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R01 Notes

The document provides an overview of groups and finite fields, essential concepts in mathematics that are applicable in cryptographic systems. It defines groups, their properties, and finite fields, including examples like Z2 and Zp, as well as Galois fields and their operations. Additionally, it discusses solving linear equations in finite fields and Fermat's Theorem for finite fields.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
3 views4 pages

R01 Notes

The document provides an overview of groups and finite fields, essential concepts in mathematics that are applicable in cryptographic systems. It defines groups, their properties, and finite fields, including examples like Z2 and Zp, as well as Galois fields and their operations. Additionally, it discusses solving linear equations in finite fields and Fermat's Theorem for finite fields.

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prenesi fajl
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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R01 - Groups and Finite Fields

6.857
February 10, 2017

1 Introduction
Today we will be going over some mathematical background, beginning with
groups and fields. These concepts will be useful later on, in cryptographic
systems such as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange or the Advanced Encryption
Standard.

2 Groups
Definition 1. A binary operation f (x, y) is an operation that applies to two
quantities or expressions x and y. A binary operation on a nonempty set A is
a map f : A × A → A such that
1. f is defined for every pair of elements in A

2. f uniquely associates each pair of elements in A to some element of A.


Examples of binary operation on A from A × A to A include addition (+), sub-
traction (−), multiplication (×) and division (÷).

Definition 2. A group G is a set of elements equipped with a binary oper-


ation f : G × G → G. The operation with respect to which a group is defined is
often called the “group operation,” and a set is said to be a group “under” this
operation. Together, they satisfy the following four fundamental properties:
1. Closure: If a and b are two elements in G, then the product a · b (often
just denoted ab) is also in G.
2. Associativity: (a · b) · c = a · (b · c) holds for all a, b, c ∈ G.
3. Identity: There is an identity element I (sometimes also known as 1, E,
or e), such that I · a = a · I = a for every element a in G.

4. Inverse: For all elements a in G, there exists an inverse a−1 ∈ G such


that a · a−1 = a−1 · a = I.

1
In addition, if ∀a, b ∈ G it is true that ab = ba, then we call G a commutative
or an abelian group.

It is easy to prove that the identity element I is unique. For all a ∈ G, the
inverse a− is also unique. (Hint: use proof by contradiction).

3 Finite Fields
Definition 3. A finite field F is a system (S, +, ·) where S is a finite set and
+, · are binary operations on S such that all of the field axioms hold for both
addition and multiplication. The field axioms include associativity, commuta-
tivity, distributivity, identity, and inverses. In other words, the finite field must
satisfy the following properties:

1. (S, +) is an abelian group where 0 is the identity element. By definition


of an abelian group, the following must hold:
• ∀a, b, c ∈ S, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (associativity)
• ∀ ∈ S, a + 0 = 0 + a = a (identity)
• ∀a ∈ S, there exists an inverse (−a) ∈ G such that a + (−a) =
(−a) + a = 0 (inverse)
• ∀a, b ∈ S, a + b = b + a (commutativity)
2. Let S ∗ = S − 0. (S ,·) is an abelian group where 1 is the identity element.
Again, the definition of an abelian group dictates the following properties:
• ∀a, b, c ∈ S, (a · b) · c = a · (b · c) (associativity)
• ∀ ∈ S, a · 1 = 1 · a = a (identity)
• ∀a ∈ S ∗ , there exists an inverse a−1 ∈ G such that a·a−1 = a−1 ·a = 1
(inverse)
• ∀a, b ∈ S, a · b = b · a (commutativity)
3. ∀a, b, c ∈ S, (a + b) · c = a · c + b · c

3.1 Examples of Finite Fields


A simple example of a finite field is Z2 = {0, 1}. Addition in this field is like
XOR (0 + 0 = 1 + 1 = 0 and 1 + 0 = 0 + 1 = 1). Multiplication in this field is
like AND (1 · 1 = 1 and 0 · 0 = 1 · 0 = 0 · 1 = 0). You can verify for yourself that
all the properties of finite fields are satisfied in Z2 .

Another example of a finite field is Zp = {0, 1, 2, . . . , p − 1}, which is just the


set of residues modulo a prime number p.

2
3.2 Solving Linear Equations
Solving linear equations in finite fields is very intuitive. For example, to solve
a · x + b = 0 where a 6= 0, we take the following steps:

a·x+b=0
(a · x + b) + (−b) = 0 + (−b) = −b
(a · x) + (b + (−b)) = −b
a · x + 0 = −b
a·x=b
−1
a (a · x) = a−1 (−b)
(a−1 · a)x = a−1 (−b)
1 · x = a−1 (−b)
x = a−1 (−b)

4 Galois Fields
Theorem 1 (Galois). For all primes p and for all positive integers n there
exists a unique finite field with pn elements.

We call this field GF (pn ). Of special interest to cryptography is the case where
p = 2. The field GF (28 ) is used in the Advanced Encryption Standard (to be
covered later in the term).

Next, we describe what GF (2k ) looks like for general k.

Definition 4. GF (2k ) = {ak−1 xk−1 + ak−2 xk−2 + . . . + a1 x + a0 : ai ∈ Z2 },


where Z2 = {0, 1} is the finite field with 2 elements.

Each element in GF (2k ) is simply a polynomial of degree ≤ k − 1 with co-


efficients in Z2 . We can represent an element g = ak−1 xk−1 + ak−2 xk−2 +
. . . + a1 x + a0 ∈ GF (2k ) simply by its coefficients. For example, we can write
g = ak−1 ak−2 . . . a1 a0 .

A simple example is GF (22 ) = {0, 1, x, x + 1}.

4.1 Addition in GF (2k )


Addition in GF (2k ) is simply the addition of the coefficients of the respective
polynomials. For example, in GF (22 ), we get (x+1)+x = 1 (using the coefficient
notation this can be written as 11 + 10 = 01 which is bitwise XOR). Therefore
the additive inverse of any element g in GF (2k ) is g itself (because g + g = 0;
check this yourself as an exercise).

3
4.2 Multiplication in GF (2k )
Multiplication in GF (2k ) involves two steps.

1. Multiply the two polynomials normally using Z2 arithmetic. The resulting


polynomial may have degree ≥ k, which is obviously not an element of
GF (2k ).
2. Divide by an irreducible polynomial of degree k and the result will then
be an element of GF (2k ).

For example, in GF (22 ), the irreducible polynomial we use is x2 + x + 1. There-


fore (x + 1) · (x + 1) = (x2 + 1) mod(x2 + x + 1) = x. In GF (28 ), the irreducible
polynomial we use (the same one used in AES) is x8 + x4 + x3 + x + 1.

5 Fermat’s Theorem for Finite Fields


Theorem 2 For all elements g in a finite field F (where F has n elements), the
following equality holds when g 6= 0:

g · g · g · ... · g = 1
| {z }
n-1 times

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