DR. R. K.

SHANMUGAM COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE

INDILI, KALLAKURICHI 606 213

ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS

(23PCSCC11)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

CLASS: I M. Sc., COMPUTER SCIENCE

SEMESTER: 1
ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS
(23PCSCC11)
UNIT – 3
GREEDY METHOD
 General Method
 Knapsack Problem
 Minimum Cost Spanning Tree
 Single Source Shortest Path
ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
GREEDY METHOD
The greedy method is one of the strategies like Divide and conquer used to
solve the problems. This method is used for solving optimization problems. An
optimization problem is a problem that demands either maximum or minimum
results.
The Greedy method is the simplest and straightforward approach. It is not an
algorithm, but it is a technique. The main function of this approach is that the
decision is taken on the basis of the currently available information. Whatever the
current information is present, the decision is made without worrying about the
effect of the current decision in future.
This technique is basically used to determine the feasible solution that may
or may not be optimal. The feasible solution is a subset that satisfies the given
criteria. The optimal solution is the solution which is the best and the most favorable
solution in the subset. In the case of feasible, if more than one solution satisfies the
given criteria then those solutions will be considered as the feasible, whereas the
optimal solution is the best solution among all the solutions.

An optimal solution is one that provides the best possible outcome based on a specific
objective or metric.
A feasible solution, on the other hand, is one that meets all the constraints or
requirements of the problem without necessarily being the best possible solution

Characteristics of Greedy method

 To construct the solution in an optimal way, this algorithm creates two sets
where one set contains all the chosen items, and another set contains the
rejected items.
 A Greedy algorithm makes good local choices in the hope that the solution
should be either feasible or optimal.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Components of Greedy Algorithm:
The components that can be used in the greedy algorithm are:
Candidate set: A solution that is created from the set is known as a candidate set.
Selection function: This function is used to choose the candidate or subset which can
be added in the solution.
Feasibility function: A function that is used to determine whether the candidate or
subset can be used to contribute to the solution or not.
Objective function: A function is used to assign the value to the solution or the
partial solution.
Solution function: This function is used to intimate whether the complete function
has been reached or not.
Pseudo code of Greedy Algorithm
Algorithm Greedy (a, n)
{
Solution : = 0;
for i = 0 to n do
{
x: = select(a);
if feasible(solution, x)
{
Solution: = union(solution , x)
}
return solution;
}
}

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Applications of Greedy Algorithm
 It is used in finding the shortest path.
 It is used to find the minimum spanning tree using the prim's algorithm or the
Kruskal's algorithm.
 It is used in a job sequencing with a deadline.
 This algorithm is also used to solve the fractional knapsack problem.
General Example:
Suppose there is a problem 'P'. I want to travel from A to B shown as below:
P:A→B
The problem is that we have to travel this journey from A to B. There are
various solutions to go from A to B. We can go from A to B by walk, car, bike, train,
aeroplane, etc.
There is a constraint in the journey that we have to travel this journey within
12 hrs. If I go by train or aeroplane then only, I can cover this distance within 12 hrs.
There are many solutions to this problem but there are only two solutions that satisfy
the constraint.
If we say that we have to cover the journey at the minimum cost. This means
that we have to travel this distance as minimum as possible, so this problem is
known as a minimization problem. Till now, we have two feasible solutions, i.e.,
one by train and another one by air. Since travelling by train will lead to the
minimum cost so it is an optimal solution. An optimal solution is also the feasible
solution, but providing the best result so that solution is the optimal solution with
the minimum cost. There would be only one optimal solution.
The problem that requires either minimum or maximum result then that
problem is known as an optimization problem. Greedy method is one of the
strategies used for solving the optimization problems.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Disadvantages of using Greedy algorithm
 Greedy algorithm makes decisions based on the information available at each
phase without considering the broader problem. So, there might be a
possibility that the greedy solution does not give the best solution for every
problem.
 It follows the local optimum choice at each stage with a intend of finding the
global optimum.

KNAPSACK PROBLEM
The knapsack problem (or also called as fractional knapsack problem) is one
of the techniques which uses Greedy Method. In fractional knapsack, the items are
broken in order to maximize the profit. The problem in which we break the item is
known as a Fractional knapsack problem.
In Greedy approach, we calculate the ratio of profit/weight, and accordingly,
we will select the item. The item with the highest ratio would be selected first.
 There are basically three approaches to solve the problem:
 The first approach is to select the item based on the maximum profit.
 The second approach is to select the item based on the minimum weight.
 The third approach is to calculate the ratio of profit/weight.
In general, the ratio of profit / weight will give the best result rather than the two
approaches. The main time taking step is the sorting of all items in decreasing order
of their value / weight ratio. If the items are already arranged in the required order,
then while loop takes O(n) time. Therefore, total time taken including the sort is
O(nlogn).

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Algorithm for Knapsack (Greedy Method):
Greedy-Fractional-Knapsack (w[1..n], p[1..n], W)
for i = 1 to n
do x[i] = 0
weight = 0
for i = 1 to n
if weight + w[i] ≤ W then
x[i] = 1
weight = weight + w[i]
else
x[i] = (W - weight) / w[i]
weight = W
break
return x
Example:

Step 1
Calculate the p/w

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Step 2:
We will select the objects based on the maximum profit/weight ratio. Since the P/W
of object 5 is maximum so we select object 5.
Object Profit Weight Remaining Weight
5 8 1 15 – 1 =14

After object 5, object 1 has the maximum profit/weight ratio, i.e., 5. So, we select
object 1
Object Profit Weight Remaining Weight
5 8 1 15 – 1 = 14
1 5 1 14 – 1 = 13

After object 1, object 2 has the maximum profit/weight ratio, i.e., 3.3. So, we select
object 2 having profit/weight ratio as 3.3.
Object Profit Weight Remaining Weight
5 8 1 15 – 1 = 14
1 5 1 14 – 1 = 13
2 10 3 13 – 3 = 10

After object 2, object 3 has the maximum profit/weight ratio, i.e., 3. So, we select
object 3 having profit/weight ratio as 3.
Object Profit Weight Remaining Weight
5 8 1 15 – 1 = 14
1 5 1 14 – 1 = 13
2 10 3 13 – 3 = 10
3 15 5 10 – 5 = 5

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
After object 3, object 6 has the maximum profit/weight ratio, i.e., 3. So we
select object 6 having profit/weight ratio as 3.
Object Profit Weight Remaining Weight
5 8 1 15 – 1 = 14
1 5 1 14 – 1 = 13
2 10 3 13 – 3 = 10
3 15 5 10 – 5 = 5
6 9 3 5–3=2

After object 6, object 7 has the maximum profit/weight ratio, i.e., 2. So we

select object 7 having profit/weight ratio as 2.
Object Profit Weight Remaining Weight
5 8 1 15 – 1 = 14
1 5 1 14 – 1 = 13
2 10 3 13 – 3 = 10
3 15 5 10 – 5 = 5
6 9 3 5–3=2
7 4 2 2–2=0

As we can observe in the above table that the remaining weight is zero which
means that the knapsack is full. We cannot add more objects in the knapsack.
Therefore, the total profit would be equal to (8 + 5 + 10 + 15 + 9 + 4), i.e., 51.

DR. R. K. SHANMUGAM COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE, KALLAKURICHI 7

ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Try it yourself:
1) A thief enters a house for robbing it. He can carry a maximal weight of 60 kg into
his bag. There are 5 items in the house with the following weights and values. What
items should thief take if he can even take the fraction of any item with him?

2) Let us consider that the capacity of the knapsack W = 60 and the list of provided
items are shown in the following table –

MINIMUM COST SPANNING TREES

A spanning tree is a subset of Graph G, which has all the vertices covered with
minimum possible number of edges. Hence, a spanning tree does not have cycles and
it cannot be disconnected.
By this definition, we can draw a conclusion that every connected and
undirected Graph G has at least one spanning tree. A disconnected graph does not
have any spanning tree, as it cannot be spanned to all its vertices.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

We found three spanning trees off one complete graph. A complete undirected
graph can have maximum nn-2 number of spanning trees, where n is the number of
nodes. In the above addressed example, n is 3, hence 33−2 = 3 spanning trees are
possible.
General Properties of Spanning Tree
 A connected graph G can have more than one spanning tree.
 All possible spanning trees of graph G, have the same number of edges and
vertices.
 The spanning tree does not have any cycle (loops).
 Removing one edge from the spanning tree will make the graph disconnected,
i.e. the spanning tree is minimally connected.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
 Adding one edge to the spanning tree will create a circuit or loop, i.e. the
spanning tree is maximally acyclic.
Mathematical Properties of Spanning Tree
 Spanning tree has n-1 edges, where n is the number of nodes (vertices).
 From a complete graph, by removing maximum e - n + 1 edges, we can
construct a spanning tree.
 A complete graph can have maximum nn-2 number of spanning trees.
 Thus, we can conclude that spanning trees are a subset of connected Graph G
and disconnected graphs do not have spanning tree.
Application of Spanning Tree:
Spanning tree is basically used to find a minimum path to connect all nodes in
a graph. Common application of spanning trees are −
 Civil Network Planning
 Computer Network Routing Protocol
 Cluster Analysis
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
In a weighted graph, a minimum spanning tree is a spanning tree that has
minimum weight than all other spanning trees of the same graph. In real-world
situations, this weight can be measured as distance, congestion, traffic load or any
arbitrary value denoted to the edges.
Minimum Spanning-Tree Algorithm
The most important spanning tree algorithms here −
 Kruskal's Algorithm
 Prim's Algorithm

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
PRIM’S ALGORITHM
The idea behind Prim’s algorithm is simple, a spanning tree means all vertices
must be connected. So, the two disjoint subsets of vertices must be connected to
make a Spanning Tree. And they must be connected with the minimum weight edge
to make it a Minimum Spanning Tree. The algorithm was developed in 1930 by
Czech mathematician Vojtech Jarnik and later rediscovered and republished by
computer scientists Robert C. Prim in 1957 and Edsger W. Dijkstra in 1959.
Therefore, it is also sometimes called the Jarnik's algorithm, Prim–Jarnik algorithm,
Prim–Dijkstra algorithm or the DJP algorithm.
Algorithm of Prim’s Algorithm
1) Create a set mstSet that keeps track of vertices already included in MST.
2) Assign a key value to all vertices in the input graph. Initialize all key values as
INFINITE. Assign key value as 0 for the first vertex so that it is picked first.
3) While mstSet doesn’t include all vertices
a) Pick a vertex u which is not there in mstSet and has minimum key value.
b) Include u to mstSet.
c) Update key value of all adjacent vertices of u. To update the key values,
iterate through all adjacent vertices. For every adjacent vertex v, if weight of edge u-v
is less than the previous key value of v, update the key value as weight of u-v.
The idea of using key values is to pick the minimum weight edge from cut.
The key values are used only for vertices which are not yet included in MST, the key
value for these vertices indicate the minimum weight edges connecting them to the
set of vertices included in MST.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

Example:

The set mstSet is initially empty and keys assigned to vertices are {0, INF, INF, INF,
INF, INF, INF, INF} where INF indicates infinite. Now pick the vertex with
minimum key value. The vertex 0 is picked, include it in mstSet. So mstSet becomes

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
{0}. After including to mstSet, update key values of adjacent vertices. Adjacent
vertices of 0 are 1 and 7. The key values of 1 and 7 are updated as 4 and 8. Following
subgraph shows vertices and their key values, only the vertices with finite key values
are shown.
Step 1:
Pick the vertex with minimum key value and not already included in
MST (not in mstSET). The vertex 1 is picked and added to mstSet. So
mstSet now becomes {0, 1}. Update the key values of adjacent vertices
of 1. The key value of vertex 2 becomes 8.
Step 2:

Pick the vertex with minimum key value and not already
included in MST (not in mstSET). We can either pick vertex 7
or vertex 2, let vertex 7 is picked. So mstSet now becomes {0,
1, 7}. Update the key values of adjacent vertices of 7. The key
value of vertex 6 and 8 becomes finite (1 and 7 respectively).

Step 3:
Pick the vertex with minimum key value and not already
included in MST (not in mstSET). Vertex 6 is picked. So
mstSet now becomes {0, 1, 7, 6}. Update the key values of
adjacent vertices of 6. The key value of vertex 5 and 8 are
updated.
Step 4:

We repeat the above steps until mstSet includes all vertices of

given graph. Finally, we get the following graph.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Step 5:
Finally we get this MST, by using Prims Algorithm approach.

KRUSKAL'S ALGORITHM
Kruskal's algorithm to find the minimum cost spanning tree uses the greedy
approach. This algorithm treats the graph as a forest and every node it has as an
individual tree. A tree connects to another only and only if, it has the least cost
among all available options and does not violate MST properties. This algorithm was
written by Joseph Kruskal.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Basic Algorithm for Kruskal's
1. Sort all the edges in non-decreasing order of their weight.
2. Pick the smallest edge. Check if it forms a cycle with the spanning tree formed so
far. If cycle is not formed, include this edge. Else, discard it.
3. Repeat step#2 until there are (V-1) edges in the spanning tree.

Example:

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
The graph contains 9 vertices and 14 edges. So, the minimum spanning tree formed
will be having (9 – 1) = 8 edges.

Step 1:

Pick edge 7-6: No cycle is formed, include it.

Step 2:
Pick edge 8-2: No cycle is formed, include it.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

Step 3:
Pick edge 6-5: No cycle is formed, include it.

Step 4:
Pick edge 0-1: No cycle is formed, include it

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Step 5:
Pick edge 2-5: No cycle is formed, include it.

Step 6:
Pick edge 8-6: Since including this edge results in cycle, discard it.
Step 7:
Pick edge 2-3: No cycle is formed, include it.

Step 8:
Pick edge 7-8: Since including this edge results in cycle, discard it.
Step 9:
Pick edge 0-7: No cycle is formed, include it.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

Step 10:
Pick edge 1-2: Since including this edge results in cycle, discard it.
Step 11:
Pick edge 3-4: No cycle is formed, include it.

This is the final MST of the given tree using Kruskal’s Algorithm.

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
SINGLE SOURCE SHORTEST PATH
Dijkstra’s Algorithm is also known as Single Source Shortest Path (SSSP)
problem. It is used to find the shortest path from source node to destination node in
graph. It was conceived by computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra in 1956 and
published three years later.
The graph is widely accepted data structure to represent distance map. The
distance between cities effectively represented using graph.
Dijkstra proposed an efficient way to find the single source shortest path from
the weighted graph. For a given source vertex s, the algorithm finds the shortest path
to every other vertex v in the graph.
Assumption : Weight of all edges is non-negative.
Steps:
1. Initializes the distance of source vertex to zero and remaining all other vertices to
infinity.
2. Set source node to current node and put remaining all nodes in the list of unvisited
vertex list. Compute the tentative distance of all immediate neighbour vertex of the
current node.
3. If the newly computed value is smaller than the old value, then update it.
4. When all the neighbours of a current node are explored, mark it as visited.
Remove it from unvisited vertex list. Mark the vertex from unvisited vertex list with
minimum distance and repeat the procedure.
5. Stop when the destination node is tested or when unvisited vertex list becomes
empty.
Time Complexity of Dijkstra’s Algorithm is O(|V2|)

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Let G = (A, B)
Step 3: Let V = {a} and U = V – {a} Where., V is visited vertex and U is unvisited
vertex
Step 4: Let Dist(t) = w[(a,t)] for every vertex
Step 5: Select the Vertex in the U that has the smallest value Dist[x]. Let x denote
this vertex.
Step 6: If X is the vertex we wish to reach from a, goto Step 9. If not, le = V – {x}
and U = U – {x}
Step 7: For every vertex t in A, compute Dist[t] with respect to V as Dist[t] =
min{Dist[t],Dist[t]+w(x,t)}
Step 8: Repeat the Steps 5, 6 and 7
Step 9: Stop
Dijkstra algorithm is a single-source shortest path algorithm. Here, single-
source means that only one source is given, and we have to find the shortest path
from the source to all the nodes.
Example:

DR. R. K. SHANMUGAM COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE, KALLAKURICHI 21

ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1
The set sptSet is initially empty and distances
assigned to vertices are {0, INF, INF, INF, INF,
INF, INF, INF} where INF indicates infinite.
Now pick the vertex with a minimum distance
value. The vertex 0 is picked, include it in sptSet.
So sptSet becomes {0}. After including 0 to sptSet,
update distance values of its adjacent vertices.
Adjacent vertices of 0 are 1 and 7. The distance
values of 1 and 7 are updated as 4 and 8.

Pick the vertex with minimum distance value and

not already included in SPT (not in sptSET). The
vertex 1 is picked and added to sptSet.
So sptSet now becomes {0, 1}. Update the distance
values of adjacent vertices of 1.
The distance value of vertex 2 becomes 12.

Pick the vertex with minimum distance value and

not already included in SPT (not in sptSET).
Vertex 7 is picked. So sptSet now becomes {0, 1,
7}.
Update the distance values of adjacent vertices of
7. The distance value of vertex 6 and 8 becomes
finite (15 and 9 respectively).

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

Pick the vertex with minimum distance

value and not already included in SPT (not
in sptSET). Vertex 6 is picked. So sptSet
now becomes {0, 1, 7, 6}.
Update the distance values of adjacent
vertices of 6. The distance value of vertex 5
and 8 are updated.
We repeat the above steps until sptSet
includes all vertices of the given graph.
Finally, we get the following Shortest Path
Tree (SPT).

Try it yourself:
Find the minimum shortest path for the following graphs using Dijsktra’s Algorithm

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

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ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS (23PCSCC11) UNIT – 3
I M. Sc., Computer Science Semester: 1

DR. R. K. SHANMUGAM COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE, KALLAKURICHI 25

DR. R. K. SHANMUGAM COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCE
INDILI, KALLAKURICHI 606 213

ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF ALGORITHMS

(23PCSCC11)
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

CLASS: I M. Sc., COMPUTER SCIENCE

SEMESTER: 1