Database:

• A database is an ordered collection of related data that is built for a specific purpose. A
database may be organized as a collection of multiple tables, where a table represents a real
world element or entity. Each table has several different fields that represent the
characteristic features of the entity.
• For example, a company database may include tables for projects, employees, departments,
products and financial records. The fields in the Employee table may be Name, Company_Id,
Date_of_Joining, and so forth.
• A database management system is a collection of programs that enables creation and
maintenance of a database. DBMS is available as a software package that facilitates
definition, construction, manipulation and sharing of data in a database.
• Examples of DBMS Application Areas
• Automatic Teller Machines, Train Reservation System, Employee Management System, Manufacturing
etc.
File processing Vs Database Approach

• Data Processing Applications in computer terminology are referred to as “File Processing

Systems”. In those applications the data was processed with the help of different
programming languages.
File processing Vs Database Approach
• For example in the above example we can see three systems i.e. Examination, Library and
the Registration system. Each of them is having its own data for processing, however there
might be some information which is common to all the three systems but still being stored
separately. This results in:
1. Data Redundancy
2. Expensive Changes/Modifications due to redundancy of the data

Database Approach:
• To remove the defects from the file processing systems the database was approach was
used which eliminated the interdependency of the program and the data. The
changes/modifications can be brought about easily whether they were related to the
programs or the data itself.
• Database is a shared collection of logically related data.
Database Schemas:

• A database schema is a description of the database which is specified during database

design and subject to infrequent alterations. Databases are often represented through the
three-schema architecture or ANSISPARC architecture. The three levels are:
Example
Example…
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 Types of DBMS

Hierarchical DBMS
• In hierarchical DBMS, the relationships among data in the database are established so that
one data element exists as a subordinate of another. The data elements have parent-child
relationships and are modelled using the “tree” data structure. These are very fast and
simple.
 Types of DBMS ..

Network DBMS
• Network DBMS in one where the relationships among data in the database are of type many
to-many in the form of a network. The structure is generally complicated due to the
existence of numerous many-to-many relationships. Network DBMS is modelled using
“graph” data structure.
 Types of DBMS ..

Relational DBMS
• In relational databases, the database is represented in the form of relations. Each relation
models an entity and is represented as a table of values. In the relation or called a tuple
and denotes a single record. A column is called a field or table, a row is an attribute and
denotes a characteristic property of the entity. RDBMS is the most popular database
management system.
 Types of DBMS ..

Object Oriented DBMS

• Object-oriented DBMS is derived from the model of the object-oriented programming
paradigm. They are helpful in representing both consistent data as stored in databases, as
well as transient data, as found in executing programs. They use small, reusable elements
called objects. Each object contains a data part and a set of operations which works upon
the data. The object and its attributes are accessed through pointers instead of being stored
in relational table models.
• For example − A simplified Bank Account object-oriented database −
 Distributed DBMS
• A distributed database is a set of interconnected databases that is distributed over the
computer network or internet. A Distributed Database Management System (DDBMS)
manages the distributed database and provides mechanisms so as to make the databases
transparent to the users. In these systems, data is intentionally distributed among multiple
nodes so that all computing resources of the organization can be optimally used.
• A distributed database is a collection of multiple interconnected databases, which are
spread physically across various locations that communicate via a computer network.
Features
• Databases in the collection are logically interrelated with each other. Often they represent a
single logical database.
• Data is physically stored across multiple sites. Data in each site can be managed by a DBMS
independent of the other sites.
• The processors in the sites are connected via a network. They do not have any
multiprocessor configuration.
• A distributed database is not a loosely connected file system.
 Distributed DBMS

In a DDBS environment, three types of accesses are involved:

• Local access: the access by the users connected to a site and accessing the data from the
same site.
• Remote access: a user connected to a site, lets say site 1, and accessing the data from site 2.
• Global access: no matter from where ever the access is made, data will be displayed after
being collected from all locations.
A user does not know from where he is getting the data. To the user it appears that the data is
present on the machine on which he is working.
Distributed databases; where to apply:
1- Large number of users
2- Users are physically spread across large geographical area
 Distributed Database Management System

• A distributed database management system (DDBMS) is a centralized software

system that manages a distributed database in a manner as if it were all stored
in a single location.
Features:
• It is used to create, retrieve, update and delete distributed databases.
• It synchronizes the database periodically and provides access mechanisms by
the virtue of which the distribution becomes transparent to the users.
• It ensures that the data modified at any site is universally updated.
• It is used in application areas where large volumes of data are processed and
accessed by numerous users simultaneously.
• It is designed for heterogeneous database platforms.
• It maintains confidentiality and data integrity of the databases.
 Factors Encouraging DDBMS
• Distributed Nature of Organizational Units − Most organizations in the current times are
subdivided into multiple units that are physically distributed over the globe. Each unit
requires its own set of local data. Thus, the overall database of the organization becomes
distributed.
• Need for Sharing of Data − The multiple organizational units often need to communicate with
each other and share their data and resources. This demands common databases or
replicated databases that should be used in a synchronized manner.
• Support for Both OLTP and OLAP − Online Transaction Processing (OLTP) and Online
Analytical Processing (OLAP) work upon diversified systems which may have common data.
Distributed database systems aid both these processing by providing synchronized data.
• Database Recovery − One of the common techniques used in DDBMS is replication of data
across different sites. Replication of data automatically helps in data recovery if database in
any site is damaged. Users can access data from other sites while the damaged site is being
reconstructed. Thus, database failure may become almost inconspicuous to users.
• Support for Multiple Application Software − Most organizations use a variety of application
software each with its specific database support. DDBMS provides a uniform functionality for
using the same data among different platforms.
 Advantages of Distributed Databases

• Modular Development − If the system needs to be expanded to new locations or new

units, in centralized database systems, the action requires substantial efforts and
disruption in the existing functioning. However, in distributed databases, the work
simply requires adding new computers and local data to the new site and finally
connecting them to the distributed system, with no interruption in current functions.
• More Reliable − In case of database failures, the total system of centralized databases
comes to a halt. However, in distributed systems, when a component fails, the
functioning of the system continues may be at a reduced performance. Hence DDBMS
is more reliable.
• Better Response − If data is distributed in an efficient manner, then user requests can
be met from local data itself, thus providing faster response. On the other hand, in
centralized systems, all queries have to pass through the central computer for
processing, which increases the response time.
• Lower Communication Cost − In distributed database systems, if data is located locally
where it is mostly used, then the communication costs for data manipulation can be
minimized. This is not feasible in centralized systems.
 Adversities/Disadvantage of Distributed Databases

• Need for complex and expensive software − DDBMS demands complex and often expensive
software to provide data transparency and co-ordination across the several sites.
• Processing overhead − Even simple operations may require a large number of
communications and additional calculations to provide uniformity in data across the sites.
• Data integrity − The need for updating data in multiple sites pose problems of data integrity.
• Overheads for improper data distribution − Responsiveness of queries is largely dependent
upon proper data distribution. Improper data distribution often leads to very slow response
to user requests.
Distributed Database Vs Centralized Database
Centralized database
Distributed database
 Types of Distributed Databases

• Distributed databases can be broadly classified into homogeneous and heterogeneous

distributed database environments
 Homogeneous Distributed Databases

• In a homogeneous distributed database, all the sites use identical DBMS and operating
systems. Its properties are −
• The sites use very similar software.
• The sites use identical DBMS or DBMS from the same vendor.
• Each site is aware of all other sites and cooperates with other sites to process user requests.
• The database is accessed through a single interface as if it is a single database.

Types of Homogeneous Distributed Database

There are two types of homogeneous distributed database −
Autonomous − Each database is independent that functions on its own. They are
integrated by a controlling application and use message passing to share data updates.
Non-autonomous − Data is distributed across the homogeneous nodes and a central or
master DBMS co-ordinates data updates across the sites.
 Heterogeneous Distributed Databases

• In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites have different operating systems,

DBMS products and data models. Its properties are −
• Different sites use dissimilar schemas and software.
• The system may be composed of a variety of DBMSs like relational, network, hierarchical or
object oriented.
• Query processing is complex due to dissimilar schemas. Transaction processing is complex
due to dissimilar software.
• A site may not be aware of other sites and so there is limited co-operation in processing user
requests.
Types of Heterogeneous Distributed Databases
Federated − The heterogeneous database systems are independent in nature and integrated
together so that they function as a single database system.
Un-federated − The database systems employ a central coordinating module through which
the databases are accessed.