Sexual Reproduction

in
Flowering plants

Prepared by
Academic Cell
CBTA
Flower – The sexual reproductive organ of Angiosperms

Four different whorls of a flower

❖ Calyx
❖ Corolla Pistil

❖ Androecium Stamen
❖ Gynoecium

Smaller units of each whorl

❖ Calyx – Sepal Petal

❖ Corolla – Petal
Sepal
❖ Androecium - Stamen
❖ Gynoecium – Carpel / Pistil Pedicel
 Androecium
➢ The male reproductive organ of a flower consists of a whorl of Stamens

➢ A typical Stamen has a bilobed structure called Anther

➢ Each lobe of the anther has two theca - Dithecous

➢ Long slender stalk of anther - Filament

➢ Each anther consists of four Microsporangia

Anther
 Structure of microsporangium:

➢ It is surrounded by four wall layers

1. Epidermis

2. Endothecium

3. Middle layers

4. Tapetum

➢ When the anther is young, microsporangium consists of compactly arranged cells -

Sporogenous tissue
➢ The innermost wall layer is the Tapetum.

➢ Function - Nourishes the developing pollen grains.

➢ Function of outer three wall layers -

Protection & Dehiscence of anther to release pollen grains

A mature dehisced Anther

 Microsporogenesis

➢ Process of formation of Microspores from a Microspore mother cell

➢ Sporogenous cells differentiate into Microspore mother cell

which undergoes meiosis to form four haploid Microspores.

➢ Microspores arranged in a cluster of four cells - Microspore tetrad.

Meiosis

MMC Microspore Microspores

tetrad
⮚ As the anthers mature, microspores develop into pollen grains.

Pollen grains
⮚ Pollen grains have a two-layered wall.

⮚ Hard outer wall - Exine made up of Sporopollenin.

⮚ Thin inner wall - Intine made up of Cellulose and Pectin.

⮚ Exine has prominent apertures called Germpores.

Exine

Cytoplasm

Nucleus
Intine
Germ pore
➢ Exine is made up of Sporopollenin – the most resistant organic material

➢ It can withstand high temperatures, strong acids, and alkalis.

➢ It cannot be degraded by any enzymes.

➢ Pollen grains are well preserved as fossils because of the

presence of sporopollenin.
 ➢ A mature pollen grain contains two cells, with

1. A big Vegetative cell

2. A small spindle-shaped Generative cell.

➢ The generative cell divides mitotically to form two male gametes

➢ Pollen grains represent the first cell of Male gametophyte

Exine
Intine

Vegetative cell
Generative cell Stages of Microspore maturing
into a Pollen grain
⮚ Pollen grains of species like Parthenium –
⮚ Pollen grains are rich in nutrients.
Carrot grass causes severe allergies and
⮚ So it is consumed as food supplements.
lead to chronic respiratory disorders like

Asthma, Bronchitis, etc

⮚ Pollen banks - Pollen grains stored in liquid nitrogen at −196°C by Cryopreservation

⮚ Such stored pollen can be used for crop breeding programmes.

Pistil, Ovule & Embryosac
 The Gynoecium

➢ Female reproductive part of the flower

➢ It consists of Pistil or Carpel
➢ Each carpel has 3 parts

1. A terminal Stigma
2. A middle elongated Style
3. A basal swollen Ovary with many Ovules
 Terms related to Carpel

➢ Monocarpellary - only one carpel

➢ Multicarpellary - more than one carpel

➢ Multicarpellary Syncarpous - many carpels , all fused together
➢ Multicarpellary Apocarpous - many carpels, but they are free

stigma
carpel

Multicarpellary Multicarpellary
Syncarpus Apocarpus
 The Megasporangium - Ovule

➢ Funicle- The stalk of ovule

➢ Hilum - The region where ovule fuses with funicle

➢ Integuments - The protective envelopes of ovule

➢ Nucellus – A mass of cells enclosed within the integuments

➢ Embryo sac - The female gametophyte located in the nucellus

➢ Micropyle – A small opening at the tip of the ovule

➢ Chalaza - The region opposite the micropylar end Structure of an Anatropous ovule
 Megasporogenesis

➢ Formation of Megaspores from the Megaspore mother cell.

➢ One of the cell in the micropylar region of the nucellus

differentiate into a single Megaspore mother cell (MMC) .

 Stages of Megasporogenesis & Embryosac development

1. Megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to form

Megaspore tetrad with four haploid Megaspores.

2. Out of these, three megaspores disintegrate &

only one becomes Functional megaspore.

1 2
Megaspore Megaspore
Mother cell tetrad
(2n)
Meiosis Disintegrating
Megaspores

Functional
Megaspore Megaspore
(n) (n)
 Mitosis Mitosis
Mitosis

3. The Functional megaspore later undergoes 4

3 sequential mitotic nuclear divisions Antipodal cells

to form an eight-nucleate structure.

Central cell
4. These nuclei then rearrange, to form a
Polar nuclei
7celled -8nucleate structure -

Embryosac or Female gametophyte.

Egg cell
Synergid
A mature Ovule with Embryo sac
 Structure of an Embryosac

➢ Within the embryosac, three cells at the micropylar end constitute the Egg apparatus.

➢ It consists of two Synergids and one Egg cell.

➢ Three cells at the chalazal end - Antipodals.

➢ The large central cell has two Polar nuclei in the centre .

➢ Thus, a typical angiosperm embryo sac, is a 8-nucleate 7-celled structure.

➢ Since the embryosac develops from a single functional megaspore,

this type of embryosac formation is called as Monosporic development

Stages of Embryosac development

Mature Embryosac
Pollination
 Pollination

❖ Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of flowers

❖ Pollination can be divided into 3 types.

1) Autogamy : Transfer of pollen grains from the anther

to the stigma of the same flower

 2) Geitonogamy
❖ Transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of

another flower of the same plant.

❖ It is functionally cross-pollination, but genetically it is

autogamy, as the pollen comes from the same flower.

3) Xenogamy

❖ Transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of a

different plant

❖ This type of pollination brings genetically different types of

pollen grains to the stigma.

 Cleistogamous flowers

❖ Flowers which do not open at all

❖ In Cleistogamous flowers there is no chance of cross-pollination.

❖ Cleistogamous flowers produce assured seed-set even in the

absence of pollinators
 Chasmogamous flowers

➢ Flowers with well exposed anther and stigma

➢ Such flowers have a good chance of cross-pollination.

⮚ Viola , Oxalis, and Commelina

produce both these types of flowers

 Agents of Pollination :

➢ Plants use both Abiotic agents and Biotic agents

to achieve pollination.

➢ The abiotic agents are wind and water.

➢ The biotic agents are animals and birds.

 Characteristics of Wind pollinated flowers

⮚ Pollen grains are light and non-sticky

⮚ Well-exposed stamens

⮚ Large feathery stigma

⮚ Numerous flowers packed into an inflorescence

⮚ Eg : grasses , corn
 Characteristics of water-pollinated flowers

⮚ Pollen grains are long, ribbon-shaped.

⮚ Pollen grains are protected from wetting by a

mucilaginous covering.

⮚ Flowers are not very colourful.

⮚ Flowers do not produce nectar.

Eg : Vallisneria , Hydrilla, Zostera

Hydrilla Zostera
➢ In Vallisneria, the female flower

reach the surface of water by the

long stalk and the male flowers or

pollen grains are released on to the

surface of water.

➢ They are carried passively by

water currents and some of them

reach the stigma of female flowers.

Characteristics of insect pollinated flowers

⮚ Flowers are attractive & colourful

⮚ Flowers produce nectar

⮚ Flowers are fragrant

⮚ Pollen grains are sticky

⮚ Nectar & Pollen are the floral rewards to aid pollination.

➢ Some species provide safe places to lay eggs.

Eg : Flower of Amorphophallus
➢ A symbiotic relation exists between a species of

Yucca moth and the Yucca plant.

➢ The moth deposits its egg in the ovary and the flower,

in turn, gets pollinated by the moth.

➢ The larvae of the moth come out of the eggs as the seeds

start developing.
 Outbreeding Devices :

➢ Devices of flowering plants

to discourage self-pollination

and to encourage cross-pollination.

1. Pollen release and stigma receptivity
are not synchronised.
a. Pollen is released before the stigma
becomes receptive
b. Stigma becomes receptive much
before the release of pollen
❖ In some other species, the anther and stigma are placed at

different positions so that the pollen cannot come in contact

with the stigma of the same flower.

 Self-incompatibility

❖ Genetic mechanism which prevents self pollination.

❖ Even if the pollen from the same flower or other flowers of the same plant

falls on the stigma of the flower, it inhibits the pollen germination or

pollen tube growth , thus preventing self pollination.

pollen from the pollen from the flowers

flowers of same of different plant of
plant will not same species will germinate
germinate
4. Production of unisexual flowers.

➢ If both male and female flowers are present on the same plant –

Monoecious condition, it prevents autogamy but not geitonogamy.

Eg: castor and maize

➢ If male and female flowers are present on different plants -

dioecious condition, it prevents both autogamy and geitonogamy.

Eg: Pappaya, Nutmeg

Double Fertilisation
 Pollen grain
Pollen –Pistil Interaction
Stigma

❖ After pollination ,when a compatible pollen

Style
falls on the stigma, it germinates to
Pollen tube
produce a pollen tube .
Ovary
❖ By that time the generative cell of the pollen Antipodals

divides to form two male gametes . Polar Nuclei

Egg cell
❖ The pollen tubes carry the two male gametes
Synergid
and it grows through the style and reaches
2 Male gametes
the ovary.
➢ Filiform apparatus - cellular thickenings at the micropylar tip of synergid

➢ Function – guide the pollen tubes into the synergid.

➢ The pollen tube then releases the two male gametes into the cytoplasm of the synergid.

Entry of pollen tube Discharge of the male gametes into the synergid and then
into the synergids one moves into the egg & the other into central cell
 Double Fertilisation

Two fusions takes place within the embryosac

1) Syngamy- fusion of one male gamete with the female gamete to form a diploid zygote

Male gamete (n) + Female gamete (n) = Zygote (2n)

2) Triple fusion - fusion of two haploid Polar nuclei with the other male gamete to form

triploid Primary Endosperm Nucleus

PN (n) + PN (n) + Male gamete (n) = PEN (3n)

➢ Since two fusions, Syngamy & Triple Fusion take place within the embryosac,

the process of fertilisation in flowering plants is called as Double Fertilisation.

➢ The end products of the process of Double fertilisation are

Zygote & Primary Endosperm Nucleus ( PEN )

Embryo sac

Primary Endosperm Nucleus

Triple fusion

Syngamy Zygote
❖ The Central cell after triple fusion becomes the Primary endosperm cell (PEC)

and develops into the Endosperm (3n)

❖ The zygote develops into an Embryo (2n)

Endosperm

Embryo
 Artificial hybridisation
⮚ One of the major approaches of crop improvement programme.

Steps:
✓ Selection of parents

✓ Emasculation

✓ Bagging
✓ Hybridisation

✓ Rebagging
 Emasculation.

⮚ Removal of anthers from the female flower before dehiscence

This is done to prevent self pollination.

Bagging

⮚ Emasculated flowers are then covered with a bag to prevent

contamination of its stigma with unwanted pollen.

 ➢ Mature pollen grains collected from anthers of

the male parent are dusted on the stigma.

➢ The flowers are then rebagged.

➢ The fruits are allowed to develop.

 Prepared by
Rajalakshmi.K
GGHSS Kallai

Post Fertilisation Events

The Post fertilisation events are

❖ Endosperm development

❖ Embryo development

❖ Maturation of ovules into seed

❖ Maturation of ovary into fruit

 ❖ Endosperm development
A B
❖ Stages A & B
PEN
PEN undergoes successive nuclear divisions to give rise

to free nuclei and called Free-nuclear endosperm.

Free-nuclear endosperm

❖ Stages C & D C D

Later cell wall formation occurs and the endosperm

becomes a Cellular endosperm.

Cellular endosperm
➢ The coconut water from tender coconut is the free-nuclear endosperm

made up of thousands of nuclei and the surrounding white kernel is the

cellular endosperm.
 Embryo development

The different stages of embryo development in a

dicotyledonous embryo are as follows -

❖ Zygote

❖ Proembryo

❖ Globular embryo

❖ Heart-shaped embryo

❖ Mature embryo.
 Dicot Embryo
● A typical dicotyledonous embryo consists of an

embryonal axis and two cotyledons.

● Epicotyl - portion of embryonal axis above the level

of cotyledons which terminates with the plumule.

● Hypocotyl-cylindrical portion below the level of

cotyledons which terminates with the radicle.

● The root tip is covered with a root cap.

 Monocot Embryo

Scutellum – single cotyledon of Monocot embryo

Epicotyl - portion of the embryonal axis above the

level of attachment of scutellum

Coleorhiza-sheath which encloses radicle and root cap

Coleoptile- foliar structure which encloses shoot apex

and a few leaf primordia.

 Seed

➢ In angiosperms, the fertilised ovule – seeds are the final product of

sexual reproduction.

➢ A seed typically consists of seed coat,cotyledons,and an embryonal axis.

➢ Integuments of ovules harden as tough protective seed coats.

Dicot seed
Monocot seed
 Mature seeds may be non-albuminous or albuminous.
❖ Non-albuminous seeds
Seeds have no residual endosperm as it is completely consumed during
embryo development.
Eg., pea, groundnut

❖ Albuminous seeds

Seeds retain a part of the endosperm as it is not completely used up

during embryo development.
E.g., wheat, maize, barley, castor, sunflower
➢ In some seeds such as black pepper and beet,

the remnants of nucellus are also persistent.

➢ This residual, persistent nucellus is called as Perisperm.

➢ Favourable conditions needed for germination of seed

✓ adequate moisture

✓ oxygen

✓ suitable temperature

➢ The micropyle facilitates the entry of oxygen and water into the seed.
 Fruit

★ True fruits: fruits that develop only from the ovary.

★ False fruits: Apart from the ovary other floral parts like

thalamus or peduncle also take part in fruit formation.

Eg: Apple, Strawberry, Cashew, etc.

➢ Parthenocarpic fruits

Fruits developed without fertilisation.

Eg : Banana , Pineapple

➢ Parthenocarpy can be induced through the application

of growth hormones and such fruits are seedless.

Eg: Seedless Grapes ,Watermelon

 Polyembryony

➢ Occurrence of more than one embryo in a seed

It can occur by the following methods

a) the diploid egg cell is formed without reduction division and

develops into the embryo.

b) some of the nucellar cells surrounding the embryo sac divide

and protrude into the embryo sac and develop into the embryos

Eg; Citrus and Mango varieties.

 Apomixis

➢ Development of seeds without fertilisation

➢ A form of asexual reproduction that mimics sexual reproduction.

Eg : Some species in Asteraceae

Importance of Apomitic seeds

If hybrids are made Apomitic ,

a) there won't be any segregation of characters in the hybrid progeny.

b) farmers can keep on using the hybrid seeds to raise new crop year

after year and does not have to buy hybrid seeds every year.