AC to DC Comverters 2.

51
Single phase semi-converter (half controlled bridge converter, using two
SCR's and two diodes, to provide single quadrant operation).
Single phase full converter (fully controlled bridge converter which
requires four SCR's, to provide two quadrant operation).
Three Phase Controlled Rectifiers areof different types
Three phase half wave controlled rectifiers.
Three phase fullwave controlled rectifiers.
Semi converter (half controlled bridge converter).
Full converter (fully controlled bridge converter).
2.6. SNCHRONOUS RECTIFIERs
Synchronous rectifiers are also known as active rectifiers and they are used to
improve the efficiency of diode rectifier circuits.
The semiconductor diodes are replaced with active switching elements:
transistors that may be power MOSFETs or power bipolar transistors that are
switched on and off at the required times to allow the rectification to occur.
As the switching obviously has to occur in synchronism with the incoming
waveform, these rectifiers are often referred to as synchronous rectifiers or
Sometimes as active rectifiers.

2.6.1. Rationale For Synchronous Rectifiers

The need for synchronous rectifiers or active rectifiers results from the
constant drop that occurs across a diode when it is conducting.
Although the turn on voltage for a silicon diode the type most usually used
for rectifiers is around 0.6 volts, the actual drop across the diode may rise to in
eXcess of l volt at its rated current.
The use of Schottky diodes can reduce the voltage drop, but it can still be an
issue, especially where the highest levels of efficiency are required.
Synchronous rectifiers are able to provide improvements even over Schottky
diode rectifiers.
The issue of efficiency is even more acute when using low voltage converters.
With voltage levels of just a very few volts, and with the possibility of high
2.6 Modern Power Converters
current levels the 'voltage drops introduced by diodes become unacceptable
and synchronous rectifier techniques become essential
2.6.2.Synchronous Rectiflcation Basics
$ In a typical diode rectifier, the diode turns on when it is forvward biased and
off when it is reverse biased. It is possible to control an active element so that
the effect same happens. The advantage with an active rectifier is that the
conducting resistance and voltage drop are much less than they are with
diodes.
As the switching of the active element has to be timed correctly it is actually
in synchronism with the waveform being rectified. It is for this reason that
these rectifiers are known as synchronous rectifiers.
Often power MOSFETs are ideal active elements for synchronous
rectification, and they have a very low on resistance, RDS on that may be as
low as a few tens of m2 or less. The voltage drop across this
level of
resistance is likely to be very much less than that across a diode. Where the
voltage drop across a power MOSFET does become an issue, then several
devices can be placed in parallel.
The downside to synchronous or active rectifiers is that
they require control
circuitry to ensure the devices turn on synchronously, i.e. at the right
time.
Circuitry required for the control of the synchronous
rectifier normally
includes voltage level detectorsand drive circuitry for the active
devices.
/One key issue for the control circuitry is to
ensure that two devices in
opposing legs of the rectifier do not turn on together
would be presented to the input.The turn on and
otherwise a short circuit
turn off of devices is
normally controlled to ensure that even at the point
where one turns on and
another off, there is a short gap to prevent both
devices being on together.
Active rectification or synchronous
rectification is often
converters where efficiency is a key issue. Using a employed in AC/DC
enables power losses to be minimised and synchronous rectifier
although at the expense of additional efficiency levels to be improved,
complexity.
AC to DCConverters
|2.7
2.7. PRINCIPLEOF PHASECONTROLLED RECTIFIER OPERATION

The basic principle of operation of a phase controlled rectifier circuit is explained

with refèrence to a single phase half wave phase controlled rectifier circuit with a
resistive load shown in the fig (2.1)
+ VT1

Vo Vs = Vm Sin ot R

R-R- Load Resistance

Fig. 2.1. Single Phase Half-Wave Thyristor Converter with a Resistive Load
A single phase half wave thyristor converter which is used for ac-dc power
conversion is shown in the above figure (2.1). The input ac supply is obtained from a
main supply transformer to provide the desired ac supply voltage to the thyristor
converter depending on the output de voltage required. vp represents the primary
input ac supply voltage v, represents the secondary ac supply voltage which is the
output of the transformer secondary.
During the positive half cycle of input supply when the upper end of the
transformer secondary is at a positive potential with respect to the lower end, the
thyristor anode is positive with respect to its cathode and the thyristor is in a forward
biasedstate./The thyristor is triggered at a delay angle of of =, by applying a
suitable gate trigger pulse to the gate lead of thyristor. When the thyristor is triggered
at a delay angle of ot = a, the thyristor conducts and assuming an ideal thyristor, the
thyristor behaves as a closed switch and the input supply voltage appears across the
load when the thyristor conducts from ot = a to Tradians. Output voltage v, = vs
when the thyristor conducts from of = a to.
For a purely resistive load, the load current i, (output current) that flows when the
thyristor T, is on, is given by the expression
for a s ot s+
i, RL
 Modern Power Converters
2.8
waveform
The output load current waveform is similar to the output load voltage
output
during the thyristor conduction time from a to T. The output current and the
the
voltage waveform are in phase for a resistive load. The load current increases as
input supply voltage increases and the maximum load current flows at ot = 2 when

the input supply voltage is at its maximum value.

The maximum value (peak value) of the load current is calculated as
m

io(mas) RL
Note that when the thyristor conducts (T1 is on) during ot = a to 1, the thyristor
current ir, the load current i, through R and the source current i, flowing through
the transformer secondary winding are all one and the same.
Hence we can write
V.m sinaot
i, =ii,=R R

is the maximum (peak) value of the load current that flows through the
transformer secondary winding, through T, and through the load resistor R at the
instant ot - when the input supply voltage reaches its maximum value.
When the input supply voltage decreases the load current decreases. When the
supply voltage falls to zero at ot = , the thyristor and the load current also falls to
zero at at =1. Thus the thyristor naturally turns off when the current flowing through
it falls tozero at of = .
During the negative half cycle of input supply when the supply voltage reverses
and becomes negative during ot = n to 2rt radians, the anode of thyristor is at a
negative potential with respect to its cathode and as a result the thyristor is reverse
biased and hence it remains cut-off (in the reverse blocking mode). The thyristor
cannot conduct during its reverse biased state between ot T to 2t. An ideal thyristor
under reverse biased condition behaves as an open switch and hence the load current
and load voltage are zero during ot = T to 2.. The maximum or peak reverse voltage
that appears across the thyristor anode and cathode terminals is V..
The trigger angle a (delay angle or the phase angle c) is measured from the
beginning of each positive half cycle to the time instant when the gate trigger pulse is
AC toDC Converters 2.9
applied. The thyristor conduction angle is from a. to , hence the conduction angle &
z(1- ). The maximum conduction angle is t radians (180) when the trigger angle
a= 0.
Vo

io
Ldc

Fig. 2.2. Quadrant Diagram

The waveforms shovws the input ac supply voltage across the secondary winding of
the transformer which is represented as v. the output voltage across the load, the
output (load) current, and the thyristor voltage waveform that appears across the
anode and cathode terminals.

Vm
V1
2T
ot

Vmhvo
2
lo LVR
ot
a 2

2 ot

-Vm.
Fig. 2.3. Waveforms of singlephase half-wave controlled rectifier
with resistive load
 Modern Power Converterg
2.10
Bquations across the transformer secondary.
v, =V, sinor = the ac supply voltage
voltage acroSs transformer
V. = max. (peak) value of input ac supply
secondary.

V, = RMS value of input ac supply voltage across transformer

secondary.
V=V =the output voltage across the load ;i,=ii = output (load) current.

When the thyristor is triggered at ot =a (an ideal thyristor behaves as a closed

switch) and hence the output voltage follows the input supply voltage.
V=V Vn Sinot; for ot =a to t, whenthe thyristor is on.

3 i,=i,=p=Load
R current for ot =ato t, when the thyristor is on.

2.7.1. To Derive an Expression for the average (DC) output

voltage
across the load
IfV, is the peak input supply voltage, the average output
from
voltage Vd can be found

Volde) V
= V
2T ,do)
Vofde) = V= 1
|V, sin ot d(o)

Vod)=V,sin otdo9
Vm sin ot d(o)
Vo(de)
Vo(dc) = 27 - COS at
ACto DC Converters 2.11

V
oldc) =
2T -cos t + coS C COS Tt =-1

m
o(dc) 2T l1+cos a] V=V2v,
The max1mum average (de) output voltage is obtained when a = 0 and the
mximum dc output voltage Vdclmar)
de(max) dm
m

(The average dc output voltage can be varied by varying the trigger angle a from o
to amaximum of 180° (T radians).)
(We can plot the control characteristic, which is a plotof de output voltage versus
the trigger angle a by using the equation for Voldcl