help them with difficult or unsafe tasks. 4.Decentralized
way to go for doctors and healthcare professionals to decisions - Cyber physical systems of Industry 4.0 will be
deliver diagnostic and clinical services to patients capable of independent decision-making and
around-the-clock and despite barriers brought by autonomous performance of tasks. As additional
physical and social distancing and geographic distance. changes in the 2020s compound the phenomenal
However, as it is elsewhere in the world, telemedicine innovations of the 2010s, information sciences and
in the Philippines has a very low utilization rate. The technologies are expected to flourish and find new
healthcare industry has yet to see how the full extent of niches in previously unimagined industries- Industries
the impact of COVID-19 on the attitudes, acceptance, 4.0. Autonomous vehicles, conversational Als, the
and actual utilization of this emerging trend. All around Internet of Things, and augmented and virtual reality
the world, nonetheless, telemedicine has a good have their feet at the doorstep of the future. As these
outlook as the penetration of new echnologies promises information technologies become more and more
to reduce costs and add convenience to both patients common, profound changes in people's lives are also
and doctors. Alongside this, AI technologies will further expected to take place. These prospects of a 4IR-driven
push the digitalization of healthcare and welcome new future, where information plays a pivotal role in
Al-driven developments, such as real-time MRI everyday living, bring forth not only advantages but also
interpretation And AI chatbots for triage and basic disadvantages, some of which Shall be this generation's
medical services. FIGURE 11.Sample MRI scan. greatest moral and ethical dilemmas.
Information Age and the Fourth Industrial Revolution
The evolutions of science and technology during the
Information Age, particularly in the last two decades,
led to the argument that the world may well be in the
midst of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, also called 4IR
or Industry 4.0. The German engineer, economist, and
founder of the World Economic Forum (WEF) Klaus
Schwab popularized the term, which is now used widely
in scientific literature to refer to a period where
changes are not just
mereimprovementstoefficiency,butashiftinindustrialcapi
tal brought about by the fusion of the latest
developments in Al, robotics, the Internet of Things, 3D
printing, gene editing, and quantum computing
(Schwab, 2016). Industry 4.0 is thus described as a
period marked by the blurring of the divides between
the physical, digital, and biological worlds. As Industry
4.0 increases operational efficiency between previously
hardly overlapping environments, four key themes will
be the hallmark of present industries (Hermann, Pentek,
& Otto, 2016): 1.Interconnection - Machines, devices,
sensors, and people will be able to seamlessly connect Organize the content into clear sections with headings,
and communicate with each other through the Internet bullet points, and lists, do not change text just fix it for
of Things (IoT), or the Internet of People (loP). me to easy study Four Ethical Issues of the Information
2.Information transparency - As information becomes Age As early as 1986, a time when the Information Age
more accessible and transparent, Industry 4.0 was only at its infancy, the American professor and
technology will provide stakeholders with science philosopher Richard O. Mason sounded the call
comprehensive information to make decisions. for the ethical use of information. In his article
published at the MIS Quarterly, Mason proposed four
major issues of information ethics of the Information questions surrounding intellectual property are hinged
Age. Interestingly, more than three decades after on the special attributes of information and the ways it
Mason first called the world's attention, these issues are is transmitted. Intellectual property is difficult to
ever more relevant and cover a great deal of all present- safeguard, because, unlike tangible property, once it is
day moral and ethical dilemmas of the Information Age. produced, it becomes communicable, and replication
The issues go by the acronym PAPA (Privacy, Accuracy, comes in handy without destroying the original,
Property, and Accessibility) and each comes with critical regardless of how difficult it is to produce it.
questions that should guide individuals in the ethical Information is easily reproducible on the Internet. Thus,
use of information. 1.Privacy- Mason explains that it becomes extremely challenging to reimburse the
citizens must exercise caution in using information right-bearer when a third party uses their intellectual
technologies. He pinpoints two threats to privacy, property. Thus, Mason poses these questions on the
which, although written as contextualized in 1986, still ethical issue of property in the Information Age. Who
strike a familiar chord to many who may have fallen owns information? What are the just and fair prices for
prey to abuse of information and, with it, vicious attacks its exchange? Who owns the channels, especially the
on the Internet. First, he points to the rapid growth of airways, through which information is transmitted? How
information technology, particularly its ever pervasive should access to this scarce resource be allocated?
capacity for surveillance, communication, computation, 4.Accessibility- It is no longer sufficient that individuals
storage, and retrieval. Second, and more insidious for only have intellectual skills to navigate through
Mason, the increased value of information in decision- information traffic. Reading, writing, reasoning, and
making impel policymakers to covet information, which calculating are tasks for education, but the demands of
often comes at a price-invading people's privacy. Thus, literacy in the Information Age compel stakeholders to
he poses the following critical questions in relation to ensure two other things. First, individuals must have
the ethical issue of privacy. What information about access to how information technologies store, convey,
one's self or one's associations must a person reveal to and process information. Back in 1986, this meant that
others, under what conditions and with what individuals had access to libraries, radios, televisions,
safeguards? What things can people keep to themselves telephones, and personal computers. However, new
and not be forced to reveal to others? 2.Accuracy- and more sophisticated technologies, such as
Misinformation fouls up people's lives. This is smartphones, online libraries, online newspapers, and
exacerbated when the party holding inaccurate digital tablets, emerged and information access and
information are in positions of power and authority. literacy remain a cause for concern. Second, individuals
Another burden on the accuracy of information is when must have access to the information itself, which
people rely on information for matters concerning life reverts to the issue of property and whether the right to
and death. A recent example would be the spread of access supersedes other information rights, such as
fake news about COVID-19, its behavior and effects on property or privacy. Mason concludes that information
one's health, particularly during the onset of the systems should engender access to safeguard
pandemic. In the absence of accurate information, information from the indignities of illiteracy and
people became more susceptible to misinformation deprivation. Hence, he asked: What information does a
and, by extension, the health risks of the coronavirus. In person or an organization have a right or a privilege to
this sense, the right to accurate information, when it obtain, under what conditions and with what
may mean death or severe medical conditions to many safeguards? Mason's four ethical issues provide a
people, is tantamount to healthcare rights. We can ask springboard for the discussion of specific issues in the
the same questions Mason raised in 1986 about the Information Age at present. Although the moral and
accuracy of information as well as the aforementioned ethical dilemmas in the storage, dissemination, and
example. Who is responsible for the authenticity, processing of information have evolved into more
fidelity and accuracy of information? Similarly, who is to complex problems today, humankind can always look
be held accountable for errors in information and how back at these issues as the foundation of the moral and
is the injured party to be made whole? 3.Property- ethical use of information. It is imperative that the
Mason states that the issue of property is probably the world clings to ethical guidelines as the it braces itself
most complex of the four. Several economic and ethical
into what pundits call a new world war that will be first. In an information economy, the first to deliver
fought on the Internet. news and information is often rewarded with more hits,
views, and website traffic; and more of these means
Disinformation, Fake News, and the Post-Truth Era
greater leverage-be it economic or political. Internet
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural speeds getting faster and faster and people's need for
Organization (UNESCO) in its handbook titled instant access to information shaped this prevailing
"Journalism'FakeNews'andDisinformation:AHandbookfo dilemma of pervasive misinformation on the Internet
rJournalismEducationandTraining,defines today. Coupled with insidious practices such as the
disinformation as "information that is false and deliberate spread of false information often for
deliberately created to harm a person, social group, economic or political gain, the world got caught in what
organization, or country" (Ireton & Posetti, 2018). In the the UNESCO calls a "perfect storm," a potentially
handbook, disinformation is categorized as one of three catastrophic present where powerful institutions use
types of untruths, along with mal-information and tools and propaganda for their vested interests. The
misinformation, which are all often shared on social larger ecosystem of ethical dilemmas concerning the
media. Mal-information is defined as information that is use and distribution of information encompasses fake
based on reality, used to inflict harm on a person, social news. Fake news is the term given to a range of
group, organization, or country, while misinformation is inaccuracies of information. At its core, however, fake
information that is false but not created with the news can be defined as news stories or articles that are
intention of causing harm. An example of false (i.e., the story itself is fabricated, without any
disinformation is when a political candidate during supporting fact, source, or quotation to vet its veracity)
election season posts false statistics with the intent of Often, fake news are written or published to purposely
discrediting their competitor. Misinformation is when is influence views, promote political motives, damage
when a person posts an article containing outdated one's reputation, or deceive the readers. However, the
information, but does not realize it. Mal-information is term "fake news" has been used to refer not only to
when someone posts a photo of victims of disaster false news stories and articles. It also pertains to those
without any context-the photo depicts something that that may contain some truth but lack any context. It can
really happened before, but without any credible also be those that contain verifiable facts but are
information to accompany the photo. This can ignite written in a language that is intended to trigger hatred
hatred towards the particular political, social, ethnic, or of doubt and leaves out important details, so that the
racial group concerned. Thus, in mal-information, there audience is able to assess the entire breadth of the
is a deliberate attempt to remove context in order that news or situation. In these cases, the term "fake news"
the audience will not be able to properly and credibly overlaps with the three untruths; disinformation,
assess the information. UNESCO further distinguishes misinformation, and mal-information. We live in an era
disinformation from misinformation in that the former where lies spread faster than truths. As the 2021 Nobel
is information that is false, and the person Peace Prize laureate and the first Filipino Nobel laureate
disseminating it knows that it is false. Thus, Maria Ressa puts it, "We have coronavirus in the real
disinformation can be conceived as "a deliberate, world. Here, in the information ecosystem, you have
intentional lie, and points to people being actively the virus of lies" (Brown, 2021). The Oxford University
disinformed by malicious actors'' (UNESCO, 2018, pp. Press (OUP) says that, today, "objective facts are less
44-45). Meanwhile, in misinformation, the information influential in shaping public opinion than appeals to
is false, but the person disseminating it believes that it emotion and personal belief." This is how OUP defined
is true. The spread of misinformation can be traced to the Word of the Year 2016: post-truth. We live in a
the advent of the Information Age and the Internet. As post-truth era, a time when the truth and objective
previously discussed, better information technologies facts-those that, according to Richard O. Mason, are
and systems meant that information is stored, difficult to produce, take the backseat and, in front, are
processed, and spread more rapidly than ever before. lies, half-truths, and those that feel good or fit with
Often, this entails just a few clicks of a mouse. As one's personal biases. Post-truth is when no one
information became valuable, people, groups, and believes anything unless they read it on Facebook or
organizations rushed to deliver news and information watch it on Tiktok-if it has been posted, it must be
"true." The mounting distrust towards governments, This propaganda war has effectively used disinformation
institutions, and big media drive people away from as a tool to weaponize the Internet and convince people
traditional establishments of information- decades-long of the need for certain economic and political policies.
broadcast news companies, broadsheet newspapers, Even a recent Social Weather Station (SWS) survey
and offices of public officials-and towards the emerging reports that 70% of Filipinos believe that fake news is a
and alternative sources. While in itself, there is nothing serious problem in the country (Inquirer Research,
wrong with more and new sources of information, the 2022). Living in a post-truth era means greater
current information ecosystem makes these new ones responsibilities for the users of information (i.e., the
more susceptible to the virus of lies that quickly spread people). Navigating through this period of time can be
online. In the post-truth era, everything is just uncertain and worrisome, but people must battle
speculation and nothing is fact; nothing is true unless it against untruths. One consequence of the post-truth
feels good or fits a person's agenda or bias. The era is that people today should be fact-checkers. Fact-
Philippines is not new to the moral and ethical checking as the term suggests, is the activity and
dilemmas of the post-truth era. At the onset of the process of verifying factual information to ensure
COVID-19 pandemic, misinformation became very veracity and correctness. Fact checking may well be one
prevalent. For example, the news that the COVID-19 of the 21st century skills that people must adapt. Fact-
virus, then called SARS-CoV-2, is a type of rabies which checking is important, because, as discussed,
originated from bats is false, since the virus that Causes isinformation, misinformation, mal-information, and
the disease belongs to the coronavirus family (Agence spread of fake news can sway one's opinion or belief.
France-Presse Philippines, 2020a). The misinformation For some, this means a violation of their healthcare
that boiled ginger cures COVID-19 was also refuted as rights for not having the access to verified information.
no concrete scientific Proof backs up the claim (Agence For others, it means curtailing their democratic rights
France-Presse Philippines, 20206). At one point, the for not being fully capable of making informed choices
Department of Health (DOH) refuted a supposed and decisions because of propaganda. In any case, fact-
advisory on fake cigarettes as a carrier for COVID-19 checking becomes a moral and ethical duty because the
transmission. The DOH did not issue such advisory. consequences of events in online ecosystems are felt
Along the Way, DOH Undersecretary Ma. Rosario and concretized in real-world ecosystems of people
Vergeire debunked the claim from a supposed Internet interacting on an everyday basis. In the words of Ressa,
video insinuating that bananas cure COVID-19. This in her acceptance speech for the prestigious Woodrow
Internet video spread quickly as, at one point, then Wilson Award at the Princeton University in 2022,
Presidential Spokesperson Salvador Panelo advocated "online violence is real-world violence." Anything that
for this. Vergeire said that, while bananas are a healthy happens in the online world has a repercussion in the
food source, evidence about its effectivity against physical world. If people will believe that lies are facts
COVID-19 is yet to be determined (CNN Philippines as a result of robust disinformation systems online, this
Staff, 2020). Aside from misinformation about COVID- can metastasize into real-world harms, such as bullying,
19, the repercussions of the post-truth era in the verbal aggression, and even physical attacks (Gonzales,
Philippines can also be observed in the use of 2022). This disinformation crisis is very alarming that we
propaganda for political motives. In a three-part cannot live another day letting untruths slip away. On a
investigative report written in 2016, Ressa claims that personal level, fact-checking can be our response to the
propaganda techniques have been deployed on the moral and ethical dilemmas of the post-truth era. The
Internet to shift public opinion on prevailing social and following are some helpful information from the
political issues. In her report, she identified paid trolls, Benedictine University (2022) on how to spot fake news
fallacious reasoning, leaps in logic, and poisoning the and factcheck accordingly: 1.Check credentials- Is the
well as those techniques meant to spread FUD (fear, author an expert in the field that the article is
uncertainty, and doubt). The use of paid trolls as a concerned with? Do they currently work in that field?
propaganda technique was corroborated by a 2017 You may check their public profiles, such as LinkedIn or
Oxford University study, which found evidence of the Google Scholar, or do a quick Google search to
use of keyboard trolls to spread and amplify messages determine whether the author can speak about the
in support of government policies (Matsuzawa, 2017). subject with authority and accuracy. 2.Read the "About
Us"- Does the website where the news article is
published have an "About Us" section? Sometimes, this
section is on a tab at the top of the website or appears
as a link at the bottom. Remember, all reputable
websites have this section and will even provide a way
for you to contact them through email address or phone
number. 3.Look for bias- Does the news or article lean
toward a particular point of view? Does it link to
external sources, such as websites, files, or images, that
are heavily skewed towards that point of view? Take
note, biased articles may not be giving you the whole
story. 4.Check the dates- Like fresh produce,
information is verified only as far as they are up-to-date.
Information can have an expiration date, and the goal is
to use the most updated version that you can find.
5.Check out the source- When an article cites sources, it
will help to link to those and check them. Be wary
though because official sounding associations,
sometimes, are just biased think-tanks or represent only
a portion of a rather large group of people. If sources
are not available, read as much about the topic as you
can to gather as much information as there is out there,
which can help you decide whether the information
presented in the news or article is free or not.
6.Interrogate URLs- Domain manipulation has become a
practice as well by those intending to disinform. For
example, a website can look like an edu domain, but
followed by a co may likely be a fake or deceptive site. If
you come across a variable of a well-known URL, do a
little investigating. Remember, disinformation spreaders
would want to make the source look credible, and one
way to do that is to make it look like the truly credible
ones. 7.Suspect the sensational- The more sensational a
news or article is, the more skeptical you should be.
Responsible journalism is neither biased nor sensation
and aims to present the story and all its sides as they
are. It is very common nowadays to come across
exaggerated and provocative headlines with excessive
use of capital letters or emotional language. These are
red flags. 8.Judge hard -Most importantly, critically
assess every information you come across online. If
something seems to be too good to be true, or too
weird, or too reactionary, chances are it is indeed.
Again, be sceptical
  World War II: The Allies faced a shortage
of human computers, leading to the
The Advent of the Information Age invention of electromechanical computers
like the Harvard Mark 1.
The Information Age, also known as the Computer  Alan Turing designed Bombe, a machine
Age, Digital Age, or Age of New Media, is a that helped break the German Enigma code,
historical period beginning in the mid-20th century, shortening the war by two years.
characterized by a rapid shift from traditional
industries to an economy driven by information Key Figure:
access and control. Information became easily
accessible through traditional media (e.g.,  Claude E. Shannon (1943): Proposed that
newspapers, television, and radio) and computer all information can be encoded as 1s and 0s,
networks. paving the way for modern digital
communication.
John Waters, President and Creative Director of
Waters Design Associates, Inc., described the Personal Computers and the Internet:
Information Age as a time when information
outpaced humanity's ability to handle it. The age  1975: Steve Wozniak and Steve Jobs created
was set into motion by key inventions: the Apple I.
 1970s: The Internet was developed by the
 1947: The transistor by John Bardeen and U.S. Department of Defense.
Walter Brattain  1990s: The World Wide Web emerged for
 1957: The optical amplifier by Gordon commercial use.
Gould
Social Media and the 2010s:
These innovations enabled efficient computing and
fiber-optic communications, laying the groundwork  3G to 4G networks: Increased mobile
for the explosion of information. Internet speeds, enabling streaming services
and mobile commerce.
Historical Antecedents:  Social media platforms like Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram became central to
 3000 B.C.: Sumerian Cuneiform communication, business, and advertising.
 2900 B.C.: Egyptian Hieroglyphics
 200 B.C.: Chinese small seal script Big Data and AI:

Ancient forms of books also contributed:  2010–2019: The volume of online data grew
from 2 zetabytes to 41 zetabytes.
 500 B.C.: Egyptian papyrus rolls  AI and algorithms transformed advertising,
 100 A.D.: Roman parchment codex search engines, and e-commerce.
 105 A.D.: Chinese wood-block printing and
paper Cloud Storage:

The Printing Press:  Shifted from physical storage (CD-ROMs,

floppy disks) to cloud-based platforms like
 1440: Johannes Gutenberg invented the Google Drive, Dropbox, and iCloud.
printing press, revolutionizing information
dissemination, reducing printing costs, and 2020s and Beyond:
leading to mass communication.
 5G networks: Faster Internet speeds
Computing and War Efforts: enabling connected smart cities and real-
time data analysis.
The Advent of the Information Age o 200 B.C.: Chinese small seal
script
 Early book forms:
o 500 B.C.: Egyptian papyrus
📘Key Concepts: roll
o 100 A.D.: Roman parchment
Information Age (Computer Age, Digital codex
Age, or Age of New Media) o 105 A.D.: Chinese wood-block
printing & paper
 Historical period: Began in the mid-
20th century
 Economic shift: From traditional
industries to information access and 🖨️Printing Revolution:
control
 Information spread: Through  1440: Printing press invention by
traditional media (newspaper, TV, Johannes Gutenberg
radio) and computers/networks o Impact: Mass communication,
cheaper/faster printing, societal
🔑 Key Figure: John Waters transformation
 Insight: Information outpaced human
capacity to manage it
🖥️Early Computing &
Codebreaking:
🛠️Technological Milestones:
 World War II: Demand for rapid
 1947: Transistor invention by John military calculations
Bardeen & Walter Brattain o Harvard Mark 1: First
(foundation of modern electronics) electromechanical computer
 1957: Optical amplifier by Gordon o Alan Turing: Created Bombe
Gould (enabled fiber-optic machine to break Enigma
communication and massive data code (helped end the war 2
transmission) years earlier)

📜 Ancient Contributions: 🧠 Birth of the Digital

Framework:
 Writing systems:
o 3000 B.C.: Sumerian  1943: Claude E. Shannon proposed
Cuneiform encoding all information as 1s & 0s
o 2900 B.C.: Egyptian o Result: Foundation for error-
Hieroglyphics free digital communication
  Online data explosion: 2 zettabytes
(2010) → 41 zettabytes (2019)
🖥️Rise of Personal  AI algorithms: Analyze data for
search engines, advertising, and
Computers: personalized content
 1975: Homebrew Computer Club
explored silicon chips
o 1976: Apple I by Steve
Wozniak & Steve Jobs
☁️Cloud Storage:
o Bill Gates: Sold Microsoft
 Shift from physical media (CDs,
software for PCs
flash drives) to cloud storage
o Services: Google Drive,
Dropbox, iCloud
o 2019: 30% of data stored in
🌐 Internet & World Wide public clouds
Web: o Benefits: Remote access,
flexible sharing, SaaS models
 1970s: US Department of Defense
developed the Internet
 1990s: World Wide Web for
commercial use
o New communication forms:
Study Guide: Information Age Shifts and
Email, chat rooms, online the Fourth Industrial Revolution
shopping, telecommuting

As They Happen - 2020s

📱 Social Media & Mobile Information Age Shifts
Tech (2010s):
The 2020s bring rapid changes in
 3G to 4G networks: 10x faster information science and technology,
speeds (enabled streaming, mobile impacting industries worldwide. Let’s break
shopping, social media growth) it down!
 Social media evolution:
o From passive scrapbooks to
5G Technology
real-time life broadcasts  From 4G to 5G: Faster internet speeds and
o Platforms like Facebook, more advanced online functions.
Twitter, Instagram became  Impact of 5G:
global communication hubs o Connected devices in homes, cities,
and businesses.
o Real-time data analysis for better
efficiency and less downtime.
📊 Big Data & AI:
 o Enables technologies like smart o AI chatbots for triage and basic
cities and autonomous systems. services
 Requirements for Mass Adoption:
o Capital and investment
o Supportive government policies


o 5G infrastructure expansion
Industries Benefiting from 5G:
Information Age and the
o Semiconductor companies Fourth Industrial Revolution
o Network providers
o Telemedicine services
(4IR)
Edge Computing The rapid advancements in science and tech
have led to what experts call the Fourth
 What is Edge Computing? Industrial Revolution (4IR), blending the
o Computing and storage resources physical, digital, and biological worlds.
are placed close to the data source.
o No need to transmit data across  Key Concept: Coined by Klaus Schwab
large networks. (World Economic Forum), the 4IR refers to
 Benefits: the fusion of emerging technologies like AI,
o Faster insights and improved IoT, robotics, and quantum computing.
response times
o Better bandwidth availability Key Themes of Industry 4.0:
 Examples of Edge Computing:
o Wearables and health monitors 1. Interconnection: Seamless communication
o Drone-enabled agriculture between machines, sensors, and people via
o Robotic surgery and autonomous IoT and IoP (Internet of People).
vehicles 2. Information Transparency: More accessible
 Requirements for Success: data to help stakeholders make better
o Strong local digital infrastructure decisions.
o Widespread 5G coverage 3. Technical Assistance: Systems that aid
 Industries Benefiting from Edge human decision-making and perform
Computing: dangerous or complex tasks.
o Cloud infrastructure providers 4. Decentralized Decisions: Cyber-physical
o AI developers systems that can make autonomous
o Smart factories decisions.

Digital Healthcare and Telemedicine Future Possibilities:

 AI and Telemedicine: Reducing healthcare  Autonomous vehicles

costs and optimizing patient care.  Conversational AIs
 Telemedicine’s Growth:  Augmented and virtual reality
o Accelerated by COVID-19 as a way  Smart homes and factories
to deliver remote medical care.
o Low utilization in some regions However, these innovations bring
(e.g., the Philippines), but potential challenges, including ethical and moral
is high. dilemmas that future generations will need
 Future of Digital Healthcare: to navigate.
o Real-time MRI interpretation
  What information about oneself or one’s
associations must be revealed, under what
Summary: The 2020s are shaping up to be a conditions, and with what safeguards?
decade of massive technological shifts, with  What can people keep private and not be
5G, edge computing, and AI driving forced to disclose?
progress across industries. These
advancements promise efficiency,
innovation, and improved quality of life —
but they also present new complexities and 2. Accuracy
societal considerations.
Misinformation can have serious
consequences, especially when inaccurate
information comes from authoritative
sources or impacts life-and-death decisions
(e.g., COVID-19 misinformation).

Critical Questions:
Four Ethical Issues of the
 Who is responsible for the authenticity,
Information Age fidelity, and accuracy of information?
 Who is accountable for errors, and how can
In 1986, Richard O. Mason highlighted four the injured party be compensated?
major ethical issues in the Information Age,
which remain highly relevant today. These
issues, known by the acronym PAPA
(Privacy, Accuracy, Property, and 3. Property
Accessibility), raise critical questions that
guide the ethical use of information. Intellectual property is complex because
information is easily replicable online,
making it difficult to protect creators' rights.

1. Privacy Critical Questions:

Mason emphasized the need for caution  Who owns information?

when using information technologies,  What are fair prices for exchanging
highlighting two key threats to privacy: information?
 Who owns the channels through which
 Growth of Information Technology: information is transmitted?
Increased surveillance, communication,  How should access to this scarce resource
storage, and retrieval capabilities. be allocated?
 Increased Value of Information:
Policymakers may invade privacy to acquire
valuable data for decision-making.
4. Accessibility
Critical Questions:
In the Information Age, literacy extends  False information deliberately created to
beyond reading and writing — people need harm a person, group, organization, or
access to technologies and the information country.
itself.  Example: A political candidate spreads false
statistics to damage a competitor’s
reputation.
Key Concerns:

 Technology Access: Ensuring individuals can Misinformation:

use devices like smartphones, digital
libraries, and online platforms.  False information shared without the intent
 Information Access: Balancing access rights to harm.
with property and privacy concerns.  Example: Sharing outdated health advice
without knowing it's incorrect.
Critical Questions:
Mal-information:
 What information does a person or
organization have the right or privilege to  Information based on reality, used to inflict
obtain? harm by stripping context.
 Under what conditions and with what  Example: Posting disaster photos without
safeguards? context, fueling hatred towards a group.

Fake News:

 Fabricated stories lacking verifiable facts,

Conclusion often designed to influence opinions or
promote agendas.
Mason’s four ethical issues serve as a  May overlap with disinformation,
foundation for navigating modern misinformation, and mal-information.
information dilemmas. As the world braces
for future challenges in cyberspace, adhering Post-Truth Era:
to these ethical guidelines becomes more
crucial than ever.  A time where emotional appeal and
personal beliefs overshadow objective facts.
 People distrust traditional media and prefer
information that aligns with biases.
Study Guide: Disinformation, Fake News,
and the Post-Truth Era
How Disinformation
Spreads:
Key Concepts and
Internet & Social Media: Information
Definitions: 
spreads rapidly with just a few clicks.
 Information Economy: First to deliver news
Disinformation: gains more views, clicks, and influence.
 Propaganda Techniques: Paid trolls, false
logic, and fear-mongering are used to shift
public opinion.
 5. Verify Sources: Are cited sources credible
and verifiable?
Real-World Examples: 6. Inspect URLs: Fake websites may mimic
legitimate domains.
7. Question Sensationalism: Overly
 COVID-19 Myths: False claims (e.g.,
emotional, exaggerated headlines are red
bananas cure COVID-19) spread quickly
flags.
online.
8. Think Critically: If something seems off,
 Political Propaganda: Paid trolls amplify
investigate further.
messages supporting government policies.
 Public Distrust: People turn to alternative
sources, which may be more vulnerable to
false information.
Key Quotes & Insights:
 Maria Ressa: "We have coronavirus in the
Consequences of real world. Here, in the information
ecosystem, you have the virus of lies."
Disinformation:  Richard O. Mason: Objective facts are
difficult to produce, but essential for
 Public Health Risks: Misinformation can truthful discourse.
prevent people from making informed
healthcare decisions.
 Political Manipulation: Disinformation can


sway elections or promote harmful policies.
Real-World Violence: Online lies can
Why Fact-Checking Matters:
escalate to harassment, aggression, or  Moral & Ethical Duty: Misinformation
physical attacks. affects real lives and communities.
 Protecting Democracy: Informed choices
are the foundation of a functioning society.
 Online Impact = Real-World Impact: As
Combatting Disinformation: Ressa said, "Online violence is real-world
violence."
Fact-Checking:

 Verifying information to ensure accuracy

and truth. Final Thought:
Tips to Spot Fake News: Living in the post-truth era demands vigilance. By fact-
checking, thinking critically, and promoting media
1. Check Credentials: Is the author a reliable literacy, we can resist the spread of falsehoods and build
a healthier information ecosystem.
expert?
2. Read the "About Us" Section: Does the
website explain its purpose and provide
contact info? Biodiversity Study Guide
3. Look for Bias: Does the article lean heavily
towards a particular viewpoint? Definition of Biodiversity
4. Check Dates: Is the information current and
relevant?
  Biodiversity: The variety of life at all levels 1. Land & Sea Use Change: Habitat destruction for
(genes, species, ecosystems) and their agriculture and development.
interactions. 2. Overexploitation: Overfishing, hunting, and
 Convention on Biological Diversity (1992): poaching.
Defines biodiversity as the variability among 3. Climate Change: Alters habitats and disrupts
living organisms from all sources. species' life cycles.
 IUCN (International Union for Conservation of 4. Pollution: Harms marine and terrestrial
Nature): Describes biodiversity as the totality of ecosystems.
genes, species, and ecosystems in a region. 5. Invasive Species: Compete with native species,
disrupting ecosystems.

Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity and Human Health
1. Genetic Diversity
o Variation of genes within a species.  Zoonotic Diseases: Infections transmitted from
o Example: Different dog breeds animals to humans (e.g., COVID-19).
(Dachshund, Husky, Poodle).  Dilution Effect: Diverse ecosystems reduce the
o Important for adaptation and survival. chance of disease spread.
 Buffer Effect: Genetic diversity helps species
2. Species Diversity resist diseases.
o Variety of species in an area (species
richness).
o Example: The Philippines' unique
species — Philippine Eagle, Whale Conserving Biodiversity
Shark, Tamaraw.
 Biodiversity Mainstreaming: Integrating
3. Ecosystem Diversity biodiversity conservation into policies, business
o Variety of ecosystems in a region. practices, and development plans.
o Example: Forests, coral reefs,  Goal: Achieve sustainable development without
mangroves, grasslands. sacrificing biodiversity.

Quick Recap
Why Biodiversity is Important
 3 Levels of Biodiversity: Genetic, Species,
1. Food Security & Nutrition: Provides diverse Ecosystem.
food sources and supports agriculture.  5 Benefits of Biodiversity: Food, Health,
2. Disease Prevention: Healthy ecosystems lower Economy, Livelihood, Protection.
disease spread and provide medicinal  5 Threats to Biodiversity: Habitat loss,
resources. Overexploitation, Climate change, Pollution,
3. Economic Benefits: Supports tourism, Invasive species.
agriculture, and pharmaceuticals.  2 Protection Mechanisms Against Disease:
4. Livelihoods: Forests and water ecosystems Dilution and Buffer effects.
provide jobs and resources for billions.
5. Environmental Protection: Ecosystems act as Protecting biodiversity ensures a healthier planet
buffers against disasters (floods, storms). and a more secure future for all living beings! 🌿

Threats to Biodiversity