KINDS OF RESEARCH

Research is a systematic and methodical process of enquiry and investigation with a view to increasing
knowledge.

Data are known facts or things used as a basis for inference or reckoning.

A research question is the specifc question relating to the research problem that is addressed by the
research.

A research problem is the particular problem or issue that is the focus of the research.

A research topic is the general area of research interest.

Although research is central to both business and academic activities, there is no consensus in the
literature on how it should be defned. One reason for this is that research means diferent things to
diferent people. However, from the many defnitions ofered, there is general agreement that research is:
• a process of inquiry and investigation

• systematic and methodical, and

• increases knowledge.

As far as the nature of research is concerned, the above defnition tells us that researchers need to use
appropriate methods for collecting and analysing research data1 and that they need to apply them
rigorously. The general purpose of academic research is to investigate a research question with a view to
generating knowledge. A research question is the specifc question that the research is designed to
investigate. It provides a focus for your research. Do not confuse it with the questions that you might ask
participants in the research, which are detailed questions designed to collect research data. Your
research question will relate to a particular research problem or issue you have identifed within your
research topic (the general subject area of interest).

The typical objectives of research can be summarised as follows:

• to review and synthesise existing knowledge

• to investigate some existing situation or problem

• to provide solutions to a problem

• to explore and analyse more general issues

• to construct or create a new procedure or system

• to explain a new phenomenon

• to generate new knowledge

. From this you can see that research is purposeful and is conducted with a view to achieving an
outcome. The research report is usually called a dissertation or thesis. A dissertation or thesis is a
lengthy, detailed discourse that is written as part of an academic degree (a discourse is a formal
discussion of a topic).

Studying the characteristics of the diferent types of research helps us to examine the similarities and
diferences. Research can be classifed according to the:

• purpose of the research – the reason why it was conducted

• process of the research – the way in which the data were collected and analysed

• logic of the research – whether the research logic moves from the general to the specifc or vice versa

• outcome of the research – whether the expected outcome is the solution to a particular problem or a
more general contribution to knowledge.

For example, the aim of your research project might be to describe a particular business activity
(purpose) by collecting qualitative data that are quantifed and analysed statistically (process), which will
be used to solve a business problem (outcome)

Type of research Basis of classification

Exploratory, descriptive, explanatory and predictive research Purpose of the research

Quantitative and qualitative research Process of the research

Applied and basic research Outcome of the research

Deductive and inductive research Logic of the research

Exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, and predictive research

Exploratory research is conducted to provide better general understanding of phenomena when there
are very few or no previous studies. It can also be used to examine the feasibility of a more rigorous,
larger study later.

The aim of this type of research is to look for patterns and develop ideas rather than test propositions.

The research questions in exploratory research focus on ‘how’, ‘what’ and ‘where’ as the aim is to gain
insights and familiarity with the phenomenon under study.
Typical techniques used in exploratory research include case studies, observation and historical analysis,
which can provide both quantitative and qualitative data. Such techniques are very fexible as there are
few constraints on the nature of activities employed or on the type of data collected.

The research will assess which existing theories and concepts can be applied to the problem or whether
new ones should be developed. The approach to the research is usually very open and concentrates on
gathering a wide range of data and impressions. As such, exploratory research rarely provides conclusive
answers to problems or issues, but gives guidance on what future research, if any, should be conducted

Descriptive research is conducted to identify and describe the detailed characteristics of phenomena.
Descriptive research goes further than exploratory research when examining a phenomenon as the aim
of the study is to provide a basis for arguments founded on empirical evidence. The following are
examples of research questions in a descriptive research study:

• What is the absentee rate in a particular department?

• What are the feelings of workers faced with redundancy?

• What are the qualifcations of diferent groups of employees?

• What type of packaging for a box of chocolates do consumers prefer?

• What information do consumers want shown on food labels?

• Which car advertisements on television do men and women of diferent ages prefer?

• How many students study accounting in China compared with students in Australia?

• How do commuters travel to work in capital cities?

You will notice that many of these questions start with ‘what’ or ‘how’ because the aim is to describe
something. However, further clarifcation would be required before the study could begin

Explanatory research is a continuation of descriptive research.

The researcher goes beyond merely describing the characteristics of phenomena to explaining the cause
and efect of the phenomenon under study.

The aim is to understand phenomena by testing hypotheses and discovering causal relationships
between variables.

A hypothesis is a proposition that can be tested for association or causality against empirical evidence,
which is data collected about each variable based on observation or experience.

A variable is a characteristic of a phenomenon that can be observed or measured.

The research questions in explanatory research focus on ‘why’ and uncover universally applicable laws.
 For example, information could be collected on the size of companies and the level of labour turnover.
A statistical analysis of the data might show that the larger the company, the higher the level of
turnover, although as we will see later, research is rarely that simple

Predictive research provides ‘how’, ‘why’ and ‘where’ answers to current events and similar future
events. It is also helpful in situations where ‘what if’ questions are being asked. Predictive research is all
about using existing information to forecast what might happen in the future. Researchers analyze data
and trends to make informed predictions about outcomes, consequences, or even the effects of
potential policies or actions. The following are examples of research questions in a predictive research
study:

• In which city would it be most proftable to open a new retail outlet?

• Will the introduction of an employee bonus scheme lead to higher levels of productivity?

• What type of packaging will improve the sales of our products?

• How would an increase in interest rates afect our proft margins?

• Which stock market investments will be the most proftable over the next three months?

• What will happen to sales of our products if there is an economic downturn?

QUANTITATIVE DATA AND QUALITATIVE DATA

Some people choose to collect quantitative data, which is data in a numerical form, and then use
statistical methods of analysis. They often describe such studies as quantitative research. Other
researchers choose to collect qualitative data and analyse the data using non-numerical methods of
analysis. They might describe such studies as qualitative research

However, referring to a research approach as simply quantitative or qualitative can be misleading. For
example, you might want to design a study where you collect qualitative data (such as images, published
text or transcripts of interviews), quantify the data by counting the frequency of occurrence of particular
key words or themes, and then analyse the data using statistical methods

Some students avoid taking a quantitative approach because they are not confident with statistics and
think a qualitative approach will be easier. Many students find that it is harder to start and decide an
overall design for a quantitative study, but it is easier to conduct the analysis and write up the research
because it is highly structured. Qualitative research is normally easier to start, but students often fnd it
more difcult to analyse the data and write up their fnal report.

For example, if you were conducting a study into stress caused by working night shifts, you might want
to collect quantitative data such as absenteeism rates or productivity levels, and analyse the data
statistically. Alternatively, you might want to investigate the same question by collecting qualitative data
about how stress is experienced by night workers in terms of their perceptions, health, social problems,
and so on.
 APPLIED AND BASIC RESEARCH

Applied research is a study designed to apply its findings to solving a specific, existing problem. s.
Research questions are likely to focus on ‘how’ and ‘when’. The output from this type of research is
likely to be a research report containing recommendations, articles in professional or trade magazines,
and presentations to practitioners.

Basic research is a study designed to make a contribution to general knowledge and theoretical
understanding, rather than solve a specific problem. general issues without emphasis on its immediate
application, it is classifed as basic research. It is conducted without a specifc goal in mind and is more
exploratory in nature. The aim is to make a contribution to theory or knowledge through the
understanding of relationships between variables. Basic research is usually conducted for the general
good rather than to solve a specifc problem. Research questions tend to focus on ‘what’ and ‘why’; for
example, ‘What is service?’ or ‘What is quality?’ or ‘What is sustainability?’. It is called basic research
because by generating theory it provides the foundation for further (often applied) research. Basic
research may not resolve an immediate problem, but it contributes to our knowledge in a way that
could assist in fnding solutions to future problems.

Inductive and deductive research are two contrasting approaches to research methodology, each with
its own strengths and applications. Here's a breakdown of the key differences:

Inductive Research
 Direction: Bottom-up approach. Starts with specific observations and data, then uses them to develop
general theories or explanations.
 Goal: Uncover patterns, themes, and new insights from data.
 Methods: Often qualitative, like interviews, focus groups, or textual analysis. Researchers look for
recurring patterns or themes in the data.
 Example: A researcher observes a correlation between sleep deprivation and student grades in a small
group. This could lead to a broader study on the impact of sleep on academic performance.
Deductive Research
 Direction: Top-down approach. Starts with a general theory or hypothesis, then tests it through data
collection and analysis.
 Goal: Test and refine existing theories or develop solutions to specific problems.
 Methods: Often quantitative, relying on experiments, surveys, and statistical analysis to test the
hypothesis.
 Example: A researcher, based on the theory of light refraction, designs an experiment to test the
properties of different lens materials.

Here's an analogy: Imagine inductive research as putting together a puzzle without knowing the final
image. You start with individual pieces (observations) and gradually build a picture (theory) as you find
connections. Deductive research, on the other hand, is like having the completed puzzle image (theory)
and then checking each piece (data) to see if it fits.

Choosing the Right Approach

The best approach depends on the research question and what you're hoping to achieve. Inductive
research is useful for exploring new areas or generating new ideas. Deductive research is better suited
for testing existing theories or solving specific problems. In some cases, researchers might even use a
combination of both approaches for a more comprehensive understanding.

HALLMARKS OF RESEARCH

Here are 7 Hallmarks of scientific research with examples:

1. Purposiveness: Scientific research is conducted with a specific goal or question in mind. This goal
should be clearly defined and achievable through the chosen research methods.

Example: A researcher wants to investigate the effectiveness of a new fertilizer on corn growth. The
purpose of the research is to determine if the fertilizer increases corn yield compared to a control group.

2. Rigor: Scientific research is conducted in a meticulous and well-controlled manner. This ensures the
accuracy and reliability of the findings.

Example: The researcher conducting the fertilizer experiment ensures all corn plants receive the same
amount of water, sunlight, and pest control. They also measure the amount of fertilizer applied
precisely.
3. Testability: Scientific research is based on hypotheses that can be tested through experimentation or
observation. Hypotheses are falsifiable, meaning they can be proven wrong by the data.

Example: The researcher develops a hypothesis stating, "The new fertilizer will increase corn yield by
20% compared to the control group."

4. Replicability: The findings of scientific research should be reproducible by other researchers

Example: The researcher publishes their methods and data in a scientific journal. Another researcher
can then try to replicate the experiment and see if they get similar results.

5. Precision and Confidence: Scientific research strives for accurate and reliable measurements. This
includes considering the margin of error and statistical significance of the findings.

Example: The researcher measures the corn yield of each plant in grams. They then statistically analyze
the data to determine if the observed increase in yield in the fertilized group is statistically significant
(likely not due to random chance).

6. Objectivity: Scientific research should be based on evidence and observations, not personal opinions
or biases. Researchers should strive to interpret their findings in an unbiased way

Example: The researcher avoids stating their belief that the fertilizer will work and instead focuses on
the collected data to draw conclusions.

7. Parsimony: Scientific explanations should be as simple and concise as possible while still adequately
explaining the observed phenomena. Avoid overly complex explanations without supporting evidence.

Example: The researcher concludes that the increased corn yield is likely due to the nutrients provided
by the fertilizer, rather than attributing it to unknown factors

The term "classical variables" doesn't refer to different types of variables themselves, but rather to a
specific statistical sampling method used in auditing and data analysis.
 Types of classical variable?

Classical variables sampling focuses on numeric data with variable characteristics and uses a sample to
estimate population values. There aren't specific types of "classical variables" but there are different
estimation methods used within classical variables sampling:

1. Mean-per-Unit Estimation: This method calculates the average of the sample data and projects it to
represent the entire population.

2. Ratio Estimation: This method compares a variable in the sample to a known population value (ratio)
and uses that ratio to estimate the population value for the variable of interest.

3. Difference Estimation: This method focuses on the difference between a variable in the sample and a
known value, and then projects that difference to the entire population to estimate the total
misstatement.

Imagine you're conducting a science experiment! Here's a breakdown of different variables you might
encounter, explained in simple terms with examples:

Independent Variable: This is the one you change or control to see its effect on something else. It's like
the cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Example: You want to see if studying more affects your test grades. In this case, the amount of time you
spend studying is the independent variable. You control how much you study.
Dependent Variable: This is the variable that you measure to see how it's influenced by the
independent variable. It's like the effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Example: In the studying example, your test grades would be the dependent variable. You measure your
grades to see how they change depending on how much you studied.
Moderating Variable: This is a variable that can affect the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. It's like a third factor that can influence the outcome.
 Example: Maybe sleep is also important for good grades. In the studying example, sleep duration could
be a moderating variable. Perhaps studying more has a stronger effect on grades for students who get
enough sleep.
Intervening Variable: This variable comes between the independent variable and the dependent
variable, explaining how the independent variable affects the dependent variable.
 Example: Let's say fertilizer is the independent variable and plant growth is the dependent variable.
Maybe fertilizer increases nutrients in the soil, which in turn leads to plant growth. Nutrients in the soil
would be an intervening variable. It explains how fertilizer helps plants grow .