Institute of Leather Engineering & Technology

B.Sc in Leather Engineering

CSE-1208: Fundamentals of Computer and Information Engineering

Lecture-4
Computer System

Course Teacher
Md. Ariful Islam
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Robotics & Mechatronics Engineering
University of Dhaka
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Computer System

Computer
System

Hardware Software

Processing Storage Output Communication Application

Input Hardware System Software
Hardware Hardware Hardware Hardware Software

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1. Input Hardware

Mouse

Optical mark recognition (OMR)

Scanner

Magnetic ink character

Optical Character Recognition (OCR) recognition (MICR)
Keyboard 3
Lightpen
Microphone
Touch Tablet

Camera

Handheld Scanner Joystick 4

2. Output Hardware

Printer Projector

Monitor

Headphone Plotter Speaker 5

3. Storage Hardware
3.1 Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
A hard disk is a memory storage device that looks like this
Tracks and Sectors:

A disk, whether it's a hard disk drive (HDD) or a

solid-state drive (SSD), is divided into concentric
circles called tracks.

Each track is further divided into smaller pie-

shaped sections called sectors.
Tracks closer to the outer edge of the disk are larger in size compared to tracks
closer to the center. 6
Storage Capacity:

Despite the outer tracks being physically larger,

they contain the same number of sectors as inner
tracks.

The storage density is higher in sectors of inner

tracks, meaning more data can be stored in a
smaller space.

In contrast, the bits are sparsely arranged in

sectors of outer tracks due to their larger size.

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Formatting and Overhead:

Some space in each sector is reserved for

formatting information and other overhead
data.

This formatting overhead reduces the actual

usable capacity of each sector.

Therefore, while sectors may have equal storage

capacity in theory, the actual usable capacity is
slightly less due to formatting overhead.

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Most basic hard drives are made up of numerous disk platters, which are circular
disks composed of aluminum, glass, or ceramic that are arranged around a
spindle inside a sealed chamber.

The platter is spun by a motor attached to the spindle. The chamber also contains
the read/write heads, which use a magnetic head to record information to and
from tracks on the platters.

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The platters rotate at up to 15,000 rotations per minute by the motor.

A second motor regulates the location of the read and write heads that
magnetically record and read information on each platter as the platters rotate.

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3.1.1 Features of HDD

Non-volatile: HDD is a non-volatile memory device, which means that the data
stored on it persists even when the power is turned off.

High Capacity: HDDs can store a large amount of data. Modern HDDs can store
terabytes of data, making them an ideal choice for storing large files such as
videos, photos, and audio recordings.

Relatively Slow Speed: Compared to primary memory devices such as RAM,

HDDs are relatively slow. The data access time for an HDD is typically measured in
milliseconds, while the access time for RAM is measured in nanoseconds.
This makes HDDs better suited for long-term storage rather than for frequently
accessed data.
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Mechanical Parts: Unlike solid-state drives (SSDs), HDDs have mechanical parts
that can wear out over time, leading to reduced performance or even failure.
HDDs contain spinning disks and moving read/write heads, which can be
susceptible to damage if the drive is bumped or dropped.

Cost-effective: HDDs are generally less expensive than SSDs, making them a
popular choice for budget-conscious users. This is particularly true for larger
capacity drives.

Reliable: While HDDs are not as reliable as SSDs due to their mechanical
components, they are still considered to be a reliable storage medium. HDDs are
designed to withstand heavy use and are often used in enterprise-level storage
solutions.

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3.2 Solid State Drive (SSD)

A solid-state drive (SSD) is a type of mass

storage device used in place of a spinning
hard disk drive (HDD). Solid-state drives
have no moving parts and information is
saved onto integrated circuits (ICs).

Although SSDs serve the same functions

as hard drives, their internal parts are
different.

SSDs store data using flash memory,

allowing them to access data much faster
than hard drives. 13
3.2.1 Advantages of SSD

The benefits of SSDs over HDDs include:

 Faster read/write speeds: SSDs can access large files quickly.

 Quicker boot times and better performance: Because the drive does not need
to spin up as an HDD would, it is more responsive and provides better load
performance.

 Durability: SSDs are more shock-resistant and can handle heat better than
HDDs because they do not have moving parts.

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 Power consumption: SSDs need less power to operate than HDDs due to their
lack of moving parts.

 Quieter: SSDs produce less audible noise because there are no moving or
spinning parts.

 Size: SSDs come in a variety of form factors whereas HDD sizes are limited.

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3.2.2 Disadvantages of SSD

 Cost: SSDs are more expensive than traditional HDDs.

 Life expectancy: Some SSDs, for example, those using NAND memory-flash
chips, can only be written a specified number of times that is typically less
than HDDs.

 Performance: Limitations on the number of write cycles cause SSDs to

decrease in performance over time.

 Storage options: Because of cost, SSDs are typically sold in smaller sizes.

 Data recovery: This time-consuming process can be expensive, as the data on

damaged chips may not be recoverable. 16
3.3 Floppy Disk

Floppy drives are a type of disk drive that can read and write to special disks
called floppy diskettes, which are like CDs and DVDs in that they hold
information.

However, floppy diskettes hold a lot less information than CDs and DVDs. Floppy
drives have been largely replaced by optical drives (CD/DVD) and are very rarely
sold with new computers.

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The floppy drive uses floppy diskettes, which are shaped like thin squares. The
main function of the floppy drive is to read floppy diskettes and write data to
them.

Computer users can still use floppy drives and diskettes for storing data that
does not require a lot of space.

For example, you can store many word processing documents and low-quality
pictures, but you will not fit many video or music files onto a floppy diskette.

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3.3.1 Advantages of floppy disk

 Floppy drives were portable which means they were simple to move to a different
location

 They were compatible with most computers. Even today if you have an external USB
floppy drive you can read data in those drives from any operating system.

 When they started they were expensive those days but today they are cheap to use.

 Since they were the first type of storage device used in computers, they are given
preference in the booting order by the operating system by using drive letters a and
b.

 The write protection function can help to avoid accidental deletion of change of
data. 19
3.3.2 Disadvantages of floppy disk

 Floppy disks have the smallest storage capacity with a maximum capacity of
2MB. In today’s data perspective of using icons, 2MB is negligible storage.

 They have low data access speed compared to other storage devices such as
CDs and hard disks.

 The diskette casing was easy to break compared to other storage media. The
magnetic coated part was also flexible hence simple to damage

 They were more vulnerable to malware attacks and data corruption.

 They could be affected by external factors such as light, dust, and magnetic
material. 20
3.4 Optical Disk
Structure of Optical Disk:

An optical disk is a flat, circular disk made of a substrate material, such as

polycarbonate.

The disk is coated with a reflective layer of material, typically aluminum, which is
then covered by a protective layer.

Data is stored on the surface of the disk in the form of microscopic pits and lands.

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An optical disk consists of a single spiral track that starts from the edge to the
centre of disk. Due to its spiral shape, it can access large amount of data
sequentially, for example music and video.

The random access on optical disk is slower than that of magnetic disk, due to its
spiral shape.

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Storage of Data:

Optical disks store data using optical technology, which means they use light to
read and write data instead of magnetism.

When a laser beam is directed onto the surface of the disk, it interacts with the
pits and lands.

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Storage of Data:

Pits are areas where the surface of the disk has been altered or removed, while
lands are areas where the surface remains unchanged.

The laser light is reflected differently off the pits and lands.

Pits reflect less light, appearing darker, while lands reflect more light, appearing
brighter.

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Representation of Bits:

In optical disks, the presence or absence of a pit represents a binary digit (bit).

A pit might represent a bit value of 0, while the absence of a pit (a flat, reflective
area or land) might represent a bit value of 1.

Therefore, when the laser beam reads the surface of the disk, it detects
variations in the reflection of light, allowing it to interpret whether a bit is a 1 or
a 0 based on the presence or absence of pits.

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Reading and Writing Data:

To read data from an optical disk, a laser beam is directed onto the surface of the
disk. The light reflected back is detected by a sensor, which interprets the
variations in light reflection as bits.

To write data onto an optical disk, the laser beam is used to heat the surface of
the disk, altering its reflective properties to create pits or erase existing ones.

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3.4.1 Advantages of Optical Disks

Cost: The total cost involves when you look at the manufacturing is low Optical
disks since only aluminium foils and plastics are involved within the production.
Hence, the users in many cases are benefited from the worth of buying optical
disks in bulk. And a lot of computers include optical disc Drive from its
manufacturer that is respective in that the users don’t got to purchase them
separate.

Durability: Optical disks are more durable than both Volatile and memories that
are non-Volatile. It’s not subjected to wear and now any charged power failures
may cause data losses. Therefore, it should last long for many years.
Nevertheless, it’s not completely protected against scratching, heat as well as
other sorts of physical damages.
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Simplicity: The approach to back up is created much simpler using Optical disks.
No matter what the data that really must be burnt must be placed in the drive
icon. Then in just clicking on ” Burn Disk ” the users can back up the info

Portability: Although Optical disks are fairly large enough, they truly are still
portable. They’ll be placed inside bags along with other small objects in order
that it in many cases are transported to varied places and utilized in different
computers and devices.

Stability: Optical disks usually provides a level that is high of. This is because
unlike magnetic disks, it’s not prone to electromagnetic fields and other sorts of
environmental influences.

Versatile: Optical disks are very versatile as it helps computer system act as
music system. 28
3.4.2 Disadvantages of optical disc

Security: When the Optical disks are employed for backup purposes, it must be
kept safe through the hands of thieves. Thanks to its size, the optical disks are
more at risk of loss and theft.

Capacity: Optical disks cost more per GB/TB than the other sorts of storage
drives. And it also to don’t have a lot of or no storage capacity when compared
with them. Unless it’s a Blu-ray disc, the utmost storage the Optical disks offers is
4.7GB.

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Reliability: Unlike flash drives, Optical disks aren’t protected by any plastic
casings. Therefore, they may be susceptible to scratching which makes the disk
unreadable. The info thereon cannot be recovered anymore

Duplication: Making a replica copy employing an optical disc isn’t easier because
this indicates on a USB flash drive. When it comes to way of burning there should
be a software that is separate hardware. Albeit there are lots of party that is third
for this function, the latest versions of windows consists of a write-up software.

User Friendliness: Although it takes very low cost to manufacture Optical disks,
it’s actually not inside the case of backup.

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4. Processing Hardware
4.1 Microprocessor
Computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU) built on a single Integrated Circuit (IC)
is called a microprocessor.

A digital computer with one microprocessor which acts as a CPU is called

microcomputer.

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It is a programmable, multipurpose, clock-driven, register-based electronic device
that reads binary instructions from a storage device called memory, accepts
binary data as input and processes data according to those instructions and
provides results as output.

The microprocessor contains millions of tiny components like transistors,

registers, and diodes that work together.

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4.1.1 Block Diagram of a Microcomputer
A microprocessor consists of an ALU, control unit and register array. Where ALU
performs arithmetic and logical operations on the data received from an input
device or memory.

Control unit controls the instructions and flow of data within the computer. And,
register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H, L, and
accumulator.

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4.1.2 Features of Microprocessor

Low Cost - Due to integrated circuit technology microprocessors are available at

very low cost. It will reduce the cost of a computer system.

High Speed - Due to the technology involved in it, the microprocessor can work
at very high speed. It can execute millions of instructions per second.

Small Size - A microprocessor is fabricated in a very less footprint due to very

large scale and ultra large scale integration technology. Because of this, the size
of the computer system is reduced.

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Versatile - The same chip can be used for several applications, therefore,
microprocessors are versatile.

Low Power Consumption - Microprocessors are using metal oxide semiconductor

technology, which consumes less power.

Less Heat Generation - Microprocessors uses semiconductor technology which

will not emit much heat as compared to vacuum tube devices.

Reliable - Since microprocessors use semiconductor technology, therefore, the

failure rate is very less. Hence it is very reliable.

Portable - Due to the small size and low power consumption microprocessors are
portable.
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4.2 Memory

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4.3 Motherboard
A motherboard is a circuit board inside computers that stores electrical
components and helps them communicate.

A motherboard is the main printed circuit

board (PCB) in common computers (both
desktops and laptops) as well as other
expandable systems.

It is also known as a mainboard, main

circuit board, system board, baseboard,
logic board, planar board or mobo.

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The motherboard connects components such as ROM, CPU, RAM, PCI slots, USB
ports, and other peripherals.

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4.4 Bus
Buses are used to connect various components of a computer, such as the CPU,
memory, and I/O devices.

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4.4.1 Address bus

The address bus carries the memory address of the data that is being
transferred.

The address bus is a unidirectional bus, which means that data can only be
transferred from the CPU to the memory or I/O device.

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4.4.2 Data bus

The data bus carries the actual data that is being transferred.

The data bus is a bidirectional bus, which means that data can be transferred in
both directions.

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4.4.3 Control bus

The control bus carries control signals that are used to coordinate the transfer of
data between the CPU and the memory or I/O device.

The control bus is a bidirectional bus, but the direction of the control signals will
depend on the type of device that is being connected to.

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