Friday, June 7, 2024 7:41 AM

Akhil (Admin)
Notes link:
Mobile: 9154156192 (Only Whatsapp)
bit.ly/oracledbnotes

ORACLE 21C Software Link:

bit.ly/oracle21csoftware

Oracle Installation Video Link:

bit.ly/oracle21cinstallation

Oracle [SQL & PL/SQL] @ 7:30 AM (IST) by

Mr.Shiva Chaitanya
Day-1 https://youtu.be/vh8z5yO4zEA
Day-2 https://youtu.be/eqn7FJ2BEqk
Day-3 https://youtu.be/GDB72pOuGGM
Day-4 https://youtu.be/C0IjGE74hoE
Day-5 https://youtu.be/t2cud9FKhdk
Day-6 https://youtu.be/C4zTm4RD0o8
Day-7 https://youtu.be/SmxcUsPNfww

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 1

Syllabus
Tuesday, June 11, 2024 7:43 AM

ORACLE => RDBMS

QUERIES
DATABASE
SQL TABLES
ROWS & COLUMNS
PL/SQL
PROGRAMS

SQL:

TABLES
SQL Commands DDL, DRL, DML, TCL, DCL
Built-In Functions max() min() lower() upper() …
Clauses Group By, Having, Order By …
Joins Inner join, Outer join …..
Sub Queries Non-correlated, correlated
Set operators union, union all, intersect …
Constraints Primary key, foreign key, check ….
VIEWS
SEQUENCES
INDEXES
MATERIALIZED VIEWS
SYNONYMS

PL/SQL:

PL/SQL Basics data types, declare, assign, print, read

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 2

PL/SQL Basics data types, declare, assign, print, read
Using SQL commands in PL/SQL

Control Structures IF .. THEN, FOR, WHILE ….

CURSORS
COLLECTIONS
EXCEPTION HANDLING
Stored Procedures
Stored Functions
Packages
Triggers
Working with LOBs
Dynamic SQL

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 3

ORACLE
Thursday, June 6, 2024 7:44 AM

data store => is a location

database => data store => is a location. in that organization's
business data stored permanently

DBMS => is a software => used to maintain the database

RDBMS => is a software => used to maintain the DB in the form of tables

Metadata

run the business

analyze the business

BANK
customer is depositing amount
Branches customer is withdrawing amount
Customers opening account
Transactions closing account
Products
Employee

2020 ?
2021 ?
.
.
2024 ?

Amazon
searching for products
placing orders
Products
adding items to wishlist
Customers
Orders
Payments
Wishlist 2020 ?
Sellers 2021 ?
Suppliers .
.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 4

Suppliers
.
2024 ?

Goal:
Storing organization's business data permanently
in computer

Variable: empno
• Variable is temporary.
1234
int empno;

e1

Object: Empno Ename

• Object is temporary. 1234 Raju

Sal
9000

File:
File is permanent

Database:
Database is permanent

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 5

 File Database

• suitable for 1 user • suitable for multiple users

• less security • more secured
• suitable to store small • suitable to store large
amounts of data amounts of data

Data Store:
• is a location where data is stored.

Example:
File, Database

Database:
• is a kind of data store.
• Database is a location where organization's business
data stored permanently.

Example:

BANK DB COLLEGE DB

Branches COURSES
Customers STUDENTS
Transactions FEE
Products MARKS
Employee STAFF

• Database is a collection of interrelated data

in an organized form.

interrelated =>
BANK DB contains bank related data. not college
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 6
 BANK DB contains bank related data. not college
related data

organized => arranging in specific way [table]

DBMS:
• DBMS => Database Management System / Software

• DBMS is a software that is used to create and maintain

the database.

Evoluation of DBMSs:

Before 1960s => BOOKS

In 1960s => FMS [File Management Software]

In 1970s => Hierarchical DBMS [HDBMS]

Network DBMS [NDBMS]

In 1976 => Relational DBMS Concept

E.F.Codd

ORACLE COMPANY FOUNDER => Larry Ellison

In 1977 => Software Development Laboratories

In 1979 => renamed company name as Relational Software Inc

introduced ORACLE software

In 1983 => renamed company name as ORACLE corp.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 7

RDBMS:
• RDBMS => Relational Database Management System/ Software.
• It is a kind of DBMS.
• Relation => Table

• RDBMS is a software that is used to create and maintain the

database in the form of tables.

Examples:
ORACLE, SQL SERVER, MY SQL, DB2, Postgre SQL

Table:
• Table is a collection of rows and columns
• row is horizontal representation of data
• column is vertical representation of data

Example:
Table / Relation / Entity
EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME SAL
Column / Attribute / Property / Field
1234 Kiran 12000
1235 Vijay 15000

row / tuple / entity instance / record

Metadata / Data Definition:

• Metadata is the about the data.
• It describes about the data.

Examples:
Column name, Table name, Data Type, Field size

Example:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 8

Example:
EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME SALARY
NUMBER(4) VARCHAR2(10)
1234 Ravi 9000
1235 Kiran 7000
Ramu ERROR
25-DEC-23 ERROR
9999
10000 ERROR

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 9

ORACLE
Friday, June 7, 2024 8:06 AM

ORACLE:
• is a Relational Database Management Software [RDBMS]

• it is used to create and maintain the database in the form

of tables.
database = organization's business data

• Using ORACLE software we can store, manipulate and

retrieve the data of database.

manipulate => insert / update [modify] / delete

customer opened account => INSERT

customer is withdrawing amount => UPDATE
customer is closing account => DELETE

emp joined => INSERT

emp promoted => UPDATE
emp resigned => DELETE

Retrieve => opening existing data

searching for products

checking balance
transactions statement

• ORACLE software 2nd version introduced in 1979.

1st version they didn't release to market.

• For LINUX OS latest version is: ORACLE 23AI

• For WINDOWS OS latest version is: ORACLE 21C

Evaluation of DBMSs:

Before 1960s => BOOKS

In 1960s => FMS [File management Software]

In 1970s => Hierarchical DBMS [HDBMS]

=> Network DBMS [NDBMS]

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 10

In 1976 => RDBMS concept introduced => E.F.Codd

ORACLE company founder => Larry Ellison

In 1977 => Software Development Laboratories

In 1979 => Relational Software Inc.

introduced ORACLE software 2nd version

In 1983 => renamed company name as: ORACLE corp.

Examples of RDBMS:

ORACLE => ORACLE company

SQL SERVER => Microsoft

DB2 => IBM

MY SQL => Sun Micro Systems

ORACLE

Postgre SQL => Postgre Forum [a group of companies]

ORACLE => RDBMS

queries
SQL DATABASE
TABLES
PL/SQL ROWS & COLUMNS
programs

To communicate with ORACLE DATABASE we can use 2

languages. They are:
• SQL => query language => queries
• PL/SQL => programming language => programs

SQL:
SQL => Structured Query Language.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 11

 • SQL => Structured Query Language.

• It is a query language.
• In this we write queries to communicate with ORACLE DB.

• Query => request / command / instruction

• Query is a request that is sent to DB Server.

Example:
SELECT ename, sal FROM emp; => QUERY

BANK DB SERVER
Client
QUERY DB
request
ACCOUNTS
SELECT balance
response ACNO NAME BALANCE
FROM accounts
1234 A 50000
WHERE acno=1234;
Output: 1235 B 80000
50000

• SQL is Non-Procedural Language. In C:

In SQL, we will not write any set of statements or Function:
programs. Just we write QUERIES. a set of statements

• SQL is Unified Language. It is common language to In Java:

work with many relational database management Method:
softwares. a set of statements

In PL/SQL:
ORACLE SQL SERVER MY SQL Procedure:
DATABASE DATABASE DATABASE a set of statements
TABLES TABLES TABLES Sub program

SQL SQL SQL

• SQL provides commands to write the queries

Examples:
SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 12

 SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

• SQL provides Functions to make our actions easier.

Examples:
max(), min()

• SQL provides Operators to perform operations.

Example:
* , + , > , BETWEEN AND, IN

• SQL provides JOINS concept to retrieve the data from

multiple tables.

DEPT EMP
DEPTID DNAME EMPID ENAME SAL DEPTID
10 HR 1234 A 12000 20
20 SALES 1235 B 20000 10

JOINS

ENAME DNAME
EMP DEPT

PL/SQL:
• PL => Procedural Language
• SQL => Structured Query Language

• It is programming language.

• In this, we develop the programs to communicate with

ORACLE DATABASE.

• It is a PROCEDURAL LANGAUGE. In this we define a set of

statements or programs.

• PL/SQL = SQL + Programming

• PL/SQL is extension of SQL. All SQL QUERIES can be written

as statements in PL/SQL program.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 13

Friday, June 7, 2024 8:09 AM

BANK DB

Branches table
IFSC_Code City State Country

Customers
Custid CNAME AADHARNUM PAN_NUM ACNO

Transactions
Acno date_time ttype amount

Employee
EMPNO ENAME SAL

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 14

SQL Commands
Monday, June 10, 2024 8:50 AM

ORACLE SQL provides 5 sub languages. Every sub

language provides commands. They are:

SALARY => metadata

DDL: create -----------
• Data Definition Language 6000 => data
• Data Definition => Metadata alter
• it deals with metadata
drop
flashback
purge

truncate

rename

DRL / DQL: select

• DRL => Data Retrieval Language
• DQL => Data Query Language
• it deals with data retrievals

DML: insert
• Data Manipulation Language. update
• It deals with data manipulations. delete

insert all

merge

TCL: commit
• Transaction Control Language rollback
• It deals with transactions. savepoint

DCL / ACL: grant

• DCL => Data Control Language revoke
• ACL => Accessing Control Language
• It deals with data accessibility

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 15

DDL
Tuesday, June 11, 2024 8:03 AM

DDL:
• DDL => Data Definition Language SALARY => metadata
• Data Definition => metadata. ----------
• It deals with metadata 6000 => data
• metadata is the data about the data

ORACLE SQL provides following DDL commands:

• create
• alter
• drop
• flashback
• purge
• truncate
• rename

ORACLE DB OBJECTS:

Table
View
Index
Materialized View
Sequence
Synonym
Procedure
Function
Package
Trigger

Create:
• Create command is used to create the ORACLE DB
OBJECTS like tables, view, indexes … etc.

Syntax to create the table:

CREATE TABLE <table_name>

( [ ] optional
<column_name> <data_type> [,
< > any
<column_name> <data_type> ,
.
.]
);

For Windows OS, latest version is ORACLE 21C.

For LINUX OS, latest version is ORACLE 23AI.

Till ORACLE 21c => max of 1000 columns

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 16

 Till ORACLE 21c => max of 1000 columns
In ORACLE 23AI => max of 4096 columns

Data Types of SQL:

Character Related Char(n)

Varchar2(n)
'RAJU' LONG
'MANAGER' CLOB
'B.tech'
nChar(n)
nVarchar2(n)
nCLOB

Integer Related Number(p)

Integer
1234 Int
78
17

Floating Point Related Number(p,s)

Float
68.56 Binary_Float
1280.75 Binary_Double

Date & Time Related Date

Timestamp
25-DEC-23
11-JUN-24 8:30:15.123456 AM

Binary Related BFILE

BLOB
images, audios, videos

string => group of characters

Char(n):
'raju' 'hyd'
• n => max no of chars
• It is used to hold strings.
• it is fixed length data type.
• it is used to hold fixed length chars.
• max size: 2000 Bytes [2000 chars]
• default size: 1

Varchar2(n):
• n => max no of chars
• It is used to hold strings.
• It is variable length data type.
• it is used to hold variable length chars.
• max size: 4000 Bytes [4000 chars]
• default size: there is no default size

State_Code CHAR(2) ENAME VARCHAR2(10)

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 17

State_Code CHAR(2) ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
------------------ ---------
TG Raju
AP Sai
MH Naresh

Note:
character related data types can hold letters,
digits and special symbols.

Vehicle_Number CHAR(10) mail_id VARCHAR2(30)

--------------------------- -----------------------
TG09AA1234 [email protected]
[email protected]

PAN_CRAD_NUM CHAR(10) job VARCHAR2(20)

------------------------- ----------
ABCDE1234F Manager
Full Stack Developer

Note:
VARCHAR2 data type can hold max of 4000 chars only.
To hold more than 4000 chars we use LONG or CLOB.
LONG has some restrictions. That is why it's better to se
CLOB.

LONG:
• it is used to hold large amounts of chars.
• it has some restrictions:
○ a table can have only one column as LONG type.
○ we cannot use built-in functions on LONG type.
• max size: 2GB

CLOB:
• CLOB => Character Large Object
• it is used to hold large amounts of chars.
• A table can have multiple columns as CLOB type.
• we can use built-in functions on CLOB type.
• max size: 4 GB

Example:

Feedback CLOB
Product_Features CLOB

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 18

 Char(n) • ASCII Code Char data types In C:
Varchar2(n) • These can hold ENGLISH language chars only char ch='A'; // 1 Byte => ASCII
LONG • Single Byte Char Data types
CLOB
In Java:
nChar(n) • UNI code char data types char ch='A'; // 2 Bytes => UNI
nVarchar2(n) • These can hold ENGLISH + other LANG chars
nCLOB • Multi Byte char data types
ASCII:
n => national • ASCII => American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
• it is a coding system.
• 256 chars are coded.
• ranges from 0 to 255.
nChar(n) • it is fixed length data type
• 255 => 1111 1111 [1 Byte]
• it is used to hold fixed length chars
• English Lang letters + digits + special chars
• n => no of chars
• max size: 2000 Bytes [1000 chars]
UNI:
• UNI => UNIversal
nVarchar2(n) • it is variable length data type • it is a coding system.
• it is used to hold variable length chars • 65536 chars are coded.
• n => no of chars • ranges from 0 to 65535.
• max size: 4000 Bytes [2000 chars] • 65535 => 1111 1111 1111 1111 [2 Bytes]
• UNI = ASCII + other language chars
nCLOB • it is used to hold variable length chars • it is extension of ASCII
• to hold more than 2000 chars we use it

Integer related data types:

• integer =>number without decimal places
• Examples: 1234, 78, 17

NUMBER(p):
• it is used to hold integers.
• p => precision => max no of digits
• p valid range is: 1 to 38

Examples:

EMPID NUMBER(4) -9999 TO 9999

---------------
1234
1235
1236
786
9
98
9999
10000 ERROR

Max marks: 100

Maths_marks NUMBER(3) -999 TO 999

---------------------

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 19

 ---------------------
68
9
123
890
999
1000 ERROR

AGE NUMBER(2)

MOBILE_NUMBER NUMBER(10)

AADHAR_NUMBER NUMBER(12)

CREDIT_CARD_NUMBER NUMBER(16)

Note:
integer and int are alias names of number(38)

integer = int = number(38)

Floating Point related data types:

Number(p,s):
• p => precision => max no of digits
• s => scale => max no of decimal places
• it is used to hold float values.

Max marks: 100

Example:
-999.99 TO 999.99 3 subjects
300/3 = 100.00
AVRG NUMBER(5,2)
---------
max avrg:
67.89
786.34
100.00
999.99
1000 => ERROR
123.45678923 => 123.46 p=5 s=2
123.45378954 => 123.45

max sal: 100000.00

-999999.99 TO 999999.99

SALARY NUMBER(8,2)
------------
25000.00
100000.00
900000.00
1000000.00 ERROR

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 20

 Height NUMBER(2,1) -9.9 TO 9.9
----------
5.3
5.0
5.9
8.5
9.9
10 ERROR

Date & Time Related data types:

DATE:
• It is used to hold date values.
• it can hold date, month, year, hours, minutes and seconds.
• it cannot hold fractional seconds.
• by default it will not display time.
• Default oracle date format: DD-MON-YY.
• default time: 12:00:00 AM [mid night time]
• it is fixed length data type.
• max size: 7 bytes.

Examples:
Date_Of_Birth DATE
Date_Of_retirement DATE
Ordered_Date DATE
Delivery_Date DATE

Timestamp:
• introduced in ORACLE 9i version.
• It is used to hold date and time.
• it can hold date, month, year, hours, minutes, seconds
and fractional seconds.
• It is extension of DATE type.
• by default it displays time.
• default format: DD-MON-YY HH:MI:SS:FF AM
• it is fixed length data type.
• max size: 11 Bytes

Examples:
Transaction_date_time TIMESTAMP
login_date_time TIMESTAMP
manufactured_Date_time TIMESTAMP

Differences b/w DATE and TIMESTAMP:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 21

 DATE TIMESTAMP

• it cannot hold fractional • it can hold fractional

seconds. seconds

• it does not display time • by default it displays time

by default
• 11 Bytes
• 7 Bytes
Example:
Example: Transaction_date_time TIMESTAMP
DOJ DATE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 22

Tuesday, June 11, 2024 8:43 AM

T1
fixed length F1 CHAR(10) F2 VARCHAR2(10) variable length
RAJU6spaces RAJU
10 4
10 NARESH4spaces NARESH 6
10 SAI7spaces SAI 3

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 23

Friday, June 14, 2024 8:05 AM

ORACLE 21C Software Link:

bit.ly/oracle21csoftware

Oracle Installation Video Link:

bit.ly/oracle21cinstallation

Client ORACLE DB SERVER

ORACLE
SQL PLUS / INSTANCE DB

SQL DEVELOPER / services Customers

query execution Transactions
TOAD

RAM Hard Disk

DB SERVER = INSTANCE + DB

ORACLE:
• is a server side software.
• it is used to maintain the database in the form of tables.

DB SERVER = INSTANCE + DB

SQL PLUS:
Client side software.
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 24
• Client side software.
• Using this software, we can connect and communicate
with ORACLE DB.

Note:
When we install ORACLE software, along with it SQL PLUS
software will be installed.

Opening SQL PLUS:

• Press windows+R. it displays RUN dialog box.
• type "sqlplus"
• click on OK.

to login as DBA:
• username: system
• password: naresh [at the time of ORACLE installation you have
given password in 4th step]

SQL> <type queries>

Creating User:

Syntax:

CREATE USER <username>

IDENTIFIED BY <password>;

Example:

Login as DBA:
username: system
password: naresh
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 25
 password: naresh

CREATE USER c##batch730am

IDENTIFIED BY nareshit;
Output:
User created.

GRANT connect, resource, unlimited tablespace

TO c##batch730am;
Output:
Grant succeeded. privilege => permission

connect • is a privilege.
• is a permission for login

resource • is a privilege.
• is a permission to create database
resources like tables, indexes,
procedures, functions, packages,
triggers.

create table • is a privilege

• is a permission to create the table

create procedure • is a privilege

• is a permission to create the procedure

unlimited • is a privilege
tablespace • is a permission to insert the records

To see current user name:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 26

SHOW USER
Output:
user is "SYSTEM"

To login from SQL command prompt:

Syntax:
CONN[ECT] <username>/<password>

Example:
CONN c##batch730am/nareshit
Output:
Connected.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 27

Saturday, June 15, 2024 8:33 AM

create user with the name c##vijay

with the password naresh. give permission to login,
for creating table and for inserting records:

CREATE USER c##vijay

IDENTIFIED BY naresh;
Output:
User created.

GRANT connect, resource, unlimited tablespace

TO c##vijay;

Changing password:

Syntax:
ALTER USER <user_name>
IDENTIFIED BY <new_password>;

Modify c##batch730am user's password as naresh:

Login as DBA:
username: system
password: naresh

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 28

 ALTER USER c##batch730am
IDENTIFIED BY naresh;

Note:
Username is not case sensitive
C##BATCH730AM = c##batch730am = C##BatCH730aM

password is case sensitive

Modifying DBA password:

username: sys as sysdba

password: [don't enter any password]

SQL> ALTER USER system IDENTIFIED BY nareshit;

Dropping User:

Syntax:
DROP USER <username> [CASCADE];

Example:
DROP USER c##vijay CASCADE;

Note:
If user is empty no need to write CASCADE.
If user is not empty we must write CASCADE.
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 29
If user is not empty we must write CASCADE.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 30

Monday, June 17, 2024 8:17 AM

To clear screen:

Syntax:
CL[EAR] SCR[EEN]

Example:
SQL> CLEAR SCREEN

(or)

SQL> CL SCR

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 31

Creating tables and Inserting records
Monday, June 17, 2024 7:50 AM

Creating tables and Inserting records:

Syntax to create the table:

CREATE TABLE <table_name>

(
<column_name> <data_type> [,
<column_name> <data_type> ,
.
.]
);

Syntax to INSERT the records:

INSERT INTO <table_name>[(<columns_list>)]

VALUES(<values_list>);

Example-1:

STUDENT
SID SNAME AVRG AVRG: 100.00
1234 Kiran 56.78
1235 Sai 78.92

SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)
AVRG NUMBER(5,2)

Creating table:
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 32
Creating table:

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10),
avrg NUMBER(5,2)
);
Output:
Table created.

Inserting records:

1234 Kiran 56.78

1235 Sai 78.92

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1234,'KIRAN',56.78);

Output:
1 row created.

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1235,'SAI',78.92);

Output:
1 row created.

COMMIT; --it saves the data. it moves data from INSTANCE to DB

COMMIT

ORACLE DB SERVER

INSTANCE DB
INSERT 1234
student
1235 1234
1235
INSERT
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 33
 1235 1234
1235
INSERT
RAM HARD DISK

Note:
SQL is not case sensitive.
CREATE = create = CReaTe => all are same

Every SQL command ends with ; [semicolon]

Inserting multiple records using parameters:

INSERT INTO student VALUES(&sid, '&sname', &avrg);

Output:
Enter value for sid: 2002
Enter value for sname: B
Enter value for avrg: 45.23
INSERT INTO student VALUES(&sid, '&sname', &avrg)
INSERT INTO student VALUES(2002, 'B', 45.23)
1 row created.

/
Output:
Enter value for sid: 2003
Enter value for sname: C
Enter value for avrg: 52.89

/
Output:
Enter value for sid: 2004
Enter value for sname: D
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 34
Enter value for sname: D
Enter value for avrg: 88.99

Note:
• Parameter Concept is used to read the values at run time.

Syntax:
&<text>

Example:
&sid

Output:
Enter value for sid:

• / = RUN = R
It runs recent query in memory. It means, it runs above query

Inserting limited column values:

STUDENT
SID SNAME AVRG
5001 ABC

INSERT INTO student VALUES(5001,'ABC');

Output:
ERROR: not enough values

INSERT INTO student(sid, sname) VALUES(5001,'ABC');

Output:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 35

 Output:
1 row created.

Example-2:

EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME GENDER SAL DOJ
1001 AA M 12000 25-DEC-23
1002 BB F 15000 17-AUG-20

100000.00
empid NUMBER(4)
ename VARCHAR2(10)
gender CHAR(1)
sal NUMBER(8,2)
doj DATE

CREATE TABLE employee

(
empid NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(10),
gender CHAR(1),
sal NUMBER(8,2),
doj DATE
);
Output:
Table created.

to see table structure:

Syntax:
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 36
 Syntax:
DESC[RIBE] <table_name>

Example:
DESC employee
Output:
NAME TYPE
----------------------------------------------
EMPID NUMBER(4)
ENAME VARCHAR2(10)
.. ..

TO see all tables list which are created by user:

User_Tables:
• it is a system table / built-in table / readymade table.
• It maintains all tables information which are created by a
user.

DESC user_tables
Output:
NAME
-----------------
TABLE_NAME
..
..

SELECT table_name FROM user_tables;

Output:
TABLE_NAME
-----------------------
STUDENT
EMPLOYEE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 37

 Inserting Records:

1001 AA M 12000 25-DEC-23

1002 BB F 15000 17-AUG-20

INSERt INTO employee

VALUES(1001, 'AA', 'M', 12000, '25-DEC-2023');
string

DOJ DATE Implicit Conversion

--------------------
25-DEC-23 date

Note:
• To_Date() function is used to convert string to date.

1002 BB F 15000 17-AUG-20

INSERT INTO employee

VALUES(1002,'BB','F',15000,to_date('17-AUG-2020'));
string

DOJ DATE to_date()

---------------------- explicit conversion
17-AUG-20 date

insert emp record with today's date:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 38
insert emp record with today's date:

1003 C M 20000 today's date => 18-JUN-24

INSERT INTO employee

VALUES(1003,'C','M',20000,sysdate);
Output:
1 row created.

Note:
sysdate:
○ is a built-in function.
○ it returns current system date.

COMMIT; --it saves data

to see table data:

SELECT * FROM employee;

1004 D null 18000 null

INSERT INTO employee VALUES(1004,'D',18000);

Output:
ERROR: not enough values

INSERT INTO employee(empid, ename, sal)

VALUES(1004,'D',18000);

NOTE:
For every data type default value is NULL.

inserting limited column values by changing order of columns:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 39
 inserting limited column values by changing order of columns:

1005 13000

INSERT INTO employee(sal, empid )

VALUES(13000, 1005);

COMMIT;

SELECT * FROM employee;

Example-3:

EMPLOYEE1
EMPID ENAME LOGIN_DATE_TIME
5001 A 18-JUN-24 10:30.0.0 AM
5002 B 18-JUN-24 2:30.0.0 PM
5003 C current sys date and time

CREATE TABLE employee1

(
empid NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(10),
login_date_time TIMESTAMP
);

5001 A 18-JUN-24 10:30.0.0 AM

INSERT INTO employee1

VALUES(5001,'A','18-JUN-2024 10:30 AM');
Output:
ERROR

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 40

ERROR

INSERT INTO employee1

VALUES(5001,'A','18-JUN-2024 10:30');
string
Output:
implicit conversion
LOGIN_DATE_TIME TIMESTAMP
-----------------------------
18-JUN-24 10:30:0.0 AM TIMESTAMP

Note:
default time: 12:00:00.00 AM

5002 B 18-JUN-24 2:30.0.0 PM

INSERT INTO employee1

VALUES(5002,'B',to_timestamp('18-JUN-2024 2:30:0.0 PM'));
string

LOGIN_DATE_TIME TIMESTAMP explicit conversion

-------------------------------------------------
18-JUN-24 2:30:0.0 PM timestamp

5003 C current sys date and time

INSERT INTO employee1

VALUES(5003,'C',systimestamp);

COMMIT;

SELECT * FROM employee1;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 41

Tuesday, June 18, 2024 8:09 AM

Types of Conversions:

2 Types:
• implicit conversion
• explicit conversion

implicit conversion:
If conversion is done implicitly by ORACLE
then it is called "Implicit Conversion".

Example:
SELECT '100' + '200' FROM dual;
string string
Output: implicit conversion
300
num num
100 + 200
300 => num

Explicit Conversion:
• if conversion is done using built-in function then
it is called "Explicit Conversion".

Example:
SELECT to_number('100') FROM dual;
string
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 42
 string
to_number()
explicit conversion
num
100

Note:
Implicit Conversion degrades the performance.
that is why always do explicit conversion. For explicit
conversion we use built-in functions like to_number(),
to_date(), to_char().

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 43

Setting Pagesize and Linesize
Wednesday, June 19, 2024 8:58 AM

Setting Pagesize and Linesize:

SQL> SHOW ALL

Output:
LINESIZE 80
PAGESIZE 14

Note:
default page size is 14
default line size is 80

Setting pagesize:

Syntax:
SET PAGES[IZE] <value>

Example:
SQL> SET PAGES 200

Setting linesize:

Syntax:
SET LINES[IZE] <value>

Example:
SQL> SET LINES 200

SQL> SET PAGES 200

(or) SQL> SET PAGES 200 LINES 200
SQL> SET LINES 200

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 44

It will be applicable for 1 session

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 45

COLUMN ALIAS
Thursday, June 20, 2024 8:24 AM

COLUMN ALIAS:
• we can give temporary name to the column. this is called
column alias.
• alias => another name / alternative name
• To change the column headings in output we use column
alias.
• AS keyword is used to give column alias.
• Using AS keyword is optional.
• To give column alias in multiple words or to maintain the
case we must enclose column alias in double quotes.

Example:
SELECT ename, sal FROM emp
Output:
ENAME SAL
-------------------------------

SELECT ename AS A, sal AS B

FROM emp;

(or)

SELECT ename A, sal B

FROM emp;

Output:
A B
-------------------------------

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 46

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 47
DRL
Wednesday, June 19, 2024 8:18 AM

DRL / DQL:
• DRL => Data Retrieval Language
• DQL => Data Query Language

• Retrieval => opening existing data

checking balance
searching for products
transaction statement

ORACLE SQL provides one DRL command. i.e:

• SELECT

SELECT:
• It us used to retrieve (fetch / select) the data from table.

• Using SELECT command we can select:

○ All columns and all rows
○ All columns and specific rows
○ Specific columns and all rows
○ Specific columns and specific rows

Syntax:

SELECT <columns_list>
FROM <tables_list>
WHERE <condition>;

SQL ENGLISH
QUERIES SENTENCES
CLAUSES WORDS

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 48

SELECT clause:
• it is used to specify columns list

Syntax:
SELECT <columns_list>

Example:
SELECT sname, avrg

FROM clause:
• it is used to specify tables list

Syntax:
FROM <tables_list>

Examples:
FROM student
FROM student, marks

WHERE clause:
• it is used to specify filter condition.
• it filters the rows.
• WHERE condition will be applied on every row.

Syntax:
WHERE <condition>

Example:
WHERE sid=1234
WHERE avrg>=60

All columns and all rows:

Display all columns and all rows of emp table:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 49

 Display all columns and all rows of emp table:

SELECT * FROM emp;

* All Columns

Note:
SELECT * FROM emp

* empno,ename,job,mgr,hiredate,sal,comm,deptno

Above query will be rewritten by ORACLE as following:

SELECT empno,ename,job,mgr,hiredate,sal,comm,deptno
FROM emp

All columns and specific rows:

Display the emp records whose salary is 3000:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE sal=3000;

Execution Order:
FROM
WHERE
SELECT

FROM emp

EMP
WHERE sal=3000
EMPNO ENAME SAL
2500=3000 F
1001 A 2500 3000=3000 T
1002 B 3000 5000=3000 F
1003 C 5000 3000=3000 T
1004 D 3000
EMPNO ENAME SAL
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 50
 EMPNO ENAME SAL
1002 B 3000
1004 D 3000

SELECT *
* = empno, ename, sal

EMPNO ENAME SAL

1002 B 3000
1004 D 3000

Specific columns and all rows:

Display all emp names and salaries:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp;

Specific columns and specific rows:

Display emp names and salaries whose salary is 3000:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal=3000;

All Columns SELECT *

All Rows don't write WHERE
Specific Columns SELECT ename, sal
Specific Rows WHERE sal=3000

Operators in ORACLE SQL:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 51

Operators in ORACLE SQL:

• OPERATOR is a symbol that is used to perform operations like arithmetic or

logical operations.

• ORACLE SQL provides following Operators:

Arithmetic + - * /

Relational / > < >= <= = != / <> / ^=

Comparison equals not equals

Logical AND OR NOT

Special / IN NOT IN
Comparison BETWEEN AND NOT BETWEEN AND
LIKE NOT LIKE
IS NULL IS NOT NULL

ALL
ANY
EXISTS

Set UNION
UNION ALL
INTERSECT
MINUS

Concatenation ||

Arithmetic Operators:
Arithmetic operators are used to perform arithmetic
operations.

ORACLE SQL provides following Arithmetic Operators:

+ Addition
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 52
+ Addition In C or Java:
- Subtraction 5/2 = 2
* Multiplication int/int = int
/ Divison 5%2 = 1

In SQL:
5/2 = 2.5
MOD(5,2) => 1

Examples on Arithmetic Operators:

Calculate Annual salary of all emps:

SELECT ename, sal, sal*12 FROM emp;

Output:
ENAME SAL SAL*12
------------------------------------------------

SELECT ename, sal, sal*12 AS annual_sal

FROM emp;
Output:
ENAME SAL ANNUAL_SAL
----------------------------------------------------------

SELECT ename, sal, sal*12 AS annual salary

FROM emp;
Output:
ERROR

SELECT ename, sal, sal*12 AS "annual salary"

FROM emp;
Output:
ENAME SAL annual salary
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 53
ENAME SAL annual salary
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

Calculate experience of all emps:

SELECT ename, hiredate,

TRUNC((sysdate-hiredate)/365) AS experience
FROM emp;

Calculate TA, HRA, TAX and GROSS SALARY:

10% on sal => TA
20% on sal => HRA
2% on sal => TAX
GROSS = bsal + TA + HRA - TAX

SELECT ename, sal,

sal*0.1 AS TA,
sal*0.2 AS HRA,
sal*0.02 AS TAX,
sal+sal*0.1+sal*0.2-sal*0.02 AS GROSS
FROM emp;

Assignment:

STUDENT
SID SNAME M1 M2 M3 m1+m2+m3 (m1+m2+m3)/3
1001 A 66 78 46 66+78+46 = 190 190/3
1002 B 78 34 92 78+34+92 = 204 204/3

calculate total marks and avrg marks

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 54

Relational Operators / Comparison Operators:
• Relational operator is used to compare column
value with 1 value.

Syntax:
<column> <relational_operator> <value>

Examples:
sal=3000
sal>3000
sal<3000
sal>=3000
sal<=3000
sal!=3000

Display all managers records:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job='manager';

MANAGER = manager FALSE

Output:
no rows selected

Note:
• SQL is not case sensitive language. But, string
comparison is case sensitive.

SELECT ename, job, sal

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 55

 SELECT ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER';
Output:
displays all managers records

Display the emp records who are working in deptno 20:

SELECT ename, sal, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE deptno=20;

Display the emp records whose salary is more than 2500:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>2500;

Display the emp records whose salary is 3000 or more:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>=3000;

Display the emp records whose salary is 1200 or less:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal<=1200;

Note:
CALENDAR order is ASCENDING ORDER [small to big]

1-JAN-23 After 2023

2-JAN-23
3-JAN-23
.
.
31-DEC-23
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 56
 31-DEC-23
1-JAN-24 > '31-DEC-23'
2-JAN-24
.
.
31-DEC-24

Display the emp records who joined after 1981:

1-JAN-1981
2-JAN-1981
.
.
31-DEC-1981
1-JAN-1982
. > '31-DEC-1981'
.
31-DEC-1982
.
.

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE hiredate>'31-DEC-1981';

Display the emp records who joined before 1981:

.
.
31-DEC-1980 < '1-JAN-1981'
1-JAN-1981

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 57

 SELECT ename, hiredate
FROM emp
WHERE hiredate<'1-JAN-1981';

Display all emp records except managers:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job!='MANAGER';

CLERK!=MANAGER T
MANAGER!=MANAGER F
ANALYST!=MANAGER T

Display all emp records except deptno 30 emps:

SELECT ename, sal, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE deptno!=30;

Logical Operators:
• Logical Operators are used to perform logical operations like
logical AND, logical OR, logical NOT.

ORACLE SQL provides following Logical Operators:

• AND
• OR
• NOT

AND:
• it is used to perform logical AND operations.
• it is used to separate multiple conditions.
• If all conditions are satisfied then that whole condition is TRUE.

Syntax:
<condition1> AND <condition2>

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 58

 OR:
• it is used to perform logical OR operations.
• it is used to separate multiple conditions.
• If any one condition is satisfied then that whole condition is TRUE.

Syntax:
<condition1> OR <condition2>

Note:
AND All conditions should be satisfied
OR At least one condition should be satisfied

Truth Table:

c1 => condition1
c2 => condition2

c1 c2 c1 AND c2 c1 OR c2
T T T T
T F F T
F T F T
F F F F

Examples on AND OR:

Display all managers and clerks records:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER' OR job='CLERK';

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 59

Display the emp records who are working in deptno 10
and 30:

SELECT ename, sal, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE deptno=10 OR deptno=30;

Display the emp records whose salary is 2450 or more

and 3000 or less [whose sal b/w 2450 and 3000]:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>=2450 AND sal<=3000;

SAL
---------
5000
2500
1000
3000
2450

Display the emp records who joined in 1981:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE hiredate>='1-Jan-1981' AND hiredate<='31-DEC-1981'

1-JAN-1981
2-JAN-1981
.
.
30-DEC-1981
31-DEC-1981

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 60

Display the emp records whose empnos are: 7499, 7698,
7900:

SELECT empno, ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE empno=7499 OR empno=7698 OR empno=7900;

Display the emp records whose names are: ALLEN, MILLER, SCOTT:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename='ALLEN' OR ename='MILLER' OR ename='SCOTT';

Display the managers records whose salary is more

than 2900:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER' AND sal>2900;

Display the managers records who joined after april 1981:

SELECT ename, job, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER' AND hiredate>'30-APR-1981';

Display all managers and clerks records whose salary is

more than 2800:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE (job='MANAGER' OR job='CLERK') AND sal>2800;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 61

Example:

STUDENT
SID SNAME M1 M2 M3
1001 A 70 90 80
1002 B 50 30 60

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10),
m1 NUMBER(3),
m2 NUMBER(3),
m3 NUMBER(3)
);

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1001,'A',70,90,80);

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1002,'B',50,30,60);
COMMIT;

display passed students records:

max marks: 100
min marks: 40

SELECT * FROM student

WHERE m1>=40 AND m2>=40 AND m3>=40;

display failed students records:

SELECT * FROM student

WHERE m1<40 OR m2<40 OR m3<40;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 62

NOT:
• it is used to perform logical NOT operations.

Truth table:

condn NOT(condn)
T NOT(T) => F
F NOT(F) => T

Display all emp records except managers:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE NOT(job='MANAGER');

JOB NOT(job='MANAGER')
------------- ------------------------------
MANAGER MANAGER = MANAGER => NOT(T) => F
CLERK CLERK = MANAGER => NOT(F) => T
ANALYST ANALYST = MANAGER => NOT(F) => T

Special Operators / Comparison Operators:

IN:
○ It is used to compare column value with a list of values.
○ It avoids of writing multi equality conditions using OR.

Syntax:
<column> IN(<values_list>)

Example:
sal IN(3000,800)

if column value is in LIST, condition is TRUE

if column value is not in LIST, condition is FALSE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 63

 if column value is not in LIST, condition is FALSE

Examples on IN:

Display the emp records whose salary is 3000 or 800:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal=3000 OR sal=800;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal IN(3000, 800);

sal=3000 OR sal=800 sal IN(3000, 800)

sal
----------
2500 not in list F
800 is in list T
4000 not in list F
3000 is in list T

Display all managers and clerks records:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job IN('MANAGER', 'CLERK');

JOB
----------
MANAGER T
ANALYST F
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 64
 ANALYST F
CLERK T
SALESMAN F

Display the emp records whose empnos are:

7499, 7698, 7900:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE empno IN(7499,7698,7900);

EMPNO
------------
7698 T
7800 F

Display the emp records whose names are:

ALLEN, SCOTT, ADAMS

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename IN('ALLEN','SCOTT','ADAMS');

Display the emp records who are working in

deptno 10 and 30:

SELECT ename, sal, deptno

FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN(10,30);

Display all emp records except deptno 10 and 30 emps:

SELECT ename, sal, deptno

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 65

 SELECT ename, sal, deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno NOT IN(10,30);

if deptno is not in LIST, condition is TRUE

if deptno is in LIST, condition is FALSE

deptno deptno NOT IN(10,30)

---------------- ---------------------------------
10 10 F
20 20 T
30 30 F
40 40 T

Display all emp records except managers and

clerks:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job NOT IN('MANAGER', 'CLERK');

ANALYST T
MANAGER F

BETWEEN AND:
• It is used to compare column value with range of values.

Syntax:
<column> BETWEEN <lower> AND <upper>
Example:
sal BETWEEN 2450 AND 3000

If column value falls under the range, condition is TRUE

If column value not falls under the range, condition is FALSE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 66

Examples on BETWEEN AND:

Display the emp records whose salary is 2450 or more

and 3000 or less [whose sal b/w 2450 and 3000]:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>=2450 AND sal<=3000;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal BETWEEN 2450 AND 3000;

SAL
------------
1000 F
2500 T
4000 F
2450 T
6000 F
3000 T

Display the emp records who joined in 1982:

1-JAN-1982
.
.
31-DEC-1982

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE hiredate BETWEEN '1-JAN-1982' AND '31-DEC-1982';

HIREDATE
--------------------
25-DEC-1980 F
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 67
 25-DEC-1980 F
17-AUG-1982 T

Display the emp records whose empnos are between 7600 to

7800:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE empno BETWEEN 7600 AND 7800;

Display the emp records whose salary is less than 1000 or more
than 3000 [whose sal not between 1000 and 3000]:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal<1000 OR sal>3000;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal NOT BETWEEN 1000 AND 3000;

if sal is not between 1000 and 3000 then condition is TRUE

SAL
----------
5000 T
2500 F

SELECT ename, sal

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 68
SELECT ename, sal
FROM emp
WHERE sal BETWEEN 3000 AND 2450;

What is the output?

A. gives sal b/w 2450 and 3000

B. ERROR
C. NO ROWS SELECTED
D. NONE
Answer: C

LIKE:
• It is used to compare column value with text pattern.

Syntax:
<column_name> LIKE <text_pattern>

ORACLE SQL provides 2 wildcard characters to

specify search pattern. They are:

% replaces 0 or any no of chars

_ replaces 1 char

Examples on LIKE operator:

Display the emp records whose names are started with S:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE 'S%';

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 69

Display the emp records whose names are ended with S:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%S';

Display the emp records whose names are started with A:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE 'A%';

Display the emp names whose names are ended with RD:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%RD';

Display the emp records whose names are started and

ended with S:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE 'S%S';

Display the emp names whose names are having 4 letters:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '____';

Display the emp records whose name's 2nd char is A:

SELECT *
FROM emp

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 70

 FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '_A%';

Display the emp records whose names are having A letter:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%A%';

Display the emp records who joined in DECEMBER month:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE hiredate LIKE '%DEC%';

Display the emp records whose are getting 3 digit salary:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal LIKE '___';

Display the emp records whose names are not started with S:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename NOT LIKE 'S%';

IS NULL:
• It is used for null comparison.

Syntax:
<column> IS NULL

EXAMPLE:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 71

 EXAMPLE:
SAL IS NULL

SAL
------------
6000 F
null T
7000 F
null T

Display the emp records who are not getting commission

[whose comm is null]:

SELECT ename, sal, comm

FROM emp
WHERE comm=null;
Output:
no rows selected

NULL=NULL FALSE

Note:
for null comparison we cannot use =
we must use IS NULL

SELECT ename, sal, comm

FROM emp
WHERE comm IS null;

Display the emp records who are getting commission:

SELECT ename, sal, comm

FROM emp
WHERE comm IS NOT NULL;

Concatenation Operator:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 72

Concatenation Operator:
• Symbol: ||
• Concatenation => Combining
• It is used to combine 2 strings.

Syntax:
<string1> || <string2>

Example:
SELECT 'RAJ' || 'KUMAR' FROM dual;
Output:
RAJKUMAR

Display output as following:

SMITH works as CLERK
ALLEN works as SALESMAN
BLAKE works as MANAGER

SELECT ename || ' works as ' || job

FROM emp;

Display output as following:

SMITH joined on 17-DEC-80

SELECT ename || ' joined on ' || hiredate

FROM emp;

Display output as following:

SMITH works as CLERK and earns 800

SELECT ename || ' works as ' || job || ' and earns ' || sal
FROM emp;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 73

Assignment:
CUSTOMER
CID FNAME MNAME LNAME
1234 RAJ KUMAR VARMA
1235 .. .. ..

Combine first name, middlename and last name:

fname || ' ' || mname || ' ' || lname
RAJ KUMAR VARMA

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 74

NULL
Monday, June 24, 2024 8:21 AM

NULL:
• NULL means empty / blank / no value.

• When we don't know the value or when we are unable to

insert the value we insert NULL.

• NULL is not equals to 0 or space.

• If null is participated in operation then result will be NULL

Example:
SELECT 100+200+null FROM dual;
Output:
null

• For null comparison we cannot use =.

We must use IS NULL.

Note:
we can insert NULL in 2 ways. they are:
• Direct way: use NULL keyword
• Indirect way: insert limited column values

Example:

EMP21
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 75
EMP21
EMPID ENAME SAL

CREATE TABLE emp21

(
empid NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(10),
sal NUMBER(8,2)
);

1001 A
1st way: direct way => using null keyword:

INSERT INTO emp21 VALUES(1001,'A',null);

1002 B
2nd way: indirect way => insert limited column values:

INSERT INTO emp21(empid,ename) VALUES(1002,'B');

1003 7000

INSERT INTO emp21 VALUES(1003,'',7000);

(or)
INSERT INTO emp21 VALUES(1003,NULL,7000);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 76

Monday, June 24, 2024 8:25 AM

EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME SAL
1001 A 12000
1002 B 10000 NULL

1003 C
when we don't know the value
we insert NULL

STUDENT
SID SNAME M1 NUMBER(3)
1001 A 76
1002 B 0
1003 C 66
NULL
1004 D

when we unable to insert value

we insert NULL

unable to insert ABSENT

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 77

UPDATE
Tuesday, June 25, 2024 8:04 AM

UPDATE:
• UPDATE command is used to modify table data.

• Using UPDATE command we can modify:

○ single value of single record
○ multiple values of single record
○ specific group of records
○ all records

Syntax:

UPDATE <table_name>
SET <column_name> = <new_value> [, <column_name> = <new_value>, ..]
[WHERE <condition>];

SQL ENGLISH
QUERIES SENTENCES
CLAUSES WORDS

modifying single value of single record:

Increase 2000 rupees salary to the employee whose

empno is 7521:

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+2000
WHERE empno=7521;

modifying multiple values of single record:

set job as manager sal as 6000 to an employee

whose empno is 7369:

UPDATE emp
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 78
UPDATE emp
SET job='MANAGER', sal=6000
WHERE empno=7369;

modifying specific group of records:

Increase 20% on salary to all managers:

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+sal*0.2
WHERE job='MANAGER';

modifying all records:

Increase 1000 rupees salary to all emps:

UPDATE emp
SET SAL=SAL+1000;

Updating records using parameters:

7499 => 10% on sal

7698 => 20% on sal
7900 => 15% on sal

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+sal*&per/100
WHERE empno=&empno;
Output:
Enter value for per: 10
Enter value for empno: 7499

/
Output:
Enter value for per: 20
Enter value for empno: 7698

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 79

 /
Output:
Enter value for per: 15
Enter value for empno: 7900

Transfer all deptno 10 emps to deptno 20:

UPDATE emp
SETdeptno=20
WHERE deptno=10;

Increase 10% on sal, 20% on comm to the emps who are

getting commission:

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+sal*0.1, comm=comm+comm*0.2
WHERE comm is not null;

Set comm as 900 to the emps who are not getting

commission:

UPDATE emp
SET comm=900
WHERE comm IS null;

Set comm as null to the emps whose empnos are 7369,

7698, 7788:

UPDATE emp
SET comm=null
WHERE empno IN(7369,7698,7788);

Note:
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 80
Note:
For null comparison we use IS NULL
For null assignment we use =

Increase 10% on sal to the emps whose annual salary

is more than 30000:

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+sal*0.1
WHERE sal*12>30000;

Increase 15% on sal to the emps who are having

more than 42years experience:

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+sal*0.15
WHERE TRUNC((sysdate-hiredate)/365)>42;

Example:

EMPLOYEE11
EMPID ENAME SAL TA HRA TAX GROSS
1234 A 18000
1235 B 20000

calculate TA, HRA, TAX and GROSS SALARY

10% on sal as TA
20% on sal as HRA
5% on sal as TAX
GROSS = sal+ta+hra-tax

CREATE TABLE employee11

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 81
 CREATE TABLE employee11
(
empid NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(10),
sal NUMBER(8,2),
ta NUMBER(8,2),
hra NUMBER(8,2),
tax NUMBER(8,2),
gross NUMBER(8,2)
);

1234 A 18000
1235 B 20000

INSERT INTO employee11(empid, ename, sal)

VALUES(1234,'A',18000);

INSERT INTO employee11(empid, ename, sal)

VALUES(1235,'B',20000);

COMMIT;

UPDATE employee11
SET ta=sal*0.1, hra=sal*0.2, tax=sal*0.05;

UPDATE employee11
SET gross=sal+ta+hra-tax;

COMMIT;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 82

DELETE
Wednesday, June 26, 2024 8:06 AM

DELETE:
• DELETE command is used to delete the records
from table.

• Using DELETE command we can delete:

○ single record
○ specific group of records
○ all records

Note:
After performing DML operation, to save it use COMMIT.
to cancel it use ROLLBACK.

Syntax:

DELETE [FROM] <table_name>

[WHERE <condition>];

Examples on delete:

deleting single record:

delete an emp record whose empno is 7788:

DELETE FROM emp

WHERE empno=7788;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 83

 WHERE empno=7788;
Output:
1 row deleted.

deleting specific group of records:

delete the emp records who are working in deptno 30:

DELETE FROM emp

WHERE deptno=30;

deleting all records:

delete all emp records:

DELETE FROM emp;

(or)
DELETE emp;

delete all managers and clerks records:

DELETE FROM emp

WHERE job IN('MANAGER', 'CLERK');

delete all deptno 10 and 30 emps records:

DELETE FROM emp

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 84
 DELETE FROM emp
WHERE deptno IN(10,30);

delete the emp records who are having more than 42

years experience:

DELETE FROM emp

WHERE TRUNC((sysdate-hiredate)/365)>42;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 85

TCL
Wednesday, June 26, 2024 8:21 AM

TCL:
• TCL => Transaction Control Language
• It deals with transactions.

• Transaction:
Transaction is a series of actions [SQL commands].
Examples:
deposit, withdraw, placing order, fund transfer

Note:
Transaction must be successfully finished or cancelled.

Example:

ACCOUNTS
ACNO NAME BALANCE
1234 A 70000-10000 = 60000
1235 B 30000+10000 = 40000

Fund transfer => transaction

transfer 100000= amount from 1234 account to 1235 account:

sufficient funds? => SELECT

UPDATE from account balance => UPDATE
UPDATE to account balance => UPDATE

ORACLE SQL provides following TCL commands:

• COMMIT
• ROLLBACK
• SAVEPOINT COMMIT

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 86

 • SAVEPOINT COMMIT

ORACLE DB SERVER
Client
INSTANCE DB

1234 emp
INSERT => 1234
1235 1234
INSERT => 1235
1235
RAM HARD DISK

COMMIT:
• it is used to save the transaction.
• when COMMIT command is executed the changes in
INSTANCE [RAM] will be moved to DB [HARD DISK].
• COMMIT command makes the changes permanent.

Syntax:
COMMIT;

ROLLBACK:
• It is used to cancel the transaction.
• When ROLLBACK command is executed, it cancels
all uncommitted actions.

Syntax:
ROLLBACK [TO <savepoint_name>];

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 87

Example:

EMPLOYEE12
EMPID ENAME SAL

CREATE TABLE employee12

(
empid NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAr2(10),
sal NUMBER(8,2)
);

INSERT INTO employee12 VALUES(1234,'A',12000);

INSERT INTO employee12 VALUES(1235,'B',15000);
COMMIT;

INSERT INTO employee12 VALUES(1236,'C',10000);

SELECT * FROM employee12;
Output:
1234
1235
1236

ROLLBACK;

SELECT * FROM employee12;

Output:
1234
1235

SAVEPOINT:
• It is used to set margin for ROLLBACK.
• savepoint names are temporary.
When transaction is ended names will be cleared.
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 88
 • When transaction is ended names will be cleared.

Syntax:
SAVEPOINT <savepoint_name>;

Example:
CREATE TABLE t1(f1 INT);

7.00 AM
BEGIN TRANSACTION

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(2);

SAVEPOINT p1; 7.10 AM

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(3);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(4);

SAVEPOINT p2; 7.20 AM

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(5);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(6);

ROLLBACK TO p2; 7:30 AM

to save the transaction COMMIT

to cancel the transaction ROLLBACK
to set specific point for ROLBACK SAVEPOINT

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 89

ALTER
Thursday, June 27, 2024 8:11 AM

EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME SAL Structure [columns]
1234 A 6000 +
1235 B 8000 data [rows]

Note:
To modify table data we use UPDATE
To modify table structure we use ALTER

ALTER:
• ALTER => Change

• It is used to change table structure.

• using ALTER we can:

○ Add the columns => ADD
○ Rename the columns => RENAME COLUMN
○ Drop the columns => DROP
○ Modify the field sizes => MODIFY
○ Modify the data types => MODIFY

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE <name> [ADD(<field_definitions>)]

[RENAME COLUMN <old_name> TO <new_name>]
[DROP COLUMN <column_name>]
[DROP(<columns_list>)]
[MODIFY(<new_field_definitions>)];

Example on ALTER:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 90

 STUDENT
SID SNAME

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10)
);
Output:
Table created.

to see table structure:

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)

Adding a column [add m1]:

ALTER TABLE student ADD m1 NUMBER(3);

Output:
Table Altered.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)
M1 NUMBER(3)

Adding multiple columns [add m2, m3]:

ALTER TABLE student ADD(m2 NUMBER(3), m3 NUMBER(3));

Output:
Table Altered.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 91

 NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)
M1 NUMBER(3)
M2 NUMBER(3)
M3 NUMBER(3)

Renaming column [m3 rename to maths]:

ALTER TABLE student RENAME COLUMN m3 TO maths;

Output:
Table Altered.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)
M1 NUMBER(3)
M2 NUMBER(3)
MATHS NUMBER(3)

Dropping a column [drop maths column]:

ALTER TABLE student DROP COLUMN maths;

(or)
ALTER TABLE student DROP(maths);
Output:
Table Altered.

NOTE:
DROP COLUMN can drop one column only
DROP can drop one or multiple columns. For DROP parenthesis are
mandatory.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 92
 SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)
M1 NUMBER(3)
M2 NUMBER(3)

Dropping multiple columns [drop m1 and m2]:

ALTER TABLE student DROP(m1,m2);

Output:
Table Altered.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(10)

Modifying Field size [sname field size modify to 20]:

ALTER TABLE student MODIFY sname VARCHAR2(20);

Output:
Table Altered.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID NUMBER(4)
SNAME VARCHAR2(20)

Can we decrease the field size?

YES. But, we can decrease up to max string length in column

SNAME VARCHAR2(20)
---------------
KIRAN 5
NARESH 6 we can decrease up to 6
SAI 3
AMAR 4

Modifying data type [sid column data type modify to char(7)]:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 93
 Modifying data type [sid column data type modify to char(7)]:

ALTER TABLE student MODIFY sid CHAR(7);

Output:
Table Altered.

DESC student
Output:
NAME TYPE
-----------------------------------------
SID CHAR(7)
SNAME VARCHAR2(20)

Note:
To modify the data type column must be empty.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 94

DROP, FLASHBACK and PURGE
Friday, June 28, 2024 7:51 AM

DROP, FLASHBACK and PURGE:

RECYCLEBIN

DROP TABLE student; student

FLASHBACK RESTORE
DELETE

PURGE

RECYCLEBIN feature added in ORACLE 10g version.

BEFORE ORACLE 10g,

DROP TABLE student; --will be dropped permanently

DROP:
• DROP command is used to delete the table.
• When table is dropped, it will be moved to RECYCLEBIN.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE <table_name> [PURGE];

Example:
DROP TABLE student;
--it will be moved to recyclebin

DROP TABLE employee PURGE;

--table will be deleted permanently. it will not be moved to
recyclebin.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 95

 recyclebin.

FLASHBACK:
• FLASHBACK command introduced in ORACLE 10g version.
• It is used to restore the dropped table from RECYCLEBIN.

Syntax:
FLASHBACK TABLE <table_name> TO BEFORE DROP
[RENAME TO <new_name>];

Example:
FLASHBACK TABLE student TO BEFORE DROP;

PURGE:
• PURGE command introduced in ORACLE 10g version.
• It is used to delete the table from RECYCLEBIN.
• If table purged, it will be deleted permanently.

Syntax:
PURGE TABLE <table_name>;

Example:
PURGE TABLE student;

to see RECYCLEBIN:

SHOW RECYCLEBIN

to delete a table permanent:

DROP TABLE student;

(or) DROP TABLE student PURGE;
PURGE TABLE student;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 96

 emptying recyclebin:

PURGE RECYCLEBIN;

CASE-1:

CREATE TABLE t1(f1 INT);

insert into t1 values(1); RECYCLEBIN
insert into t1 values(2);
COMMIT; T1 8:35
T1 8:30
DROP TABLE t1;

CREATE TABLE t1(f1 INT,f2 CHAR);

insert into t1 values(1,'A');
insert into t1 values(2,'B');
commit;

DROP TABLE t1;

FLASHBACK TABLE t1
TO BEFORE DROP;
--it restores recently dropped t1 8:35

to restore older t1 [8:30]:

FLASHBACK TABLE "<recyclebin_name>"

TO BEFORE DROP;

Note:
Within SCHEMA, table name must be unique.

CASE-2:
CREATE TABLE t3(f1 INT);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 97

CREATE TABLE t3(f1 INT);
insert into t3 values(1);
RECYCLEBIN
insert into t3 values(2);
commit;
t3
DROP TABLE t3;

CREATE TABLE t3(f1 CHAR);

insert into t3 values('A');
commit;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 98

DCL
Monday, July 1, 2024 7:35 AM

DCL:
• DCL => Data Control Language.
• It deals with data accessibility.
• It is used to implement table level security.

ORACLE SQL provides following DCL commands:

• GRANT
• REVOKE

GRANT:
• It is used to grant permission on DB Objects to
other users.
privileges_list
------------------------
Syntax:
privilege => permission
GRANT <privileges_list>
ON <DB_Object>
SELECT
TO <users_list>;
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
REVOKE:
ALTER
• REVOKE command is used to cancel the
.
permissions on db objects from other users.
.

Syntax:
REVOKE <privileges_list>
ON <DB_Object>
FROM <users_list>;

Examples:

Granting read-only permission on emp table to

c##userA:

GRANT select
ON emp
TO c##userA;

Granting DML permissions on emp table to

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 99
Granting DML permissions on emp table to
c##userA:

GRANT insert, update, delete

ON emp
TO c##userA;

Granting all permissions on emp table to

c##userA:

GRANT all
ON emp
TO c##userA;

Grant read-only permission on emp table to

c##userA, c##userB and c##userC:

GRANT select
ON emp
TO c##userA, c##userB, c##userC;

Grant read-only permission on emp table to all

users:

GRANT select
ON emp
TO public;

Cancel DML permissions on emp table from

c##userA:

REVOKE insert, update, delete

ON emp
FROM c##userA;

Cancel SELECT permission on emp table from

c##userA:

REVOKE select
ON emp
FROM c##userA;
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 100
 FROM c##userA;

Cancel all permissions on emp table from

c##userA:

REVOKE select
ON emp
FROM c##userA;

Cancel all permissions on emp table from

c##userA, c##userB, c##userC:

REVOKE all
ON emp
FROM c##userA, c##userB, c##userC;

Cancel all permissions on emp table from all

users:

REVOKE all
ON emp
FROM public;

Example on GRANT and REVOKE:

Create 2 users c##userA, c##userB:

Login as DBA:
username: system
password: naresh

CREATE USER c##userA

IDENTIFED BY usera;

GRANT connect, resource, unlimited tablespace

TO c##userA;

CREATE USER c##userB

IDENTIFED BY userb;

GRANT connect, resource, unlimited tablespace

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 101
 GRANT connect, resource, unlimited tablespace
TO c##userB;

OPEN 2 SQL PLUS windows. Arrange them side by side

c##userA [GRANTOR] c##userB [GRANTEE]

T1
F1 F2
1 A
2 B

CREATE TABLE t1
(
f1 NUMBER(4),
f2 VARCHAr2(10)
);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1,'A');

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(2,'B');
COMMIT;

SELECT * FROM c##userA.t1;

Output:
ERROR: table does not exist

GRANT select
ON t1
TO c##userB;

SELECT * FROM c##userA.t1;

Output:
F1 F2
1 A
2 B

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 102

 2 B

GRANT insert, update, delete

ON t1
TO c##userB;

INSERT INTO c##userA.t1

VALUES(3,'C');
Output:
1 row created.

SELECT * FROM c##userA.t1;

Output:
SELECT * FROM t1;
Output: F1 F2
F1 F2 1 A
1 A 2 B
2 B 3 C

COMMIT;

SELECT * FROM t1;

Output:
Output:
F1 F2
1 A
2 B
3 C

UPDATE c##userA.t1
SET f2='SAI'
WHERE f1=1;
Output:
1 row updated.

COMMIT;

SELECT * FROM t1;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 103

 SELECT * FROM t1;
Output:
Output:
F1 F2
1 SAI
2 B
3 C

DELETE FROM c##userA.t1

WHERE f1=3;
Output:
1 row deleted

COMMIT;

SELECT * FROM t1;

Output:
Output:
F1 F2
1 SAI
2 B

GRANT all
ON t1
TO c##userB;

ALTER TABLE c##userA.t1

ADD f3 DATE;
Output:
Table Altered

DESC t1;
Output:
F1
F2
F3

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 104

REVOKE insert,update,delete
ON t1
FROM c##userB;

INSERT => ERROR: insufficent privileges

DELETE => ERROR
UPDATE => ERROR

SELECT * FROM c##userA.t1;

Output:
F1 F2
1 A
2 B

REVOKE all
ON t1
FROM c##userB;

USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE
USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD

USER_TAB_PRIVS_MADE:
• it is a system table / built-in table / readymade table.
• it maintains all the permissions which are given by
GRANTOR.

to see list of privieges made by grantor:

SELECT grantee, table_name, privilege

FROM user_tab_privs_made;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 105

 USER_TAB_PRIVS_RECD:
• it is a system table / built-in table / readymade table.
• it maintains all the permissions which are recieved by
GRANTEE.

to see list of permissions received by GRANTEE:

SELECT owner, table_name, grantor, privilege

FROM user_tab_privs_recd;

ALL => 12 permissions

SELECT
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
ALTER
FLASHBACK
DEBUG
QUERY REWRITE
ON COMMIT REFRESH
READ
REFERENCES
INDEX

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 106

Copying table and Copying Records
Tuesday, July 2, 2024 7:44 AM

Copying table:

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE <name>

AS
<SELECT QUERY>;

• Copying Table means, creating a new table

from existing table.
• With SELECT QUERY result a new table will
be created.

Examples:

Create exact copy of emp table with

the name emp1:

EMP1
EMP
8 columns
8 columns
15 rows
15 rows

CREATE TABLE emp1

AS
SELECT * FROM emp;

Example-2:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 107

 EMP EMP2
8 columns 4 columns => empno, ename,job, sal
15 rows managers records

create a new table with the name emp2

from existing table emp
with 4 columns empno, ename, job, sal
and with managers records:

CREATE TABLE emp2

AS
SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER';

Copying table Structure:

Syntax:
False Condition
---------------------------
CREATE TABLE <name>
1=2 FALSE
AS
'A'='B' FALSE
SELECT <columns_list>
400=500 FALSE
FROM <table_name>
WHERE <false_condition>;

Examples:

Create a new table with the name emp3

with emp table structure, without rows:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 108

 Emp Emp3
8 columns 8 columns
15 rows no rows

CREATE TABLE emp3

AS
SELECT * FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

Example-2:

EMP EMP4
8 columns EMPNO ENAME SAL
15 rows no rows

Create a new table with the name emp4

from existing table emp
with 3 columns empno, ename, sal and
without rows:

CREATE TABLE emp4

AS
SELECT empno, ename, sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

Copying Records:

Syntax:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 109

 Syntax:

INSERT INTO <table_name>

<SELECT QUERY>;

Examples:

EMP EMP5
8 columns copy 4 columns => empno, ename, job, sal
15 rows no rows

CREATE TABLE emp5

AS
SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

Copy all rows from emp table to emp5:

INSERT INTO emp5

SELECT empno, ename, job, sal FROM emp;

DELETE FROM emp5;

COMMIT;

Copy all managers records from emp to emp5:

EMP EMP5
8 columns EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL
15 rows copy no rows
managers
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 110
 8 columns EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL
15 rows copy no rows
managers

INSERT INTO emp5

SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER';

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 111

INSERT ALL
Tuesday, July 2, 2024 8:26 AM

INSERT ALL:
• Introduced in ORACLE 9i.
• INSERT ALL command is used to copy one table
data to multiple tables.
• It avoids of writing multiple INSERT commands.
• It can be used to perform ETL operations.
• E=> Extract, T => transfer, L => Load
• INSERT ALL can be used in 2 ways. They are:
○ Unconditional INSERT ALL
○ Conditional INSERT ALL

Unconditional INSERT ALL:

Syntax:

INSERT ALL
INTO <table_name>(<columns_list>) VALUES(<values_list>)
INTO <table_name>(<columns_list>) VALUES(<values_list>)
.
.
<SELECT QUERY>;

Example on Unconditional INSERT ALL:

EMP6
4 columns => empno, ename, job, sal
no rows
EMP copy
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 112
 EMP6
4 columns => empno, ename, job, sal
no rows
EMP copy
8 columns
15 rows
copy EMP7
4 columns => empno, ename, job, sal
no rows
copy

EMP8
4 columns => empno, ename, job, sal
no rows

Copy emp table all rows to emp6, emp7, emp8:

create the tables emp6, emp7, emp8 with 4 columns

without rows:

CREATE TABLE emp6

AS
SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

CREATE TABLE emp7

AS
SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

CREATE TABLE emp8

AS
SELECT empno, ename, job, sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

Copy emp table all rows to emp6, emp7, emp8:

INSERT ALL
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 113
 INSERT ALL
INTO emp6 VALUES(empno, ename, job, sal)
INTO emp7 VALUES(empno, ename, job, sal)
INTO emp8 VALUES(empno, ename, job, sal)
SELECT empno,ename,job,sal FROM emp;
Output:
45 rows created.

Conditional INSERT ALL:

Syntax:

INSERT ALL
WHEN <condition1> THEN
INTO <table_name>(<columns_list>) VALUES(<values_list>)
WHEN <condition2> THEN
INTO <table_name>(<columns_list>) VALUES(<values_list>)
.
.
ELSE
INTO <table_name>(<columns_list>) VALUES(<values_list>)
<SELECT QUERY>;

Example on Conditional INSERT ALL:

emp_mgr
EMP
4 => empno,ename,job,sal
8 columns
no rows
15 rows copy
MANAGER
CLERK emp_clerk
copy
ANALYST 4 => empno,ename,job,sal
SALESMAN no rows
PRESIDENT
copy
emp_others
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 114
 SALESMAN no rows
PRESIDENT
copy
emp_others
4 => empno,ename,job,sal
no rows

create emp_mgr, emp_clerk and emp_others:

CREATE TABLE emp_mgr

AS
SELECT empno,ename,job,sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

CREATE TABLE emp_clerk

AS
SELECT empno,ename,job,sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

CREATE TABLE emp_others

AS
SELECT empno,ename,job,sal
FROM emp
WHERE 1=2;

copy managers records to emp_mgr,

clerks records to emp_clerk,
other than managers and clerks copy to emp_others:

INSERT ALL
WHEN job='MANAGER' THEN
INTO emp_mgr VALUES(empno,ename,job,sal)
WHEN job='CLERK' THEN
INTO emp_clerk VALUES(empno,ename,job,sal)
ELSE
INTO emp_others VALUES(empno,ename,job,sal)
SELECT * FROM emp;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 115

Assignment:

dept10
EMP
empno ename sal deptno
8 cols
no rows
15 rows copy
deptno 10
deptno 20 dept20
copy
deptno 30 empno ename sal deptno
deptno 40 no rows
copy
dept_others
empno ename sal deptno
no rows

emp1980
WHEN hiredate BETWEEN '1-JAN-1980'
AND '31-DEC-1980' THEN

emp1981

emp_others

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 116

MERGE
Wednesday, July 3, 2024 8:02 AM

MERGE: replica => duplicate copy

Head Office
Branch Office s.cid = t.cid
CUSTOMER1 s CUSTOMER2 t => replica
CID CNAME CCITY CID CNAME CCITY
1001 A ABC HYD BLR 1001 A HYD
1002 B BLR 1002 B BLR
1003 C MUM 1003 C MUM
1004 D PUN
1005 E CHN

MERGE:
• Introduced in ORACLE 9i.
• MERGE = UPDATE + INSERT
• MERGE is a combination of UPDATE and INSERT commands.
• It is used to apply one table changes to its replica.

Syntax:

MERGE INTO <target table_name> <target_table_alias>

USING <source_table_name> <source_table_alias>
ON(<condition>)
WHEN matched THEN
UPDATE query
WHEN not matched THEN
INSERT query;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 117

Example on MERGE:
s.cid = t.cid
CUSTOMER1 s CUSTOMER2 t => replica
CID CNAME CCITY
CID CNAME CCITY
1001 A HYD
1001 A ABC HYD BLR
1002 B BLR
1002 B BLR
1003 C MUM
1003 C MUM
1004 D PUN
1005 E CHN

CREATE TABLE customer1

(
cid NUMBER(4),
cname VARCHAR2(10),
ccity CHAR(3)
);

INSERT INTO customer1 VALUES(1001,'A','HYD');

INSERT INTO customer1 VALUES(1002,'B','BLR');
INSERT INTO customer1 VALUES(1003,'C','MUM');

COMMIT;

CREATE TABLE customer2

AS
SELECT * FROM customer1;

1004 D PUN
1005 E CHN

INSERT INTO customer1 VALUES(1004,'D','PUN');

INSERT INTO customer1 VALUES(1005,'E','CHN');
COMMIT;
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 118
COMMIT;

CID CNAME CCITY

1001 A ABC HYD BLR

UPDATE customer1
SET cname='ABC', ccity='BLR'
WHERE cid=1001;

COMMIT;

Apply cutomer1 table changes to its replica customer2:

MERGE INTO customer2 T

USING customer1 S
ON(S.cid=T.cid)
WHEN matched THEN
UPDATE SET t.cname=s.cname, t.ccity=s.ccity
WHEN not matched THEN
INSERT VALUES(s.cid, s.cname, s.ccity);
Output:
5 rows merged.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 119

TRUNCATE
Wednesday, July 3, 2024 8:54 AM

TRUNCATE:

CID CNAME CCITY Structure [cols]

1001 A HYD
1002 B BLR Data [rows]
1003 C MUM

TRUNCATE

• TRUNCATE command is used to delete all rows

from table with good performance.
• It permanently deletes the rows. we cannot
recollect them.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE <table_name>;

Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE customer1;
--all rows will be deleted permanently

DESC customer1
Output:
NAME
------------
CID
CNAME
CCITY

Note:
TRUNCATE deletes entire table data
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 120
 TRUNCATE deletes entire table data
It does not delete table structure

Differences b/w TRUNCATE and DELETE:

TRUNCATE DELETE

• It is DDL command • it is DML command

• It is auto committed • It is not auto committed

• We cannot delete single • We can delete single

record or specific group record or specific group
of records. Just we can of records or all records.
delete all records.

• It cannot be rolled back. • it can be rolled back.

• WHERE clause cannot be • WHERE clause can be used here.

used here.

• it is faster. • It is slower.

• It deletes block by block • It deletes row by row.

[page by page].

DATABASE
TABLESPACES
SEGMENTS
EXTENTS
BLOCKS
DATA
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 121
 DATA

RENAME:
It is used to rename the table.

Syntax:
RENAME <old_name> TO <new_name>;

Example:
RENAME emp TO e;
Output:
Table renamed.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 122

Thursday, July 4, 2024 7:43 AM

By default,
All DDL commands are auto committed.
All DML commands are not auto committed.

DDL = DDL + COMMIT

CREATE = CREATE + COMMIT

CREATE TABLE t10(f1 INT); => DB => committed

INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(1);
INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(2);
CREATE TABLE t11(f1 CHAR); => committed
INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(3);
INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(4);
ROLLBACK;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 123

DUAL
Friday, July 5, 2024 7:43 AM

DUAL:
• DUAL is a readymade table / built-in table.
• DUAL table has 1 column and 1 row.

SELECT * FROM dual;

Output:
DUAL
DUMMY
X

DESC dual
Output:
NAME TYPE
---------- -------------
DUMMY VARCHAR2(1)

• When we want to work with non-table data or

when we want to get 1 value as the result then
we use DUAL.

SELECT 100+200 FROM dual;

Output:
300 => dual table has 1 row

SELECT 100+200 FROM emp;

Output:
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 124
 Output:
300
300
300
.
.
300

15 300s => emp table has 15 rows

In ORACLE 23 AI, they made FROM clause as optional.

Till ORACLE 21C,

SELECT 100+200; ERROR: FROM not found

In ORACLE 23AI,
SELECT 100+200; --300

SELECT lower('RAJU'); --raju

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 125

Built-In Functions
Thursday, July 4, 2024 8:16 AM

Built-In Functions:
• To make our actions easier ORACLE software developers
defined some functions and placed them in ORACLE DB. These
functions are called "Built-In Functions / Predefined Functions /
Readymade Functions".

• ORACLE SQL provides built-in functions. Those can be

categorized as following:
○ String Functions
○ Conversion Functions
○ Aggregate Functions / Group Functions / Multi Row Functions
○ Number Functions
○ Date Functions
○ Analytic Functions / Window Functions
○ Special Functions

String Functions:

lower() Lpad() Substr() Chr()

upper() Rpad() Instr() ASCII()
initcap() Soundex()
Ltrim() Replace()
length() Rtrim() Translate()
concat() Trim() Reverse()

LOWER():
• It is used to convert string to lower case.

Syntax:
Lower(<string>)

Examples:
Lower('RAJU') raju
Lower('RAJ KUMAR') raj kumar

SELECT lower('RAJU') FROM dual;

Output:
raju
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 126
 raju

upper():
• it is used to convert string to upper case.

Syntax:
upper(<string>)

Examples:
upper('raju') RAJU
upper('ravi teja') RAVI TEJA

Initcap() [initial capital]:

• It is used to get every word's starting letter as
capital.

Syntax:
initcap(<string>)

Example:
initcap('RAJ KUMAR VARMA') Raj Kumar Varma

Examples:

Display all emp names and salaries. display emp names

in lower case:

SELECT lower(ename), sal FROM emp;

LOWER(ENAME) SAL
----------------------------------------------------
smith 800
allen 1600

SELECT lower(ename) AS ename, sal FROM emp;

ENAME SAL
----------------------------------------------------
smith 800
allen 1600

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 127

Display BLAKE record when we don't know exact case:

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE lower(ename)='blake';

ENAME lower(ename)='blake'
-------------- ---------------------------------------
SMITH lower('SMITH') => smith = blake F
ALLEN lower('ALLEN') => allen = blake F
BLAKE lower('BLAKE') => blake = blake T

Display the emp names and salaries.

Display all emp names in lower case:

SELECT lower(ename) AS ename, sal FROM emp;

Modify all emp names to lower case:

UPDATE emp
SET ename=lower(ename);

length():
• it is used to find length of the string.
• string length => no of chars in string.

Syntax:
length(<string>)

Examples:
length('RAJU') 4
length('RAVI TEJA') 9

Display the emp records whose names are

having 4 letters:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 128

 FROM emp
WHERE length(ename)=4;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '____';

Display the emp records whose names are

having 14 letters:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE length(ename)=14;

Concat():
• It is used to combine 2 strings.

Syntax:
concat(<string1>, <string2>)

Examples:
concat('RAJ', 'KUMAR') RAJKUMAR
concat('RAJ', 'KUMAR', 'VARMA') ERROR
Concat(concat('RAJ', 'KUMAR'), 'VARMA') RAJKUMARVARMA
'RAJ' || ' ' || 'KUMAR' || ' ' || 'VARMA' RAJ KUMAR VARMA

Example:

EMPLOYEE
EMPID FNAME LNAME ENAME
1234 SAI KRISHNA ------------
1235 RAVI TEJA Sai Krishna
Ravi Teja

ALTER TABLE employee

ADD ename VARCHAR2(20);

UPDATE employee
SET ename= Initcap(fname || ' ' || lname);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 129

 Substr():
• It is used to get sub string from the string.
• Sub String => part of the string.

Syntax:
Substr(<string>, <position> [, <no_of_chars>])

Examples:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
R A J K U M A R

Substr('RAJ KUMAR', 5) KUMAR

Substr('RAJ KUMAR', 1, 3) RAJ
Substr('RAJ KUMAR',6,3) UMA
Substr('RAJ KUMAR',6) UMAR

2nd argument [position] can be -ve.

+VE From Left side

-VE From Right side

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
R A J K U M A R
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Substr('RAJ KUMAR', -4) UMAR

Substr('RAJ KUMAR', -4, 3) UMA
Substr('RAJ KUMAR', -9, 3) RAJ

Credit Card Bill => mail

your password:
your name's first 4 chars
your mobile number's last 4 digits

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 130

 cname mobile
VIJAY KAUMAR 9123456789

Substr(cname, 1,4) || Substr(mobile, -4, 4)

VIJA6789

Generate mail ids to all emps by taking emp name's first 3 chars,
empno's last 3 digits as user name for the domain tcs.com:

EMP MAIL_ID
EMPNO ENAME --------------------
7369 SMITH [email protected]
[email protected]
7499 ALLEN

ALTER TABLE emp ADD mail_id VARCHAR2(30);

UPDATE emp
SET mail_id = Substr(ename,1,3) || Substr(empno,-3,3) || '@tcs.com';

Display the emp records whose names are started with S:

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE Substr(ename,1,1)='S';

(or)

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE 'S%';

Display the emp names whose names are started

vowel:

SELECT *
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 131
SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE substr(ename,1,1) IN('A','E','I','O','U');

Display the emp records whose names are started and

ended with same letter:

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE substr(ename,1,1) = substr(ename,-1,1);

Lpad() & Rpad():

Lpad():
it is used to fill specified char set at left side.

Syntax:
Lpad(<string>, <size> [, <char_set>])

char_set = char / chars

3rd argument default value => space

Rpad():
it is used to fill specified char set at right side.

Syntax:
Rpad(<string>, <size> [, <char_set>])

Examples:

Lpad('RAJU', 10, '*') ******RAJU 10-4 = 6

Rpad('RAJU', 10, '*') RAJU******
8-3 = 5
Lpad('SAI',8,'@') @@@@@SAI
Rpad('SAI',8,'@') SAI@@@@@
Lpad('RAJU',10) 6spacesRAJU
Rpad('RAJU',10) RAJU6spaces

Lpad('SAI',8,'@#') @#@#@SAI 8-3 = 5

Lpad('A',6,'A') AAAAAA

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 132

 Lpad('X',8,'X') XXXXXXXX

Example:
Display output as following if acno is 1234567891:
amount debited from acno XXXXXX7891

SELECT 'amount debited from acno ' || Lpad('X',6,'X') ||

Substr('1234567891',-4) FROM dual;

Ltrim(), Rtrim() and Trim():

Ltrim():
• It is used to remove unwanted chars from left side

Syntax:
Ltrim(<string> [, <char_set>])

2nd arg default value => space

Rtrim():
• It is used to remove unwanted chars from right side

Syntax:
Rtrim(<string> [, <char_set>])

2nd arg default value => space

Ltrim('*****RAJU*****', '*') RAJU*****

Rtrim('*****RAJU*****', '*') *****RAJU
Ltrim(' RAJU ') RAJU3spaces
Rtrim(' RAJU ') 3spacesRAJU

Trim():
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 133
Trim():
It can be used to remove unwanted chars from left side or right side
or both sides.

Syntax:
Trim(leading / trailing / both <char> from <string>)

Examples:
Trim(leading '*' FROM '*****RAJU*****') RAJU*****
Trim(trailing '*' FROM '*****RAJU*****') *****RAJU
Trim(both '*' FROM '*****RAJU*****') RAJU
Trim(' RAJU ') RAJU

default side => both

default char => space

Instr():
• It is used to check whether the sub string is existed in string or
not.
• If sub string existed in string, it returns position number.
If sub string is not existed I string, it returns 0.

Syntax:
Instr(<string>, <sub_string> [, <position>, <occurrence>])

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
R A V I T E J A 3rd arg default position 1
4th arg default occurrence 1
Examples:
Instr('RAVI TEJA', 'TEJA') 6
Instr('RAVI TEJA', 'RAVI') 1
Instr('RAVI TEJA', 'I TE') 4
Instr('RAVI TEJA', 'SAI') 0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
T H I S I S H I S W I S H

Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS') 3

Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS', 1, 2) 6
Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS', 4, 3) 14
Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS', 4, 4) 0

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 134

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
T H I S I S H I S W I S H
-16 -15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS', -1) 14

Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS', -1,3) 6
Instr('THIS IS HIS WISH', 'IS', -4, 3) 3

Display the emp records whose names are having AM

chars:

SELECT ename, sal, Instr(ename, 'AM') Instr(ename, 'AM')

FROM emp
WHERE Instr(ename, 'AM')>0; JAMES => 2
ADAMS => 3
(or) AMAR => 1
SMITH => 0
SELECT ename, sal
FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%AM%';

Example:

EMP60
FNAME LNAME
EMPID ENAME
RAJ KUMAR
1234 RAJ KUMAR
VIJAY KUMAR
1235 VIJAY KUMAR
SAI KRISHNA
1236 SAI KRISHNA

CREATE TABLE emp60

(
empid NUMBER(4),
ename VARCHAR2(20)
);

INSERT INTO emp60 VALUES(1234,'RAJ KUMAR');

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 135
 INSERT INTO emp60 VALUES(1234,'RAJ KUMAR');
INSERT INTO emp60 VALUES(1235,'VIJAY KUMAR');
INSERT INTO emp60 VALUES(1236,'SAI KRISHNA');
COMMIT;

ALTER TABLE emp60 ADD(fname VARHCAR2(10),

lname VARCHAR2(10));

UPDATE emp60
SET fname=Substr(ename, 1, Instr(ename, ' ')-1),
lname= Substr(ename, Instr(ename, ' ')+1);

COMMIT;

ALTER TABLE emp60 DROP(ename);

Display the emp records whose names are having _:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE instr(ename,'_')>0;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%\_%' ESCAPE '\';

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%$_%' ESCAPE '$';

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%#_%' ESCAPE '#';

Display the emp records whose names are having %:

SELECT ename, sal

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 136
 SELECT ename, sal
FROM emp
WHERE Instr(ename, '%')>0;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE ename LIKE '%\%%' ESCAPE '\';

Replace() & Translate():

Replace():
It is used to replace search string with replace string.

Syntax:
Repalce(<string>, <search string>, <replace string>)

Examples:
Replace('SAI KRISHNA', 'SAI', 'RAVI') RAVI KRISHNA
Replace('SAI KRISHNA SAI TEJA', 'SAI', 'RAVI') RAVI KRISHNA RAVI TEJA

Translate():
• it is used to replace the characters.

Syntax:
Translate(<string>, <search_char_set>, <replace_char_set>)

Examples:

Replace('SAI KRISHNA', 'SAI', 'XYZ') XYZ KRISHNA

Translate('SAI KRISHNA' 'SAI', 'XYZ') XYZ KRZXHNY

S => X
A => Y
I => Z

Replace('abcabcaabbccabc', 'abc', 'XYZ') XYZXYZaabbccXYZ

Translate('abcabcaabbccabc', 'abc','XYZ') XYZXYZXXYYZZXYZ

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 137

 Translate('abcabcaabbccabc', 'abc','XYZ') XYZXYZXXYYZZXYZ
a => X
b => Y
c => Z

Difference b/w Replace() & Translate():

Replace() It is used to replace the strings
Translate() It is used to replace the chars

Translate() can be used to encrypt and decrypt the data.

Normal Text
Normal Text Cipher Text

hello zq##$ hello

Encryption Decryption

Display the emp names and salaries.

Encrypt salaries as following:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
@ Z Q $ ^ W B * ! %

SELECT ename, translate(sal, '0123456789', '@ZQ$^WB*!%') AS sal

FROM emp;

Remove special chars from following string:

RA#@^JU

SELECT Replace('RA#@^JU', '#@^', '')

FROM dual;

Reverse():

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 138

Reverse():
• it returns reverse string

Syntax:
Reverse(<string>)

Example:
Reverse('SAI') IAS

ASCII():
It returns ASCII value of specified char

Syntax:
ASCII(<char>)

Examples:
ASCII('A') 65
ASCII('Z') 90
ASCII('a') 97

Chr():
• It returns character of specified ASCII value.

Examples:
Chr(65) A
Chr(97) a

Soundex():
• It is used to retrieve the data based on sounds.

• When we don't exact spelling we retrieve data based

on sounds.

Syntax:
Soundex(<string1>) = Soundex(<string2>)

Examples:

Display BLAKE record:

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE soundex(ename)=soundex('blek');

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 139

 Conversion Functions:
to_char()
to_char()

DATE CHAR NUMBER

to_date() to_number()

To_Char() [Date to Char]:

• It is used to convert date to char [string].

• It is used change date formats.
• It can be also used to extract part of the date.

Syntax:
To_Char(<date>, <format>)

FORMAT PURPOSE EXAMPLE OUTPUT

sysdate => 9-JUL-24
YYYY year 4 digits to_char(sysdate, 'YYYY') 2024

YY year last 2 digits to_char(sysdate, 'YY') 24

YEAR / year in words to_char(sysdate, 'YEAR') TWENTY TWENTY-FOUR

year to_char(sysdate, 'year') twenty twenty-four

MM month number to_char(sysdate, 'MM') 07

MON short month name to_char(sysdate, 'MON') JUL

MONTH full month name to_char(sysdate, JULY

'MONTH')
D day num in week to_char(sysdate, 'D') 3

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 140

D day num in week to_char(sysdate, 'D') 3

DD day num in month to_char(sysdate, 'DD') 09

DDD day num in year to_char(sysdate, 'DDD') 191

31+29+31+30+31+30+9 =
191

DY short weekday name to_char(sysdate,'DY') TUE

DAY full weekday name to_char(sysdate, 'DAY') TUESDAY

Q quarter num to_char(sysdate, 'Q') 3

1 => jan-mar
2 => apr-jun
3 => jul-sep
4 => oct-dec

CC century num to_char(sysdate, 'CC') 21

HH / hours part in 12 hrs

HH12 format

HH24 hours part in 24 hrs

format

MI minutes part

SS seconds part

FF fractional seconds

AM / PM AM or PM

Display current system time in 12hrs format:

SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'HH:MI:SS AM')

FROM dual;

Display current system time in 24hrs format:

SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'HH24:MI:SS')

FROM dual;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 141

 Examples:

Display the emp records who joined in 1982:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'YYYY')=1982;

Display the emp records who joined in 1980, 1982, 1984:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'YYYY') IN(1980,1982,1984);

Display the emp records who joined in DECEMBER month:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'MM')=12;
(or)
SELECT ename, hiredate
FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'MON')='DEC';
(or)
SELECT ename, hiredate
FROM emp
WHERE RTRIM(to_char(hiredate,'MONTH'))='DECEMBER';

Display the emp records who joined in JAN, MAY and DEC:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'MM') IN(1,5,12);

Display the emp records who joined in 4th qrtr:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'Q')=4;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 142

Display the emp records who joined in 1st and 4th qrtr:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'Q') IN(1,4);

Display the emp records who joined on SUNDAY:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'D')=1;

(or)

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate, 'DY') = 'SUN';

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE to_char(hiredate,'DAY')='SUNDAY';

SUNDAY3spaces = SUNDAY FALSE

Output:
no rows selected

to_char(hiredate,'DAY')

SUNDAY3spaces 9
TUESDAY2spaces 9
WEDNESDAY 9 max str length
.
.
SATURDAY1space 9

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE RTRIM(to_char(hiredate, 'DAY')) = 'SUNDAY';

RTRIM(SUNDAY3spaces)
SUNDAY = SUNDAY TRUE

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 143

 Display the emp names and hiredates.
Display hiredates IND date format:

SELECT ename, to_char(hiredate, 'DD/MM/YYYY') AS hiredate

FROM emp;

To_Char() [number to char]:

• It can be used to convert number to char [string].

• To apply currency symbols, currency names, thousand

separator, decimal point and decimal places we need to
convert number to char.

Syntax:
To_Char(<number> [, <format> , <NLS_parameters>])

Examples:
To_Char(123) '123'
To_Char(123.45) '123.45'

FORMAT PURPOSE
L currency symbol [$]
C currency name [USD]
./D Decimal Point
,/G Thousand separator
9 Digit

To_Char(5000, 'L9999.99') $5000.00

TO_Char(5000, 'C9,999.99') USD5,000.00

Display all emp names and salaries.

Apply currency symbol $, thousand separator, decimal
point and decimal places

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 144

 SELECT ename, To_Char(sal, 'L99,999.99') AS sal
FROM emp;

NLS PARAMETERS DEFAULT VALUE

NLS_CURRENCY $
NLS_ISO_CURRENCY AMERICA

NLS => national Language Support

Display all emp names and salaries.

Apply currency symbol ¥, thousand separator, decimal point and decimal
places:

SELECT ename, TO_Char(sal, 'L99999.99', 'nls_currency=¥') AS sal

FROM emp;

Display all emp names and salaries.

Apply currency name JPY, thousand separator, decimal point and decimal
places:

SELECT ename, TO_Char(sal, 'C99999.99', 'nls_iso_currency=JAPAN') AS sal

FROM emp;

To_Date():
• It is used to convert string to date.

• To insert date values for explicit convertion we use it.

Syntax:
To_Date(<string> [, <format>])

Examples:
To_Date('25-DEC-2023') 25-DEC-23
To_Date('25 DECEMBER 2023') 25-DEC-23
To_Date('DECEMBER 25 2023') ERROR
To_Date('DECEMBER 25 2023', 'MONTH DD YYYY') 25-DEC-23
To_date('25/12/2023') ERROR
To_Date('25/12/2023', 'DD/MM/YYYY') 25-DEC-23
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 145
 To_Date('25/12/2023', 'DD/MM/YYYY') 25-DEC-23

Example:

CREATE TABLE t10(f1 DATE);

INSERT INTO t10 VALUES('25-DEC-2023');

string

F1 implicit conversion
-------
25-DEC-23 date

Note:
implicit conversion degrades the performance

INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(to_date('17-AUG-2023'));

string
F1
---------
17-AUG-23 date

INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(to_date('27/10/2023', 'DD/MM/YYYY'));

string

F1
-------
27-OCT-23 date

INSERT INTO t10 VALUES(to_date('&d/&m/&y', 'DD/MM/YYYY'));

Output:
Enter value for d: 25
Enter value for m:11
Enter value for y:2020

/
Enter value for d: 17
Enter value for m:2
Enter value for y:2021

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 146

Example:

Extract year part from today's date:

SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'YYYY') FROM dual;

Output: date
2024

Extract year part from 25-DEC-2023:

SELECT to_char('25-DEC-2023', 'YYYY') FROM dual;

Output: string
ERROR

SELECT to_char(To_Date('25-DEC-2023'), 'YYYY') FROM

dual;
Output:
2023

find today's weekday:

SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'DAY') FROM dual;

find the weekday on which INDIA got independence:

SELECT to_char('15-AUG-1947', 'DAY') FROM dual;

Output:
ERROR

SELECT to_char(to_Date('15-AUG-1947'), 'DAY')

FROM dual;
Output:
FRIDAY

To_Number():
• It is used to convert string to number.
• String must be numeric string only.

Syntax:
To_Number('123') 123
To_Number('123.45') 123.45
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 147
 To_Number('123.45') 123.45
To_Number('$5000.00') ERROR
To_Number('$5000.00', 'L9999.99') 5000

Aggregate Functions / Group Functions / Multi Row Functions:

F1 sum(f1) 10+20+30 = 60
----- avg(f1) 60/3 = 20
10
max(f1) 30
20
30 min(f1) 10
count(*) 3

ORACLE SQL provides following Aggregate Functions:

• sum()
• avg()
• max()
• min()
• count()

sum():
• it us used to find sum of a set of values.

Syntax:
sum(<column>)

Examples:

Find sum of salaries of all emps:

SELECT sum(sal) FROM emp;

Find sum of salaries of managers:

SELECT sum(sal) FROM emp

WHERE job='MANAGER';

Find sum of salaries of emps who are working in

deptno 30:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 148

 deptno 30:

SELECT sum(Sal) FROM emp

WHERE deptno=30;

avg():
• It is used to find average of a set of values.

Syntax:
avg(<column>)

Examples:

Find avrg sal of all emps:

SELECt avg(sal) FROM emp;

Find avrg sal of all managers:

SELECT avg(Sal) FROM emp

WHERE job='MANAGER';

max():
It is used to find max value in a set of values.

Syntax:
max(<column>)

Examples:

Find max salary in all emps:

SELECT max(sal) FROM emp;

Find max salary in all CLERKS:

SELECT max(Sal) FROM emp

WHERE job='CLERK';

min():
It is used to find min value in a set of values.

Syntax:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 149

 Syntax:
min(<column>)

Examples:

Find min salary in all emps:

SELECT min(sal) FROM emp;

Find min salary in all CLERKS:

SELECT min(Sal) FROM emp

WHERE job='CLERK';

count():
• it is used to find number of records or number of
column values.

Syntax:
count(* / <column>)

Examples:

Find number of records in emp table:

SELECT count(*) FROM emp;

Find how many emps are getting commission:

SELECT count(comm) FROM emp;

Find number of clerks in emp table:

SELECT count(*) FROM emp

WHERE job='CLERK';

Find number of emps in deptno 30:

SELECT count(*) FROM emp

WHERE deptno=30;

Note:
to find number of records we can write following
queries:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 150

SELECT count(*) FROM emp; --17

SELECT count(8) FROM emp; --17

SELECT count(500) FROM emp; --17

Differences b/w count(*) and count(<any_number>):

count(*) • it counts no of records

• it is slower

count(8) • it counts number of 8s

• it is faster

Built-In Functions

Single Row Functions Multi Row Functions

If 1 function call applied If 1 function applied on multiple rows

on 1 row
Aggregate Functions
String Functions
Conversion Functions
Number Functions
.
.

multi row function

single row function
SAL
ENAME LOWER(ENAME) sum(Sal)
-------
------------ ---------------------------
10000
ALLEN LOWER('ALLEN') 1 function call
20000
SMITH LOWER('SMITH') applied on
5000
WARD LOWER('WARD') 3 rows

Number Functions / Math Functions:

power() Mod()
sqrt() Ceil()
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 151
 power() Mod()
sqrt() Ceil()
sign() Floor()
abs() Trunc()
Round()

power():
• it is used to find power value.

Syntax:
power(<number>, <power>)

Examples:
power(2,3) 8
power(3,2) 9

sqrt():
it is used to find square root value.

Syntax:
sqrt(<number>)

Examples:
sqrt(100) 10
sqrt(25) 5

sign():
• it is used to check whether the number
is +ve or -ve or 0.
• if num is +ve, returns 1
• if num is -ve, returns -1
• if num is 0, returns 0

Syntax:
sign(<number>)

Examples:
sign(25) 1
sign(-25) -1
sign(0) 0

abs():

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 152

 abs():
• it is used to get absolute value.
• absolute value => non-negative

Syntax:
abs(<number>)

Examples:
abs(25) 25
abs(-25) 25

Mod():
• it is used to get remainder value.

Syntax:
Mod(<number>, <divisor>)

Examples:
Mod(5,2) 1
Mod(10,7) 3

Ceil():
it is used to get round up value

Syntax:
Ceil(<number>)

Floor():
it is used to get round down value

Syntax:
Floor(<number>)

Examples:
Floor() Ceil()
456 => 456.789 => 457

Ceil(456.789) 457
Floor(456.789) 456

TRUNC():
it is used to remove decimal places.
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 153
• it is used to remove decimal places.

Syntax:
TRUNC(<number> [, <no_of_decimal_places>])

Examples:
TRUNC(123.6789) 123
TRUNC(123.6789,1) 123.6
TRUNC(123.6789,2) 123.67
TRUNC(123.6789,3) 123.678

2nd arg can be -ve.

if 2nd arg is -ve, it does not give decimal places

-1 rounds in 10s
-2 rounds in 100s
-3 rounds in 1000s

TRUNC(356.78934,-1) 350 and 360

350
TRUNC(356.78934,-2) 300 and 400
300
TRUNC(5678.4567,-3) 5000 and 6000
5000

Round():
• It considers avrg.
• If value is avrg or above avrg, it gives upper value.
• if value is below avrg, it gives lower value.

Syntax:
Round(<number> [, <no_of_decimal_places>])

Examples:
Round(123.6789) 123 and 124
avrg: 123.5
124
Trunc(123.6789) 123
Round(123.3789) 123 and 124
avrg: 123.5
123

Trunc(123.3789) 123

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 154

 Trunc(123.3789) 123
Round(123.5) 123 and 124
avrg: 123.5
124

Difference b/w trunc() and round():

trunc() does not consider avrg

always gives lower value
round() considers avrg
if value is avrg or above avrg, it gives upper value.
if value is below avrg, it gives lower value

Round(456.6789,2) 456.68
Trunc(456.6789,2) 456.67
Round(456.6739,2) 456.67
Round(345.678923,3) 345.679
TRUNC(345.678923,3) 345.678

2nd arg can be -ve 120+130 = 250

250/2 = 125
Round(123.678,-1) 120 and 130
avrg: 125
120
Round(127.678,-1) 120 and 130
avrg: 125
130

Date Functions:

sysdate
systimestamp

Add_Months()
Months_Between()
Last_day()
Next_day()

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 155

sysdate:
• it returns current system date

Syntax:
sysdate

systimestamp:
• it returns current system date and time

Syntax:
systimestamp

Display current system date:

SELECT sysdate FROM dual;

Display current system time from sysdate:

SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'HH:MI:SS AM') FROM dual;

Display current system time from sysdate in 24hrs

format:

SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'HH24:MI:SS') FROM dual;

Display current system date and time:

SELECT systimestamp FROM dual;

Add_Months():
• it is used to add or subtract months to specific
date or from specific date.

Syntax:
Add_Months(<date>, <no_of_months>)

Add 2 days to today's date:

SELECT sysdate+2 FROM dual;

Add 2 months to today's date:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 156

SELECT add_months(sysdate,2) FROM dual;

Add 2 years to today's date:

SELECT add_months(sysdate,2*12) FROM dual;

Subtract 2 days from today's date:

SELECT sysdate-2 FROM dual;

Subtract 2 months from today's date:

SELECT add_months(sysdate,-2) FROM dual;

Subtract 2 years from today's date:

SELECT add_months(sysdate,-2*12) FROM dual;

Examples:

Orders
Order_id cid pid ordered_Date delivery_Date
1234 .. .. sysdate sysdate+5

Products
Pid Pname manufactured_date expiry_date
5001 XYZ sysdate Add_Months(sysdate,3)

EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME DOBirth DORetirement
1001 A 25-DEC-2000 Add_months(DOBirth, 60*12)

CMS_LIST
STATE_CODE CM_NAME START_DATE END_DATE
TG RR 7-DEC-23 Add_Months(start_Date, 5*12)

Examples:

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,hiredate)

VALUES(5001,'A',sysdate);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 157

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,hiredate)
VALUES(5002,'B',sysdate-1);

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,hiredate)

VALUES(5003,'C',Add_Months(sysdate,-1));

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,hiredate)

VALUES(5004,'D',Add_Months(sysdate,-12));

COMMIT;

Display the emp records who joined today:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE hiredate = sysdate;
12-JUL-24 8.12 = 12-JUL-24 8.15 FALSE

Output:
no rows selected.

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE TRUNC(hiredate) = TRUNC(sysdate);
TRUNC('12-JUL-24 8.12') TRUNC('12-JUL-24 8.21')
12-JUL-24 = 12-JUL-24 TRUE

Output:
displays emp records who joined today

NOTE:
TRUNC() function can be used to remove time from date and time.

SQL> SELECT TRUNC(systimestamp) FROM dual;

TRUNC(SYS
---------
12-JUL-24

Display the emp records who joined yesterday:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE TRUNC(hiredate) = TRUNC(sysdate-1);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 158

Display the emp records who joined 1 month ago:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE TRUNC(hiredate) = TRUNC(Add_Months(sysdate,-1));

Display the emp records who joined 1 year ago:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
WHERE TRUNC(hiredate) = TRUNC(Add_Months(sysdate,-12));

Assignment:

GOLDRATES
dateid price find today's goldrate:
1-JAN-2020 45000
2-JAN-2020 48000 WHERE trunc(dateid) = trunc(sysdate)

..
find yesterday's goldrate:
..
12-JUL-24 68000 find 1 month ago goldrate:

find 1 year ago goldrate:

SALES
DATEID AMOUNT find today's sales
1-JAN-2020 90000
2-JAN-2020 85000 find yesterday sales
..
find 1 month ago sales
..
12-JUL-24 95000 find 1 year ago sales

Months_Between():
• It is used to find difference between 2 dates.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 159

 Syntax:
Months_Between(<date1>, <date2>)

Example:
Months_Between('12-JUL-24', '12-JUL-23') 12 [months]
Months_Between('12-JUL-24', '12-JUL-23')/12 1 [year]

Display emp names, hiredates and experience:

SELECT ename, hiredate,

TRUNC(Months_Between(sysdate, hiredate)/12) AS experience
FROM emp;

(or)

SELECT ename, hiredate,

TRUNC((sysdate-hiredate)/365) AS experience
FROM emp;

Display empnames, hiredates and experience.

display experience in the form of years and months:

15 months
30 months

years months
TRUNC(15/12) = 1 Mod(15,12) = 3
TRUNC(30/12) = 2 Mod(30,12) = 6

SELECT ename, hiredate,

TRUNC(months_between(sysdate,hiredate)/12) AS years,
Mod(TRUNC(months_between(sysdate,hiredate)), 12) AS months
FROM emp;

Assignment:
Find age of SACHIN if DOB is: 24-APR-1973

TRUNC(Months_Between(sysdate, '24-APR-1973')/12)

Last_day():
it is used to get last date in the month.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 160

 • it is used to get last date in the month.

Syntax:
Last_day(<Date>)

Examples:
Last_day(sysdate) 31-JUL-24
Last_day('17-FEB-2024') 29-FEB-24
Last_day('17-FEB-2023') 28-FEB-23

Find next month first date:

SELECT last_day(sysdate)+1 FROM dual;

31-JUL-24 + 1

1-AUG-24

Find current month first date:

SELECT Last_day(Add_Months(sysdate,-1))+1 FROM dual;

Last_day(12-JUN-24) => 30-JUN-24 + 1

1-JUL-24

Next_Day():
• it is used to find next date based on weekday.
• For example, to find next Sunday date we use it.

Syntax:
Next_day(<date>, <weekday_name>)

Examples:

Find next Sunday date:

SELECT next_Day(sysdate, 'sun') FROM dual;

Find next Friday date:

SELECT next_Day(sysdate, 'fri') FROM dual;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 161

 Find next month first Sunday date:

SELECT Next_day(last_day(sysdate), 'sun')

FROM dual;

Find current month last Sunday date:

SELECT Next_day(last_day(sysdate)-7, 'sun')

FROM dual;

Analytic Functions / Window Functions:

Rank()
Dense_Rank()
Row_Number()

Rank() & Dense_Rank():

MARKS ORDER BY marks DESC

--------------
670
950 MARKS RANK DENSE_RANK
730 950 1 1
840 950 1 1
950 840 3 2
840
840 3 2
500
730 5 3
730
400 730 5 3
730 730 5 3
670 8 4
500 9 5
400 10 6

Rank():
• It is used to apply ranks to records according to
specific column order.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 162

 specific column order.

Syntax:
Rank() OVER([PARTITION BY <column>]
ORDER BY <column> ASC/DESC)

Dense_Rank():
• It is used to apply ranks to records according to
specific column order.

Syntax:
Dense_Rank() OVER([PARTITION BY <column>]
ORDER BY <column> ASC/DESC)

Examples on Rank() and Dense_Rank():

Display all emp names and salaries.

Apply ranks to the records according to salary.
give top rank to highest salary [apply ranks to records
according to salary descending order]:

SELECT ename, sal,

Rank() OVER(ORDER BY sal DESC) AS rank
FROM emp;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal,

Dense_Rank() OVER(ORDER BY sal DESC) AS rank
FROM emp;

Display all emp names and hiredates.

Apply ranks to the records according to seniority.
Give top rank to most senior.

ORDER BY hiredate ASC

17-DEC-1982 15-AUG-1980 min date => max experience

15-AUG-1980 27-OCT-1981
27-OCT-1981 17-DEC-1982

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 163

 SELECT ename, hiredate,
dense_rank() over(ORDER BY hiredate ASC) AS rank
FROM emp;

Display all emp records.

apply ranks to records according to salary descending order.
IF salary is same don't apply same rank. apply rank
according to seniority:

5000 18-AUG-1990 1
3000 25-DEC-1981 2
3000 23-OCT-1982 3

SELECT ename, hiredate,

dense_rank() over(ORDER BY sal DESC, hiredate ASC) AS rank
FROM emp;

Apply ranks to emp records according to salary

descending order with in dept:

DEPTNO SAL DEPTNO SAL

10 8000 10 10000 1
10 10000 10 9000 2
3
10 9000 10 8000
20 15000
20 5000 1
20 15000
20 7000 2
20 7000
30 20000 3
20 5000
30 10000
30 18000 30 20000 1
30 18000 2
3
30 10000

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 164

 break on deptno skip 1 duplicates

SELECT ename, deptno, sal,

dense_rank() over(PARTITION BY deptno ORDER BY sal DESC) AS rank
FROM emp;

clear breaks

PARTITION BY clause:
• it is used to group the records according to specific column

ORDER BY clause:
• it is used to arrange the records in ascending or descending order
according to specific column

Display all emp records. apply ranks to records according to

seniority with in dept:

SELECT ename, deptno, hiredate,

dense_rank() over(partition by deptno order by hiredate asc) as rank
FROM emp;

Display all emp records. apply ranks to records according to

salary descending order with in job:

SELECT ename, job, sal,

dense_rank() over(partition by job order by sal desc) AS rank
FROM emp;

Row_Number():
• it is used to apply row numbers to records

Syntax:
Row_Number(PARTITION BY <column>
ORDER BY <column> ASC/DESC)

Examples:

Display all emp records. apply row numbers

according to empno ascending order:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 165

 SELECT row_number() OVER(ORDER BY empno ASC) AS sno,
empno, ename, sal
FROM emp;

Apply row numbers with in deptno according to salary desc:

SELECT row_number() over(partition by deptno order by sal desc as sno,

ename, deptno, sal
FROM emp;

Special Functions:

NVL()
NVL2()

Greatest()
Least()

Decode()

User
Uid

NVL():
• It is used to replace the nulls.
• If first argument is not null, it returns first argument.
• If first argument is null, it returns 2nd argument.

Syntax:
NVL(<arg1>, <arg2>)

Examples:
NVL(100,200) 100
NVL(null,200) 200

Examples on NVL():

Calculate Total salary of all emps [sal+comm]:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 166

 SELECT ename, sal, comm,
sal+NVL(comm,0) AS "Total Salary"
FROM emp;

Display all emp records along with commission.

If commission is null, replace it with N/A:

SELECT ename, sal, NVL(to_char(comm), 'N/A') AS comm

FROM emp;

Assignment:

STUDENT
SID SNAME M1
1001 A 60
1002 B
1003 C 75
1004 D

Displa all students records. if m1 marks are null, replace

it with ABSENT

NVL(to_char(m1), 'ABSENT')

NVL2():
• It is used to replace nulls and not nulls.
• If arg1 is not null, it returns arg2
• If arg1 is null, it returns arg3

Syntax:
NVL2(<Arg1>, <arg2>, <arg3>)

Examples:
NVL2(100, 200, 300) 200
NVL2(null, 200, 300) 300

Example on NVL2():

Set all emps commission as following:

if emp is getting commission then increase 1000 rupees commission

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 167

if emp is getting commission then increase 1000 rupees commission
if emp is not getting comm then set comm as 900

UPDATE emp
SET comm=NVL2(comm, comm+1000, 900);

Differences b/w NVL() and NVL2():

NVL() • is used to replace the nulls.

• it can take 2 arguments.

NVL2() • is used to replace nulls and not nulls.

• it can take 3 arguments.

Greatest():
• It is to find max value in horizontal values.

Syntax:
Greatest(<value1>, <v2>, <v3>, …….. , <value_n>)

Examples:
Greatest(10,20,30) 30
Greatest(6,5,8,7,3,2,4) 8

Find max value in each row:

SELECT greatest(f1, f2, f3) AS max_value

FROM t1;

T1
greatest(f1, f2, f3)
F1 F2 F3
------------------------------
45 78 60 greatest(45, 78, 60) => 78
74 32 81 greatest(74, 32, 81) => 81
30 55 77 greatest(30, 55, 77) => 77

Find max value in f3 column:

SELECT max(f3) FROM t1; --81

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 168
 SELECT max(f3) FROM t1; --81

F3
60 max(f3)
81
77

Greatest() • it is used to find max value in horizontal values

• it is single row function
• it can take variable length arguments

Max() • it is used to find max value in vertical values

• it is multi row function
• it can take 1 argument

Least():
• it is used to find minimum value in horizontal values.
• single row function
• it can take variable length arguments

Min():
• it is used to find minimum value in vertical values.
• multi row function.
• it can take 1 argument

User:
• it returns current user name

show user
Uid:
(or)
• it returns current user id
select user from dual;

Example:
SELECT user, uid FROM dual;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 169

Decode():
• It is used to implement "IF .. THEN" in SQL.
• It can check equality condition only.

Syntax:
Decode(<column>,
<value1>, <expression1>,
<value2>, <expression2>,
.
.
[else_epression>)

Example on Decode():

Display all emp records along with job titles

as following:
PRESIDENT => BIG BOSS
MANAGER => BOSS
Others => EMPLOYEE

SELECT ename,
decode(job,
'PRESIDENT', 'BIG BOSS',
'MANAGER', 'BOSS',
'EMPLOYEE') AS job,
sal
FROM emp;

Increase salary of emps as following:

if deptno 10, increse 10% on sal
if deptno 20, increase 20% on sal
others, increase 15% on sal

UPDATE emp
SET sal=decode(deptno,
10, sal+sal*0.1,
20, sal+sal*0.2,
sal+sal*0.15);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 170

CLAUSES
Tuesday, July 16, 2024 8:05 AM

Clauses of SELECT command:

• Clause is a part of query.

• Every query is made up of with clauses.
• Every clause has specific purpose.

SQL ENGLISH
QUERIES SENTENCES
CLAUSES WORDS

Syntax of SELECT command:

SELECT [ALL/DISTINCT] <columns_list>

FROM <tables_list>
WHERE <condition>
GROUP BY <grouping_columns_list>
HAVING <group_condition>
ORDER BY <column> ASC/DESC, <column> ASC/DESC, ..
OFFSET <number> ROW/ROWS
FETCH FIRST/NEXT <number> ROW/ROWS ONLY;

SELECT command clauses are:

• SELECT
• FROM
• WHERE
• ORDER BY
• GROUP BY
• HAVING
• OFFSET
• FETCH
• DISTINCT

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 171

SELECT:
• it is used to specify columns list

Syntax:
SELECT <columns_list>

Examples:
SELECT ename, sal
SELECT *

* All columns

FROM:
• It is used to specify tables list
• it selects entire table

Syntax:
FROM <tables_list>

Examples:
FROM emp
FROM emp, dept

WHERE:
• it is used to specify filter condition
• it filters the rows

Syntax:
WHERE <condition>

Examples:
WHERE job='MANAGER'
WHERE deptno=30

Display the emp names and salaries whose salary is

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 172

Display the emp names and salaries whose salary is
more than 3000:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>3000;

EMP
EMPNO ENAME SAL
1234 A 7000
1235 B 2500
1236 C 5000
1237 D 2000

FROM emp:
it selects entire emp table

EMP
EMPNO ENAME SAL
1234 A 7000
1235 B 2500
1236 C 5000
1237 D 2000

WHERE sal>3000:
○ it filters the rows
○ WHERE condition will be applied on every row

EMP WHERE sal>3000

EMPNO ENAME SAL ----------------------------
1234 A 7000 7000>3000 T
1235 B 2500 2500>3000 F
5000>3000 T
1236 C 5000
2000>3000 F
1237 D 2000

EMPNO ENAME SAL

1234 A 7000
1236 C 5000
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 173
 1236 C 5000

SELECT ename, sal:

• it selects specified columns

ENAME SAL
A 7000
C 5000

ORDER BY:
• It is used to arrange the records in ascending or descending
order according to specific column(s).
• Default order is: ASC

Syntax:
ORDER BY <column> ASC/DESC, <column> ASC/DESC, ….

Example:

NUMBER CHAR DATE

ASC DESC ASC DESC ASC DESC

1 10
A Z 1-JAN-23 31-DEC-24
2 9
B Y 2-JAN-23 30-DEC_24
3 8
. . . .
. .
. . . .
. .
Z A 31-DEC-23 1-JAN-24
10 1
1-JAN-24 31-DEC-23
. .
. .
31-DEC-24 1-JAN-23

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 174

Examples on ORDER BY:

Display all emp names and salaries.

Arrange emp names in Alphabetical order:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY ename ASC;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY ename;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

ename 1
FROM emp
sal 2
ORDER BY 1 ASC;

(or)

SELECT *
FROM emp
ORDER BY 2 ASC;

* empno, ename, job, mgr, hiredate, sal, comm, deptno

Display all emp names and salaries.

arrange salaries in descending order:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY sal DESC;
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 175
 ORDER BY sal DESC;

(or)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY 2 DESC;

Display all emp records.

Arrange them in ascending order according to empno:

SELECT *
FROM emp
ORDER BY empno ASC;

Display all emp records.

Arrange them in ascending order according to deptno:

break on deptno skip 1 duplicates

SELECT ename, sal, deptno

FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno ASC;

clear breaks

Display all emp records according to seniority:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
ORDER BY hiredate ASC;

min date => max experience

Arranging records in order according to multiple columns:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 176

Display all emp records.
Arrange them in ascending order according to deptno.
Within the dept arrange salaries in descending order:

SELECT ename, deptno, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno ASC, sal DESC;

ORDER BY deptno ASC, sal DESC

if deptno is different, it will not check salary.

if deptno is same, then only it checks with salary.

CASE-1: deptno is different

20 10
10 20

CASE-1: deptno is same

10 4000 10 6000
10 6000 10 4000

Display all emp records.

Arrange them according to seniority with in dept:

SELECT ename, deptno, hiredate

FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno ASC, hiredate ASC;

Display all emp records.

Arrange them in ascending order according to deptno.
Within dept arrange salaries in descending order.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 177

Within dept arrange salaries in descending order.
If salary is same arrange them according to seniority:

SELECT ename, deptno, sal, hiredate

FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno ASC, sal DESC, hiredate ASC;

Note:
In ASCENDING ORDER, nulls will be displayed last.
In DESCENDING ORDER, nulls will be displayed first.

Display all emp records. Arrange them in descending

order according to salary. Display nulls last:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY sal DESC NULLS LAST;

Display all emp records. Arrange them in ascending

order according to salary. Display nulls first:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY sal ASC NULLS FIRST;

GROUP BY:
• It is used to group the records according to specific
column(s).
• On these groups we can apply aggregate functions.
• It gives summarized data from detailed data.
• It can be used for data analysis.

Syntax:
GROUP BY <columns_list>

Example:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 178

 Example:
GROUP BY deptno => 10 group, 20 group
GROUP BY job => MANAGER group, CLERK group

GROUP BY deptno
EMP => detailed data summarized data
EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO SAL deptno sum_of_Sal
1001 A 30 10000 10 30000
1002 B 30 5000 20 20000
1003 C 10 20000 30 15000
1004 D 10 10000
1005 E 20 12000
1006 F 20 8000

Examples on GROUP BY:

Find dept wise sum of salaries:

DEPTNO SUM_OF_SAL
10 ?
20 ?
30 ?

SELECT deptno, sum(sal) AS sum_of_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
ORDER BY 1;

Find dept wise no of emps:

DEPTNO NO_OF_EMPS
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 179
DEPTNO NO_OF_EMPS
10 ?
20 ?
30 ?

SELECT deptno, count(*) AS no_of_emps

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
ORDER BY 1;

Find dept wise max salary and min salary:

DEPTNO MAX_SAL MIN_SAL

10 ? ?
20 ? ?
30 ? ?

SELECT deptno, max(sal) AS max_sal, min(sal) AS min_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
ORDER BY 1;

Find dept wise avrg salary:

DEPTNO AVG_SAL
10 ?
20 ?

SELECT deptno, avg(sal) AS avg_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
ORDER By 1;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 180

Find year wise no of emps joined in organization:

YEAR NO_OF_EMPS
1980 ?
1981 ?
1982 ?

SELECT to_char(hiredate, 'YYYY') AS year,

count(*) AS no_of_emps
FROM emp
GROUP BY to_char(hiredate, 'YYYY')
ORDER BY 1;

Find quarter wise no of emps joined in

organization:

QUARTER NO_OF_EMPS
1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?

SELECT to_char(hiredate,'Q') AS quarter,

count(*) AS no_of_emps
FROM emp
GROUP BY to_char(hiredate,'Q')
ORDER BY 1;

Assignment:
Find week day wise no of emps joined in org

WEEKDAY NO_OF_EMPS
1 ?
2 ?
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 181
 2 ?
3 ?

Find job wise sum of salaries:

JOB SUM_OF_SAL
MANAGER ?
CLERK ?
SALESMAN ?

SELECT job, sum(Sal) AS sum_of_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY job;

Assignment:
Find job wise no of emps
JOB NO_OF_EMPS
CLERK ?
MANAGER ?

Find job wise max sal and min sal:

JOB MAX_SAL MIN_SAL
CLERK ? ?
SALESMAN ? ?

Find job wise avrg sal

JOB AVG_SAL
CLERK ?
SALESMAN ?

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 182

PERSON
PID PNAME STATE GENDER AADHAR
TG M
TG F
TG F
TG M
AP F
AP F
AP M
AP M

Find state wise population:

state population
TG ?
AP ?

SELECT state, count(*) AS population

FROM person
GROUP BY state
ORDER BY state;

Find gender wise population:

gender population
M ?
F ?

SELECT gender, count(*) AS population

FROM person
GROUP BY gender;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 183

Grouping records according to multiple columns:

Find dept wise, job wise sum of salaries:

DEPTNO JOB SUM_OF_SAL

10 CLERK ?
10 MANAGER ?
20 CLERK ?
20 MANAGER ?

SELECT deptno, job, sum(sal) AS sum_of_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno, job
ORDER BY 1;

ROLLUP() and CUBE():

These are used to calculate sub totals and grand total.

Rollup():
It calculates sub totals and grand total according to
first column in GROUP BY columns list

Syntax:
GROUP BY ROLLUP(<grouping_columns_list>)

Example:
GROUP BY Rollup(deptno, job)

it calculates sub totals and grand total according to deptno

Cube():
It calculates sub totals and grand total according to
all columns in GROUP BY columns list

Syntax:
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 184
 Syntax:
GROUP BY CUBE(<grouping_columns_list>)

Example:
GROUP BY Cube(deptno, job)

Example on ROLLUP() and CUBE():

Find dept wise, job wise sum of salaries.

Find sub totals and grand total according to deptno
[Rollup()]:

DEPTNO JOB SUM_OF_SAL

10 CLERK ?
MANAGER ?
10th dept sub total ?
20 CLERK ?
MANAGER ?
20th dept sub total ?
GRAND TOTAL ?

SELECT deptno, job, sum(Sal) AS sum_of_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY Rollup(deptno, job)
ORDER BY 1;

Find dept wise, job wise sum of salaries.

Find sub totals and grand total according to deptno and job
[Cube()]:

DEPTNO JOB SUM_OF_SAL

10 CLERK ?
MANAGER ?
10th dept sub total ?
20 CLERK ?
MANAGER ?

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 185

 MANAGER ?
20th dept sub total ?
CLERK sub total ?
MANAGER sub total ?
GRAND TOTAL ?

SELECT deptno, job, sum(Sal) AS sum_of_sal

FROM emp
GROUP BY Cube(deptno, job)
ORDER BY 1;

Find year wise, quarter wise no of emps joined in

organization:

YEAR QUARTER NO_OF_EMPS

1980 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
1981 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?

SELECT to_char(hiredate,'YYYY') AS year,

to_char(hiredate, 'Q') AS quarter,
count(*) AS no_of_emps
FROM emp
GROUP BY to_char(hiredate,'YYYY'), to_char(hiredate, 'Q')
ORDER BY 1;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 186

Find year wise, quarter wise no of emps joined in organization.
Calculate sub totals and gran total according to year [Rollup()]

YEAR QUARTER NO_OF_EMPS

1980 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
1980 sub total ?
1981 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
1981 sub total ?
Grand total ?

SELECT to_char(hiredate,'YYYY') AS year,

to_char(hiredate, 'Q') AS quarter,
count(*) AS no_of_emps
FROM emp
GROUP BY Rollup(to_char(hiredate,'YYYY'), to_char(hiredate, 'Q'))
ORDER BY 1;

Find year wise, quarter wise no of emps joined in organization.

Calculate sub totals and gran total according to year and quarter
[Cube()]

YEAR QUARTER NO_OF_EMPS

1980 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
1980 sub total ?
1981 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 187
 4 ?
1981 sub total ?
1st quarter sub total ?
2nd quarter sub total ?
3rd quarter sub total ?
4th quarter sub total ?
Grand total ?

SELECT to_char(hiredate,'YYYY') AS year,

to_char(hiredate, 'Q') AS quarter,
count(*) AS no_of_emps
FROM emp
GROUP BY Cube(to_char(hiredate,'YYYY'), to_char(hiredate, 'Q'))
ORDER BY 1;

Assignment:

SALES
DATEID AMOUNT
1-JAN-2022 80000
2-JAN-2022 70000
..
..
18-JUL-2024 90000

Find year wise, quarter wise sales

calculate sub totals and grand total according to year and quarter:

Sum (Amount)
GROUP BY CUBE(to_char(dateid, 'YYYY'), to_char(dateid, 'Q'))

YEAR QUARTER SALES

2022 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 188

 3 ?
4 ?
2022 sub total ?
2023 1 ?
2 ?
3 ?
4 ?
2023 sub total ?
1st quarter sub total ?
2nd sub total ?
3rd ?
4th ?
GRAND TOTAL ?

Assignment:

PERSON
PID PNAME STATE GENDER AADHAR
TG M
TG F
TG F
TG M
AP F
AP F
AP M
AP M

• Find state wise, gender wise population

GROUP BY state, gender

• Find state wise, gender wise population. calculate

state wise population [state wise sub total] and
gender wise population [gender wise sub total] and
INDIA population [grand total]:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 189

GROUP BY Cube(state, gender)

WHERE <condition> => rows

HAVING <condition> => groups

HAVING:
• HAVING clause is used to write conditions on groups.
• It will be applied on result of GROUP BY.
• It cannot be used without GROUP BY.
• It filters the groups.

Syntax:
HAVING <group_condition>

Examples on HAVING:

Display the depts which are spending more than 10000

rupees amount on their emps:

SELECT deptno, sum(sal)

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING sum(sal)>10000;

Display the depts which are having 5 or more emps:

SELECT deptno, count(*)

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING count(*)>=5;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 190

 Differences b/w WHERE and HAVING:

WHERE HAVING

• it is used to write conditions • it is used to write conditions

on rows. on groups.

• it filters the rows. • it filters the groups.

• it can be used without • it cannot be used without

GROUP BY. GROUP BY.

• it gets executed before • it gets executed after

GROUP BY GROUP BY

• we cannot use aggregate • we can use aggregate

function in WHERE clause. function in HAVING clause

Execution Order [oracle 21c]:

FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
SELECT
DISTINCT
ORDER BY
OFFSET
FETCH

OFFSET:
• introduced in ORACLE 12C.
it is used to specify no of rows to be skipped.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 191

• it is used to specify no of rows to be skipped.

Syntax:
OFFSET <number> ROW/ROWS

FETCH:
• introduced in ORACLE 12C.
• it is used to specify no of rows to be fetched.

Syntax:
FETCH <FIRST/NEXT> <number> ROW/ROWS ONLY

Examples on OFFSET and FETCH:

Display all emp records except first 5 rows:

SELECT * FROM emp

OFFSET 5 ROWS;

Display first 5 rows only from emp table:

SELECT * FROM emp

FETCH FIRST 5 ROWS ONLY;

Display 6th row to 10th row:

SELECT * FROM emp

OFFSET 5 ROWS
FETCH NEXT 5 ROWS ONLY;

Display top 3 salaried emp records:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORDER BY sal DESC
FETCH FIRST 3 ROWS ONLY;

Display top 3 seniors records:

SELECT ename, hiredate

FROM emp
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 192
 FROM emp
ORDER BY hiredate ASC
FETCH FIRST 3 ROWS ONLY;

DISTINCT:
• it is used to eliminate duplicate records.

Syntax:
SELECT ALL/DISTINCT <columns_list>

Examples on DISTINCT:

Display the job titles offered by company:

SELECT job FROM emp;

(or)
SELECT ALL job FROM emp; SELECT DISTINCT job FROM emp;

JOB JOB
-------- -----------
CLERK CLERK
SALESMAN SALESMAN
MANAGER MANAGER
SALESMAN
MANAGER
CLERK
CLERK
MANAGER
MANAGER
SALESMAN

Display the depts which are having emps:

SELECT deptno FROM emp;

(or)
SELECT ALL deptno FROM emp;
SELECT DISTINCT deptno FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno;
DEPTNO

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 193

 SELECT ALL deptno FROM emp;
SELECT DISTINCT deptno FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno;
DEPTNO
-------------
DEPTNO
20
------------
30
10
30
20
10
30
20
10
10
20
30

Display dept wise job titles offered by company:

break on deptno skip 1 duplicates

SELECT DISTINCT deptno, job

FROM emp
ORDER BY deptno;

Execution Order of clauses of SELECT command:

FROM to specify table names FROM emp

FROM emp, dept

WHERE to specify filter condition WHERE sal>3000

it filters the rows WHERE job='MANAGER'
it will be applied on every row

GROUP BY used to group the records GROUP BY deptno

according to specific column(s) GROUP BY job
GROUP BY deptno, job

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 194

HAVING used to write conditions on groups HAVING sum(sal)>10000
HAVING count(*)>=5

SELECT used to specify columns list SELECT ename, sal

SELECT *

DISTINCT it eliminates the duplicates SELECT DISTINCT job

ORDER BY it is used to arrange the records in ORDER BY sal DESC

ASC or DESC order ORDER BY ename ASC

OFFSET used to skip the rows OFFSET 5 ROWS

FETCH used to fetch the rows FETCH FIRST 5 ROWS ONLY

Can we use column alias in GROUP BY?

NO. Because, GROUP BY gets executed before SELECT.
But, from ORACLE 23ai, we can use column alias in GROUP BY.

Can we use column alias in ORDER BY?

YES. Because, ORDER By gets executed after SELECT.

YEAR NO_OF_EMPS
1980 ?
1981 ?

SELECT to_char(hiredate,'YYYY') AS year, count(*) AS no_of_emps

FROM emp
GROUP BY year
ORDER BY year;

Output:
ERROR: YEAR invalid IDENTIFIER

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 195

Execution Order [oracle 21c]:

FROM
WHERE Till oracle 21c,
GROUP BY we cannot use column alias in GROUP BY,
HAVING HAVING and WHERE.
SELECT
DISTINCT In oracle 23AI,
ORDER BY we can use column alias in
OFFSET GROUP BY and HAVING
FETCH

NOTE:
• When we use group function, SELECT clause
allows either GROUP BY column or GROUP
FUNCTION.

• When we use GROUP BY, SELECT clause

allows either GROUP BY column or GROUP
FUNCTION.

SELECT ename, max(sal) FROM emp;

Output:
ERROR

SELECT min(sal), max(sal) FROM emp;

--finds max sal and min sal

SELECT deptno, ename FROM emp

GROUP BY deptno;
Output:
ERROR

10
20
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 196
20
30

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 197

JOINS
Saturday, July 20, 2024 7:43 AM

JOINS:
GOAL:
• It is used to retrieve the data from multiple tables

COLLEGE DB

COURSE
STUDENT
MARKS
FEE

S.SID = M.SID

STUDENT S MARKS M
SID SNAME SID Maths Phy Che
1001 A 1001 70 50 60
1002 B 1002 55 44 81
1003 C 1003 39 50 47
1004 D
JOINS

SID SNAME MATHS

STUDENT MARKS

SORTING operation => arranging in ASC or DESC

FILTERING operation => filters the rows => sal>3000
JOIN operation => one table row combines [joins] with
another table row

JOINS:
• JOIN => combine / connect / link

• JOIN is an operation.

• In Join operation, one table record will be

combined [joined] with another table record
based on some condition. This condition is called
"Join Condition". This operation is called Join
operation

• JOIN CONDITION decides which record in one

table should be joined with which record in
another table.

• JOINS concept is used to retrieve the data from

multiple tables.

Types of Joins:

• Inner Join => matched records only

○ Equi Join
Non-Equi Join

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 198

 ○ Non-Equi Join
• Outer Join => matched + unmatched
○ Left Outer Join
○ Right Outer Join
○ Full Outer Join
• Self Join
• Cross Join / cartesian Join

Inner Join:
• Inner Join can give matched records only.
• It has 2 sub types. they are:
○ Equi Join
○ Non-Equi Join

Equi Join:
• If Join Operation is performed based on
equality condition then it is called "Equi Join".

Examples on Equi Join:

Display student details along with maths subject

marks:
SID SNAME MATHS
student.sid = marks.sid
STUDENT S MARKS M
SID SNAME SID Maths Phy Che
1001 A 1001 70 50 60
1002 B 1002 55 44 81
1003 C 1003 39 50 47
1004 D

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10)
);

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1001,'A');

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1002,'B');
INSERT INTO student VALUES(1003,'C');
INSERT INTO student VALUES(1004,'D');
COMMIT;

CREATE TABLE marks

(
sid NUMBER(4),
maths NUMBER(3),
phy NUMBER(3),
che NUMBER(3)
);

1001 70 50 60
1002 55 44 81
1003 39 50 47

INSERT INTO marks VALUES(1001,70,50,60);

INSERT INTO marks VALUES(1002,55,44,81);
INSERT INTO marks VALUES(1003,39,50,47);
COMMIT;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 199

 SID SNAME MATHS
STUDENT MARKS

SELECT student.sid, sname, maths

FROM student, marks
WHERE student.sid = marks.sid;

SELECT s.sid, sname, maths

FROM student s, marks m
WHERE s.sid = m.sid;

Above query degrades the performance

SELECT s.sid, s.sname, m.maths

FROM student s, marks m
WHERE s.sid = m.sid;

Note:
From ORACLE 9i version onwards, we can write
JOIN QUERY in 2 styles. They are:
• ORACLE STYLE / NATIVE STYLE
• ANSI STYLE => best way [portable]

ORACLE SQL SERVER

JOIN QUERY PORTABLE JOIN QUERY

ANSI STYLE ANSI STYLE

we can run

SID SNAME MATHS

STUDENT s MARKS m

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT s.sid, s.sname, m.maths

FROM student s, marks m
WHERE s.sid=m.sid;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT s.sid, s.sname, m.maths

FROM student s INNER JOIN marks m
ON s.sid=m.sid;

e.deptno = d.deptno

EMP e DEPT d
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
7369 SMITH 800 20 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 200

EMP e DEPT d
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
7369 SMITH 800 20 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK
7499 ALLEN 1600 30 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7521 WARD 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7566 JONES 2975 20 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
7782 CLARK 2450 10
7934 MILLER 1300 10
1001 A 1800
1002 B 2000

Display emp details along with dept details:

ENAME SAL DNAME LOC
EMP e DEPT d

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno;

Display the emp records who are working in NEW YOEK

ename sal dname loc
NEW YORK
EMP e DEPT d

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno AND d.loc='NEW YORK';

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno
WHERE d.loc='NEW YORK';

NOTE:
• ON clause is used to specify JOIN CONDITION.
• WHERE clause is used to specify FILTER CONDITION.

• First, filter operation will be performed.. Then Join

operation will be performed.

e.deptno = d.deptno
EMP e DEPT d
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
7369 SMITH 800 20 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK
7499 ALLEN 1600 30 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7521 WARD 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7566 JONES 2975 20 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 201

 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK
7499 ALLEN 1600 30 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7521 WARD 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7566 JONES 2975 20 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
7782 CLARK 2450 10
7934 MILLER 1300 10
1001 A 1800
1002 B 2000

Note:
to see execution plan write following command:

SQL> SET AUTOTRACE ON EXPAIN

SQL> SET PAGES 200

Display ALLEN record with dept details:

ENAME DNAME LOC
ALLEN
EMP e DEPT d

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno AND e.ename='ALLEN';

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno
WHERE e.ename='ALLEN';
e,deptno=d.deptno
EMP e DEPT d
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
7369 SMITH 800 20 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK
7499 ALLEN 1600 30 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7521 WARD 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7566 JONES 2975 20 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
7782 CLARK 2450 10
7934 MILLER 1300 10
1001 A 1800

Display the emp records who are working in SALES dept:

ENAME DNAME
EMP e DEPT d

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, d.dname

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno AND d.dname='SALES';

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 202

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, d.dname

FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno
WHERE d.dname='SALES';

Example on retrieving data from 4 tables:

e.deptno=d.deptno d.locid=l.locid l.cid=c.cid

EMP1 E DEPT1 D LOCATION1 L COUNTRY1 C

EMPNO DEPTNO LOCID CID

ENAME DNAME LNAME CNAME
DEPTNO LOCID CID

ENAME DNAME LNAME CNAME

EMP1 E DEPT1 D LOCATION1 L COUNTRY1 C

create table emp1

(
empno number(4),
ename varchar2(10),
deptno number(2)
);

insert into emp1 values(1001,'A',10);

create table dept1

(
deptno number(2),
dname varchar2(10),
locid number(5)
);

insert into dept1 values(10,'SALES',12345);

create table location1

(
locid number(5),
lname varchar2(10),
cid number(3)
);

insert into location1 values(12345,'HYD',100);

create table country1

(
cid number(4),
cname varchar2(10)
);

insert into country1 values(100,'INDIA');

commit;

ENAME DNAME LNAME CNAME

emp1 e dept1 d location1 l country1 c

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 203

emp1 e dept1 d location1 l country1 c

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, d.dname, l.lname, c.cname

FROM emp1 e, dept1 d, location1 l, country1 c
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno AND d.locid=l.locid
AND l.cid=c.cid;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, d.dname, l.lname, c.cname

FROM emp1 e INNER JOIN dept1 d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno INNER JOIN location1 l
ON d.locid=l.locid INNER JOIN country1 c
ON l.cid=c.cid;

Inner Join:
• Inner Join = matched records only
• Inner Join can give matched records only.

Outer Join:
• Outer Join = matched + unmatched records
• Inner Join can give matched records only. To get
unmatched records also we use OUTER JOIN

It has 3 sub types. They are:

• Left Outer Join
• Right Outer Join
• Full Outer Join

Note:
• In ORACLE STYLE, based on join condition we can decide
left table and right table.
• LHS table => left table
• RHS table => right table

Examples:
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno

e emp left table

d dept right table

Examples:
WHERE d.deptno = e.deptno

d dept left table

e emp right table

In ANSI STYLE, based on keyword we can decide left table and

right table.

Example:
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d

e emp left table

d dept right table

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 204

 d dept right table

FROM dept d INNER JOIN emp e

d dept left table

e emp right table

Left Outer Join:

• Left Outer Join = matched + unmatched from left table

• left Outer Join can give matched records and unmatched

records from left table.

• Outer Join Operator symbol: (+)

• In ORACLE STYLE,
For Left Outer Join we write (+) symbol at right side.

• In ANSI STYLE,
For Left Outer Join use the keyword: LEFT [OUTER] JOIN

Example on Left Outer Join:

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,sal)

VALUES(1001,'A',6000);

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,sal)

VALUES(1002,'B',4000);

COMMIT;

Display the emp records along with dept details.

Also display the emps to whom dept is not assigned:
ENAME SAL DNAME LOC
EMP e DEPT d

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno(+);

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e LEFT OUTER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno;

Right outer join:

• Right Outer join = matched + unmatched from right table

• Right Outer join can give matched records and unmatched

records from right table.

• In ORACLE STYLE, we write (+) symbol at left side.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 205

 • In ANSI STYLE, use the keyword: RIGHT [OUTER] JOIN

Example on Right Outer Join:

Display emp details along with dept details.

Also display the depts which are not having emps:
ENAME SAL DNAME LOC

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno(+)=d.deptno;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e RIGHT OUTER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno;

Full Outer Join:

• Full Outer Join = matched + unmatched from left and right tables

• Full Outer Join can give matched records, unmatched records

A = {1,2,3,4,5}
from left and right tables.
B= {4,5,6,7,8}
A U B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}
• In Oracle style, we use UNION operator

In SQL:
• In ANSI style, we use keyword: FULL [OUTER] JOIN

Left Outer Join = matched + um from left

UNION
Example on Full Outer join:
Right Outer Join = matched + um from right

Display emp details along with dept details.

Also display the emps to whom dept is not assigned. Full Outer Join = matched + um from left + um from right
Also display the depts in which emps are not existed.
ENAME SAL DNAME LOC

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno(+)
UNION
SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc
FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno(+)=d.deptno;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e FULL OUTER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno;

Displaying Unmatched Records only:

Left Outer Join +Condition:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 206

Left Outer Join +Condition:
Left Outer Join + Condition = unmatched from left table

Example:
Display the emps to whom dept is not assigned.
ENAME SAL DNAME LOC
EMP e DEPT d

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno(+) AND d.dname IS null;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e LEFT JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno
WHERE d.dname IS null;

Right Outer Join + Condition:

• Right outer Join+condn = unmatched from right table

Example:
Display the depts which are not having emps.
ENAME SAL DNAME LOC

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno(+) = d.deptno AND e.ename IS null;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e RIGHT JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
WHERE e.ename IS null;

Full Outer Join + Conditions:

• Full Outer join + condns = um from left and right tables

Example:

Display the emp records to whom dept is not assigned.

Also display the depts in which emps are not existed:

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno=d.deptno(+) AND d.dname IS null
UNION
SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc
FROM emp e, dept d
WHERE e.deptno(+) = d.deptno AND e.ename IS null;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 207

 SELECT e.ename, e.sal, d.dname, d.loc
FROM emp e FULL JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno=d.deptno
WHERE d.dname IS null OR e.ename IS null;

Venn Diagrams of Joins:

Non-Equi Join:
• If Join Operation is performed based on other than
equality condition then it is called "Non-Equi Join".

Examples:
WHERE e.deptno>d.deptno
WHERE e.deptno<d.deptno
WHERE e.deptno!=d.deptno

Example on Non-Equi Join:

e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal

EMP e SALGRADE s
EMPNO ENAME SAL GRADE LOSAL HISAL
1001 A 1500 1 700 1200
1002 B 5000 2 1201 1400
1003 C 1300 3 1401 2000
1004 D 1000 4 2001 3000
1005 E 5 3001 9999

Display emp details with salary grades:

ENAME SAL GRADE
EMP e SALGRADE s

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, s.grade

FROM emp e, salgrade s
WHERE e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename, e.sal, s.grade

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 208

 SELECT e.ename, e.sal, s.grade
FROM emp e INNER JOIN salgrade s
ON e.sal BETWEEN s.losal AND s.hisal;

Self Join / Recursive Join:

• If a table is joined to itself then it is called "Self Join".

• In this, one table record will be joined with another

record in same table.

Example:
e.mgr = m.empno
EMP e EMP m
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL MGR EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL MGR
1001 A MANAGER 20000 1001 A MANAGER 20000
1002 B CLERK 8000 1001 1002 B CLERK 8000 1001
1003 C ANALYST 6000 1001 1003 C ANALYST 6000 1001
1004 D MANAGER 25000 1004 D MANAGER 25000
1005 E CLERK 9000 1004 1005 E CLERK 9000 1004

Display emp details along with managers details:

EMP_NAME EMP_SAL MGR_NAME MGR_SAL

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename AS emp_name, e.sal AS emp_sal,

m.ename AS mgr_name, m.sal AS mgr_sal
FROM emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr = m.empno;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename AS emp_name, e.sal AS emp_sal,

m.ename AS mgr_name, m.sal AS mgr_sal
FROM emp e INNER JOIN emp m
ON e.mgr = m.empno;

Display the emp records who are earning more than their
manager:
EMP_NAME EMP_SAL MGR_NAME MGR_SAL

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename AS emp_name, e.sal AS emp_sal,

m.ename AS mgr_name, m.sal AS mgr_Sal
FROM emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr=m.empno AND e.sal>m.sal;

ANSISTYLE:

SELECT e.ename AS emp_name, e.sal AS emp_sal,

m.ename AS mgr_name, m.sal AS mgr_Sal
FROM emp e INNER JOIN emp m
ON e.mgr=m.empno
WHERE e.sal>m.sal;

Display the emp records who are working under BLAKE:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 209

 Display the emp records who are working under BLAKE:
EMP_NAME MGR_NAME

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT e.ename AS emp_name, m.ename AS mgr_name

FROM emp e, emp m
WHERE e.mgr=m.empno AND m.ename='BLAKE';

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT e.ename AS emp_name, m.ename AS mgr_name

FROM emp e INNER JOIN emp m
ON e.mgr=m.empno
WHERE m.ename='BLAKE';

Example:
x.cid < y.cid
GROUPA x GROUPA y
CID CNAME CID CNAME
10 IND 10 IND
20 AUS 20 AUS
30 WIN 30 WIN

IND VS AUS
IND VS WIN
AUS VS WIN

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT x.cname || ' VS ' || y.cname

FROM groupa x, groupa y
WHERE x.cid<y.cid;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT x.cname || ' VS ' || y.cname

FROM groupa x INNER JOIN groupa y
ON x.cid<y.cid;

A B
A = {1,2,3} 1
4
B = {4,5}
AXB = ? 2
5
3

AXB = { (1,4)(1,5)
(2,4)(2,5)
(3,4)(3,5) }

Cross Join / Cartesian Join:

• In This, Each record in one table will be
paired with every record in another table.
• In this, don't write Join Condition.
• In ANSI STYLE use the keyword: CROSS JOIN

Example on cross join:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 210

Example on cross join:

GROUPA a GROUPB b
CID CNAME CID CNAME
10 IND 40 ENG
20 AUS 50 SL
30 WIN 60 NZ

IND VS ENG
IND VS SL
IND VS NZ
AUS VS ENG
AUS VS SL
AUS VS NZ
WIN VS ENG
WIND VS SL
WIN VS NZ

ORACLE STYLE:

SELECT a.cname || ' VS ' || b.cname

FROM groupA a, groupB b;

ANSI STYLE:

SELECT a.cname || ' VS ' || b.cname

FROM groupA a CROSS JOIN groupB b;

JOINS:
• JOIN is an operation.
• one table record will be joined with another table record based on join
condition.

• GOAL:
to retrieve data from multiple tables

Types Of Joins:

Inner Join matched records only

Equi based on = join operation will be performed
Non-Equi based on other than = join operation will
be performed
Outer Join matched + unmatched
Left outer matched + unmatched from left
Right outer matched + unmatched from right
Full outer matched + unmatched from left and right
Self a table will be joined to itself
Cross each record in one table will be joined
every record in another table

Natural Join:
Equi Join without duplicate columns

SELECT *
FROM emp e NATURAL JOIN dept d;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 211

Saturday, July 20, 2024 8:58 AM

EMP DEPT
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
7369 SMITH 800 20 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK
7499 ALLEN 1600 30 20 RESEARCH DALLAS
7521 WARD 1250 30 30 SALES CHICAGO
7566 JONES 2975 20 40 OPERATIONS BOSTON
7782 CLARK 2450 10
7934 MILLER 1300 10
1001 A 1800
1002 B 2000

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 212

Assignment
Thursday, July 25, 2024 8:07 AM

Assignment:

EMPLOYEE e PROJECT p
EMPID ENAME PID PID PNAME
1001 A 30 10 X
1002 B 30 20 Y
1003 C 10 30 Z
1004 D 10
1005 E
1006 F

Display emp details along with project details => [Equi Join]
empid ename pname

Display emp details along with project details

Also display the employees who are on bench [emps who are not
participating in any project development]=> [Left Outer Join]
empid ename pname

Display emp details along with project details

Also display the projects which are not assigned to any employee =>
[Right Outer Join]
empid ename pname

display the employees who are on bench

empid ename pname
Left outer join + condition

display the projects which are not assigned to any employee

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 213

display the projects which are not assigned to any employee
empid ename pname
Right outer join + condition

display the employees who are on bench.

display the projects which are not assigned to any employee
empid ename pname
full outer join + conditions

Display emp details along with project details.

also display the employees who are on bench.
also display the projects which are not assigned to any employee
empid ename pname
full outer join

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 214

SUB QUERIES
Thursday, July 25, 2024 8:13 AM

Sub Queries:

Syntax:

SELECT <columns_list>
FROM <tables_list>
WHERE <column> <operator> (<SELECT QUERY>);

Outer query / Inner query /

Main query / Sub query /
Parent query Child query

• A query which is written in another query is called

"Sub Query".
• Outside query is called "Outer query / main query /
parent query".
• Inside query is called "Inner query / sub query / child
query".
• When we don't know filter condition value to find it
we write SUB QUERY.
• First Inner query gets executed. Then outer query
gets executed. The result of inner query will
become input for outer query.
• Sub query must be written parenthesis.
• Sub query must be SELECT query only. It cannot be
INSERT / UPDATE / DELETE. Because, Sub query
has to find some value. Only SEELCT can find the
value.
• Outer query can be SELECT / UPDATE / DELETE /
INSERT.
• We can write 254 sub queries in WHERE clause.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 215

Types of Sub queries:

• Non-Correlated Sub Query Inner => Outer

○ Single Row Sub Query
○ Multi Row Sub Query
○ Inline View / Inline Sub Query
○ Scalar Sub query
• Correlated Sub Query Outer <=> Inner

Non-Correlated Sub Query:

• In Non-Correlated Sub query,
first inner query gets executed. Inner query
passes value to outer query. Then outer query
gets executed.

• It has sub types. They are:

○ Single Row Sub Query
○ Multi Row Sub Query
○ Inline View / Inline Sub Query
○ Scalar Sub query

Single row sub query:

if sub query returns 1 row then it is called "Single Row Sub
Query"

Examples on Single Row Sub Query:

Display the emp records who are earning more than BLAKE:

BLAKE 2850

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 216

 SELECT ename, sal
FROM emp
WHERE sal>(find BLAKE sal);

find BLAKE sal:

SELECT sal FROM emp
WHERE ename='BLAKE';

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>(SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE ename='BLAKE');

Display the emp records whose job title is same as BLAKE:

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job=(find BLAKE job);

find BLAKE job:

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE ename='BLAKE';

SELECT ename, job, sal

FROM emp
WHERE job=(SELECT job FROM emp WHERE ename='BLAKE');

Find 2nd max salary:

SELECT max(sal)
SAL
FROM emp
----------
WHERE sal<6000;
4000
3000
5000
4000
6000 max sal => 5000
3000
2000 2nd max sal
5000
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 217
 4000
6000 max sal => 5000
3000
2000 2nd max sal
5000
2000

SELECT max(sal)
FROM emp
WHERE sal<(find max sal);

find max sal:

SELECT max(Sal) FROM emp;

SELECT max(Sal)
FROM emp
WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM emp);

Find the emp name who is earning max salary:

SELECT ename FROM emp

WHERE sal=(find max sal);

SELECT ename FROM emp

WHERE sal=(SELECT max(sal) FROM emp);

Find the emp name who is earning 2nd max salary:

SELECT ename FROM emp

WHERE sal=(find 2nd max sal);

SELECT ename FROM emp

WHERE sal=(SELECT max(sal) FROM emp
WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM emp));

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 218

 Find 3rd max salary:

SELECT max(sal) FROM emp

WHERE sal<(find 2nd max sal);

3000
max sal => 4000
4000
3rd max sal
2500
2000

SAL
------- SELECT max(sal) FROM emp
3000 WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM emp
6000 WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM emp));
4000
5000
2500
2000

Display most senior record:

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE hiredate=(find most senior's hiredate);

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE hiredate=(SELECT min(hiredate) FROM emp);

Display junior record in all emps:

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE hiredate=(find most junior's hiredate);

SELECT * FROM emp

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 219
 SELECT * FROM emp
WHERE hiredate=(SELECT max(hiredate) FROM emp);

Display seniors of BLAKE:

SELECT ename, hiredate FROM emp

WHERE hiredate<(find BLAKE's hiredate);

SELECT ename, hiredate FROM emp

WHERE hiredate<(SELECT hiredate FROM emp
WHERE ename='BLAKE');

Display juniors of BLAKE:

SELECT ename, hiredate FROM emp

WHERE hiredate>(find BLAKE's hiredate);

SELECT ename, hiredate FROM emp

WHERE hiredate>(SELECT hiredate FROM emp
WHERE ename='BLAKE');

Find the deptno which is spending max amount on their emps:

SELECT deptno FROM emp

GROUP BY deptno
HAVING sum(sal)=(find max amount in all depts sum of salaries);

SELECT deptno FROM emp

GROUP BY deptno
HAVING sum(Sal)=(SELECT max(sum(Sal)) FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 220

Find the dept name which is spending max amount on their
emps:

SELECT dname FROM dept

WHERE deptno=(find deptno which is spending max amount);

SELECT dname FROM dept

WHERE deptno=(SELECT deptno FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING sum(sal)=(SELECT max(sum(sal)) FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno));

Assignment:
• Find the deptno which is having max no of emps
• Find the dept name which is having max no of emps

Multi Row Sub Query:

• If sub query returns multiple rows then it is called
"Multi Row Sub Query".

• For multi row sub query we use following

operators:
IN
ALL
ANY

Examples on Multi Row Sub Query:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 221

Display the emp records whose job title is same as
SMITH and BLAKE:

SMITH => CLERK

BLAKE => MANAGER

SELECT ename, job, sal FROM emp

WHERE job IN(find SMITH and BLAKE job titles);

find SMITH and BLAKE job titles:

SELECT job FROM emp

WHERE ename IN('SMITH', 'BLAKE');

SELECT ename,job,sal FROM emp

WHERE job IN(SELECT job FROM emp
WHERE ename IN('SMITH', 'BLAKE'));

Display the emp records who are earning more than

SMITH and BLAKE:

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>ALL(find SMITH and BLAKE sal);
sal>ALL(800,2850)

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>ALL(SELECT sal FROM emp
WHERE ename IN('SMITH', 'BLAKE'));

sal>ALL(800,2850) sal>800 AND sal>2850

if sal is > all list of values

then condn is TRUE

SAL sal>ALL(800,2850)
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 222
then condn is TRUE

SAL sal>ALL(800,2850)
----------
1500 1500 F
3000 3000 T
2500 2500 F
6000 6000 T

Display the emp records whose salary is more than

TURNER salary or BLAKE salary:
1500 2850

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>ANY(1500,2850);

sal>ANY(1500,2850) sal>1500 OR sal>2850

if sal is > any 1 of the values in list then

condn is TRUE

SAL sal>ANY(1500,2850) sal>ALL(1500,2850)

--------- 1800 T 1800 F
1800
1000 F 1000 F
1000
3000 3000 T 3000 T
2000 2000 T 2000 F
1200 1200 F 1200 F

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>ANY(Find TURNER and BLAKE sals);

SELECT ename, sal

FROM emp
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 223
FROM emp
WHERE sal>ANY(SELECT sal FROM emp
WHERE ename IN('TURNER', 'BLAKE'));

sal IN(2000,3000) sal=ANY(2000,3000) sal=2000 OR sal=3000

Inline View / Inline Sub Query: Execution Order:

• If sub query is written in FROM clause
then it is called "Inline View". FROM
• This sub query acts like table. WHERE
• To control the execution order of clauses GROUP BY
we need to write sub query in FROM HAVING
clause. SELECT
DISTINCT
Syntax: ORDER BY
OFFSET
SELECT <columns_list> FETCH
FROM (<Sub Query>)
WHERE <condition>;

Examples on Inline View:

Find 3rd max salary: Execution Order:

SELECT ename, sal, FROM

dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) AS rank WHERE
FROM emp GROUP BY
WHERE rank=3; HAVING
Output: SELECT
ERROR: RANK invalid identifier DISTINCT
ORDER BY
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 224
Output: SELECT
ERROR: RANK invalid identifier DISTINCT
ORDER BY
OFFSET
FETCH
SELECT DISTINCT sal
FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank=3;

Find 5th max sal:

SELECT DISTINCT sal

FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank=5;

Find 10th max sal:

SELECT DISTINCT sal

FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank=10;

Find nth max sal:

SELECT DISTINCT sal

FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank=&n;

Output:
enter .. n: 2
--displays 2nd max sal

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 225

 /
enter .. n:
--displays 5th max sal

Find top 3 salaries:

SELECT DISTINCT sal

FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank<=3;

Find top 5 salaries:

SELECT DISTINCT sal

FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank<=5;

Find top n salaries:

SELECT DISTINCT sal

FROM (SELECT ename, sal,
dense_rank() over(order by sal desc) as rank
FROM emp)
WHERE rank<=&n;

Pseudo Columns: PSEUDO => FALSE

ROWNUM
ROWID ROWNUM => pseudo column
ROW_NUMBER() => analytic function

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 226

 ROW_NUMBER() => analytic function

ROWNUM:
• It is a pseudo column.
• It is used to apply row numbers to records.
• Always row numbers will be applied on result
of SELECT query.

Examples on ROWNUM:

Display all emp names and salaries. apply row

numbers to them:

SELECT rownum, ename, sal

FROM emp;

Display the emp names and salaries whose

salary is 3000 or more. apply row numbers to
them:

SELECT rownum, ename, sal

FROM emp
WHERE sal>=3000;

Display all columns and rows from emp table.

apply row numbers to them:

SELECT rownum AS sno, e.* FROM emp e;

Display 3rd row from emp table:

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT rownum as rn, ename, sal
FROM emp)
WHERE rn=3;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 227

 * All columns of sub query

Display 1st row, 5th row and 11th row from emp table:

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT rownum as rn, ename, sal
FROM emp)
WHERE rn IN(1,5,11);

Display 6th row to 10th row from emp table:

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT rownum as rn, ename, sal FROM emp)
WHERE rn BETWEEN 6 AND 10;

Display even numbered rows:

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT rownum as rn, ename, sal FROM emp)
WHERE MOD(rn,2)=0;

Scalar Sub Query:

• If sub query is written in SELECT clause then it is called "Scalar Sub
Query".
• This sub query acts like column.

Syntax:
SELECT (<sub query>)
FROM <table_name>
WHERE <condition>;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 228

Examples on Scalar Sub Query:

Find no of records in emp and dept tables:

SELECT (SELECT count(*) FROM emp) AS emp,

(SELECT count(*) FROM dept) AS dept
FROM dual;

Output:
EMP DEPT
-------- --------
14 4

Find each dept share in salaries:

DEPTNO SUM_OF_SAL TOTAL_AMOUNT PER

10 8750 29025 8750*100/29025 = 30.1464
20 10875 29025 10875*100/29025 = 37.4677
30 9400 29025 9400*100/29025 = 32.3859

SELECT deptno, sum(Sal) AS sum_of_sal,

(select sum(sal) from emp) AS total_amount,
TRUNC(sum(sal)*100/(select sum(sal) from emp),2) AS per
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
ORDER BY 1;

Non-Correlated Sub Query:

• In Non Correlated sub query, first inner query gets
executed. Then outer query gets executed.
• In this, Inner query gets executed only 1 time.

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 229

 Correlated Sub Query:
• In Correlated Sub Query, first outer query gets
executed. Then Inner query gets executed.
• In this, inner query gets executed for multiple times.

Execution process of Correlated Sub Query:

selects a row
1 3
2 passes value

Outer Inner
4 passes value

5 condn => T => selects the row

1. First, Outer query gets executed. It selects a row.

2. Outer query passes value to Inner query.
3. Inner query gets executed.
4. Inner query passes value to Outer query.
5. Outer query condition will be tested. If condition is TRUE,
it selects the row.

These 5 steps will be executed repeatedly for every row

selected by outer query

Example:

Display the emp records who are earning more than their dept's avrg
salary:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 230

salary:

SELECT ename, deptno, sal

FROM emp e
WHERE sal>(SELECT avg(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=e.deptno);

EMP e DEPTNO AVG_SAL

EMPID ENAME DEPTNO SAL 10 10000
1001 A 10 12000 20 15000
1002 B 10 8000
1003 C 20 10000 ENAME DEPTNO SAL
1004 D 20 20000 A 10 12000
D 20 20000

Display the emp records who are earning max salary in each dept:

WHERE sal = emp dept's max salary

SELECT ename, deptno, sal

FROM emp e
WHERE sal = (SELECT max(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=e.deptno);

EMP e
EMPID ENAME DEPTNO SAL ENAME DEPTNO SAL
1001 A 10 12000 A 10 12000
1002 B 10 8000 D 20 20000
1003 C 20 10000
1004 D 20 20000

Display the emp records who are senior in each dept:

WHERE hiredate = emp dept's min hiredate

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 231

SELECT ename, deptno, hiredate
FROM emp e
WHERE hiredate = (SELECT min(hiredate) FROM emp
WHERE deptno=e.deptno);

EXISTS:

Syntax:
EXISTS(<Sub Query>)

If sub query selects the rows then it returns TRUE.

If sub query does not select any row then it returns FALSE.

NOT EXISTS:

Syntax:
NOT EXISTS(<Sub Query>)

If sub query does not select any row then it returns TRUE.
If sub query selects the rows then it returns FALSEE.

Display the dept names which are having emps:

SELECT dname FROM dept d

WHERE exists(SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno=d.deptno);

DEPT d EMP e
DEPTNO DNAME EMPID ENAME DEPTNO SAL
10 ACCOUNTING 1001 A 10 12000
20 RESEARCH 1002 B 10 8000
30 SALES 1003 C 20 10000
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 232
 10 ACCOUNTING 1001 A 10 12000
20 RESEARCH 1002 B 10 8000
30 SALES 1003 C 20 10000
1004 D 20 20000
DNAME
ACCOUNTING
RESEARCH

Display the dept names which are not having emps:

SELECT dname FROM dept d

WHERE not exists(SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno=d.deptno);

Single Row Sub Query:

Set JAMES salary as 30th dept's max salary:

UPDATE emp
SET sal=(find 30th dept max sal)
WHERE ename='JAMES';

UPDATE emp
SET sal=(SELECT max(Sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=30)
WHERE ename='JAMES';

Delete most senior record:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 233

DELETE FROM emp
WHERE hiredate=(find most senior's hiredate);

DELETE FROM emp

WHERE hiredate=(SELECT min(hiredate) FROM emp);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 234

CONSTRAINTS
Tuesday, July 30, 2024 7:44 AM

CONSTRAINT:
• CONSTRAINT => Restrict / Limit / Control

Max Marks: 100

0 TO 100

CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)

M1 NUMBER(3)
------
70
123 ERROR

CHECK(gender IN('M','F'))

GENDER
---------------
M
F
Z ERROR

CONSTRAINTS:

• CONSTRAINT is a rule that is applied on column.

• It restricts the user from entering invalid data.
• With this, we can maintain accurate and quality data.
• Maintaining accurate and quality data is called "Data Integrity".
• To implement data integrity feature we use CONSTRAINT.

ORACLE SQL provides following Constraints:

• Primary Key
• Not Null
• Unique
• Check
Default
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 235
 • Default
• References [Foreign Key]

Primary Key:
• It does not accept duplicates.
• It does not accept nulls.
• When value is mandatory and should not be duplicated then we
use PRIMARY KEY.
• A table can have only one primary key.

Example:
Employee
PK
EMPID ENAME JOB SAL
1234 SAI CLERK 8000
1235 KIRAN CLERK 6000
1236 SAI SALESMAN 8000
null
A MANAGER 12000 ERROR
1234 RAJU CLERK 7000 ERROR

duplicate

Example on Primary Key:

T1
F1 Number(4) PK

CREATE TABLE t1
(
f1 NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY
);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1234);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1235);

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(null); --ERROR

INSERT INTO t1 VALUES(1234); --ERROR

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 236

 Example:

T2
F1 NUMBER(4) PK
F2 VARCHAR2(10) PK

It is not possible.
A table can have one primary key only

Not Null:
○ It does not accept nulls.
○ It accepts duplicates.
○ When value is mandatory and it can be duplicates
then use NOT NULL.

Example:
EMPLOYEE
NOT NULL
EMPID ENAME SAL
1234 SAI 7000
1235 SAI 6000
1236 8000 ERROR

null

Example:

CREATE TABLE t3
(
f1 NUMBER(4) NOT NULL
);

INSERT INTO t3 VALUES(1);

INSERT INTO t3 VALUES(1);
INSERT INTO t3 VALUES(2);
INSERT INTO t3 VALUES(1);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 237

 INSERT INTO t3 VALUES(null);
Output:
ERROR

UNIQUE:
• It does not accept duplicates.
• It accepts nulls.
• When value is optional and it should not be
duplicated then use UNIQUE.
• We can insert multiple nulls also.

Example:

CUSTOMER UNIQUE
UNIQUE
CID CNAME MOBILE_NUMBER MAIL_ID
------------------
1234 A 9123456789
[email protected]
1235 B null
1236 C 9123456789 ERROR [email protected] ERROR

Example:

CREATE TABLE t4
(
f1 NUMBER(4) UNIQUE
);

INSERT INTO t4 VALUES(1);

INSERT INTO t4 VALUES(1); --ERROR

INSERT INTO t4 VALUES(null);

INSERT INTO t4 VALUES(null);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 238

 CONSTRAINT DUPLICATE NULL
PRIMARY KEY NO NO
NOT NULL YES NO
UNIQUE NO YES

PRIMARY KEY = UNIQUE + NOT NULL

Check:
• It is used to apply our own condition on column

Example:

STUDENT
CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)
SID SNAME M1
1234 A 78
1235 B 345 ERROR

BUS => 30 seats

ABHI BUS
1 to 30

CHECK(seat_num between 1 and 30)

SEAT_NUM
-----------------
25
50

Default:
• It is used to apply default value to column.
• When for almost all records value is same then we set default value
for that column.

Example:

STUDENT default 'NARESH' default 'HYD' default 20000

SID SNAME COLLEGE_NAME CCITY FEE
1234 A NARESH HYD 20000
1235 B NARESH HYD 10000
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 239
 1235 B NARESH HYD 10000

INSERT INTO student(sid,sname) VALUES(1234,'A');

INSERT INTO student(sid,sname,fee) VALUES(1235,'B',10000);

References [Foreign Key]:

• Foreign Key accepts Primary Key values of another table.
• It accepts duplicates.
• It accepts nulls.
• TO set foreign key we use REFERENCES keyword.

Example:

COURSE STUDENT
PK FK
CID CNAME REFERENCES COURSE(CID)
10 JAVA SID SNAME CID
20 C# 1001 A 20
30 HTML 1002 B 20
1003 C 10
1004 D 30
1005 E
1006 F 90 ERROR

Examples on constraints:

Example-1:
USERSINFO
USERID UNAME PWD

USERID don't accept duplicates and nulls PK

UNAME don't accept duplicates and nulls UNIQUE NOT NULL
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 240
 UNAME don't accept duplicates and nulls UNIQUE NOT NULL
PWD password must have min 8 chars CHECK

CREATE TABLE usersinfo

(
userid NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
uname VARCHAR2(20) UNIQUE NOT NULL,
pwd VARCHAR2(20) CHECK(length(pwd)>=8)
);

Example-2:

STUDENT
SID SNAME M1

SID don't accept dups and nulls PK

SNAME don't accept nulls NOT NULL
M1 must be b/w 0 to 100 CHECK

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
sname VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
m1 NUMBER(3) CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)
);

Example-3:

EMPLOYEE
EMPID ENAME GENDER SAL

empid don't accept dups and nulls PK

ename don't accept nulls NOT NULL
gender M or F CHECK
sal sal must be 5000 or more CHECK

CREATE TABLE employee

(

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 241

 (
empid NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
gender CHAR CHECK(gender IN('M','F')),
sal NUMBER(8,2) CHECK(sal>=5000)
);

Example-4:

STUDENT1
SID SNAME CNAME CCITY FEE

SID PK
SNAME NOT NULL
CNAME DEFAULT 'NARESH'
CCITY DEFAULT 'HYD'
20000.00
FEE DEFAULT 20000

CREATE TABLE student1

(
sid NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
sname VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
cname VARCHAR2(10) DEFAULT 'NARESH',
ccity CHAR(3) DEFAULT 'HYD',
fee NUMBER(7,2) DEFAULT 20000
);

INSERT INTO student1 VALUES(1001,'A');

Output:
ERROR: not enough values

INSERT INTO student1(sid,sname) VALUES(1001,'A');

Output:
1 row created

Example-5:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 242

DEPT1 EMP1
PK PK FK
DEPTNO DNAME REFERENCES dept1(deptno)
10 ACCOUNTS EMPNO ENAME DEPTNO
20 HR 1001 A 30
30 SALES 1002 B 10
1003 C 10
1004 D
1005 E 80 ERROR

CREATE TABLE dept1

(
deptno NUMBER(2) PRIMARY KEY,
dname VARCHAR2(10) UNIQUE NOT NULL
);

CREATE TABLE emp1

(
empno NUMBER(4) PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR2(10) NOT NULL,
deptno NUMBER(2) REFERENCES dept1(deptno)
);

NOTE:
PK column data type and FK column data type
must be same

Assignment:

Example:

COURSE STUDENT
PK FK
CID CNAME REFERENCES COURSE(CID)
SID SNAME CID
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 243
COURSE STUDENT
PK FK
CID CNAME REFERENCES COURSE(CID)
10 JAVA SID SNAME CID
20 C# 1001 A 20
30 HTML 1002 B 20
1003 C 10
1004 D 30
1005 E
1006 F 90 ERROR

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 244

Naming Constraints
Wednesday, July 31, 2024 8:47 AM

Syntax to create Table:

CREATE TABLE <table_name>

(
<column_name> <data_type> [CONSTRAINT <con_name> <con_type>,
<column_name> <data_type> CONSTRAINT <con_name> <con_type>,
.
.]
);

Naming Constraints:
• To identify every constraint uniquely name is required.
• We can give names to constraints.
• If we don't define constraint name implicitly ORACLE defines
a constraint name.
• To define constraint name we use CONSTRAINT keyword

Example:

STUDENT5
SID SNAME M1

SID PK c1
SNAME
M1 CHECK => must be b/w 0 to 100 c2

CREATE TABLE student5

(
sid NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT c1 PRIMARY KEY,
sname VARCHAR2(10),
m1 NUMBER(3) CONSTRAINT c2 CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 245
m1 NUMBER(3) CONSTRAINT c2 CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)
);

USER_CONSTRAINTS:
• it maintains all constraints info

to see list of constraints of student5 table:

SELECT table_name, constraint_name, constraint_type

FROM user_constraints
WHERE table_name='STUDENT5';

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 246

Thursday, August 1, 2024 7:46 AM

Constraint can be applied at 2 levels. They are:

• Column Level Constraint
• Table Level Constraint

Column Level Constraint:

• If constraint is defined in column definition then it is called
"Column Level Constraint".
• All 6 constraints can be applied at column level.

Table Level Constraint:

• If constraint is defined after defining all columns then
it is called "Table Level Constraint".
• We can apply only 4 constraints at table level.
PK, UNIQUE, CHECK, REFRENCES

Example on Column Level Constraint:

STUDENT6
SID SNAME M1

SID PK c3
SNAME NOT NULL c4
M1 CHECK c6

CREATE TABLE student6

(
sid NUMBER(4) CONSTRAINT c3 PRIMARY KEY,
sname VARCHAR2(10) CONSTRAINT c4 NOT NULL,
m1 NUMBER(3) CONSTRAINT c6 CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)
);

Example on Table Level Constraint:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 247
 Example on Table Level Constraint:

STUDENT7
SID SNAME M1

SID PK c7
SNAME NOT NULL c8
M1 CHECK c9

CREATE TABLE student7

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10) CONSTRAINT c8 NOT NULL,
m1 NUMBER(3),
CONSTRAINT c7 PRIMARY KEY(sid),
CONSTRAINT c9 CHECK(m1 BETWEEN 0 AND 100)
);

Example:

COURSE5 STUDENT5
PK FK
CID CNAME REFERENCES COURSE5(cid)
10 JAVA SID SNAME CID
20 PYTHON 1001 A 20
30 C# 1002 B 20
1003 C 10
1004 D 90 ERROR

CREATE TABLE course5

(
cid NUMBER(2),
cname VARCHAR2(10),
CONSTRAINT c10 PRIMARY KEY(cid)
);

CREATE TABLE student5

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 248
CREATE TABLE student5
(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10),
cid NUMBER(2),
CONSTRAINT c11 FOREIGN KEY(cid) REFERENCES course5(cid)
);

Why Table Level Constraint?

2 reasons:

• to apply combination of columns as constraint

• to use another column name in constraint

applying combination of columns as constraint:

Example:

STUDENT
PK(SID, SUBJECT)
SID SNAME SUBJECT MARKS
1001 A M1 70
1001 A M2 65
1002 B M1 55
1002 B M2 70
1003 C M1 80
1003 C M2 45
1001 M1 ERROR

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10),
ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 249
 sname VARCHAR2(10),
subject CHAR(2),
marks number(3),
CONSTRAINT c12 PRIMARY KEY(sid, subject)
);

Composite Primary Key:

IF we set combination of columns as PK then it is
called "Composite Primary Key".

using another column name in constraint:

PRODUCTS
PID PNAME MANUFATURED_DATE EXPIRY_DATE
1001 A 1-AUG-24 25-DEC-23

CHECK(expiry_date>manufactured_date)

CREATE TABLE products

(
pid NUMBER(4),
pname VARCHAR2(10),
manufactured_date DATE,
Expiry_date DATE,
CONSTRAINT c13 CHECK(expiry_date>manufactured_date)
);

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 250

Using ALTER command on Constraints
Thursday, August 1, 2024 8:44 AM

Using ALTER command on Constraints:

USING ALTER command we can:

• Add the constraints
• Rename the constraints
• Disable the constraints
• Enable the constraints
• Drop the constraints

Syntax of ALTER:

ALTER TABLE <table_name> [ADD CONSTRAINT <con_name> <con_type>(<column>)]

[RENAME CONSTRAINT <old_name> TO <new_name>]
[DISABLE CONSTRAINT <con_name>]
[ENABLE CONSTRAINT <con_name>]
[DROP CONSTRAINT <con_name>];

Example:

STUDENT
SID SNAME M1

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid NUMBER(4),
sname VARCHAR2(10),
m1 NUMBER(3)
);

Add PK to sid:
ALTER TABLE student ADD CONSTRAINT c15 PRIMARY KEY(sid);

Add NOT NULL to sname:

ALTER TABLE student MODIFY sname CONSTRAINT c16 NOT NULL;

Note:
Using ADD keyword we can add Table Level Constraints only.
Using MODIFY keyword we can add all Column Level Constraints.

Add check constraint to m1:

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 251
Add check constraint to m1:
ALTER TABLE student ADD CONSTRAINT c17 CHECK(m1 BETWEEN
0 AND 100);

Rename constraint c15 to z:

ALTER TABLE student RENAME CONSTRAINT c15 TO z;

Disabling Constraint:
ALTER TABLE student DISABLE CONSTRAINT z;

Enabling Constraint:
ALTER TABLE student ENABLE CONSTRAINT z;

Dropping Constraint:
ALTER TABLE student DROP CONSTRAINT z;

ORACLE 730AM JUNE 2024 Page 252