Wollo University

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical & Chemical Engineering

Chapter 2: Compressible Flow

Prepared by: Wubishet Degife.

E-mail: [email protected]
 Chapter Two – Compressible flow

Outline lecture notes

▪ Introduction, brief review of Thermodynamics
▪ The speed of sound, definition and classification of compressible flow
▪ Governing equations of isentropic flow with moderate area variation,
stagnation properties
▪ Normal shock wave and oblique shock wave:
▪ Flow through convergent-divergent (De-Laval) nozzle
▪ Fanno flow (Adiabatic constant area duct flow with friction) and
Rayleigh flow (Frictionless constant area duct flow with heat transfer)
▪ Lift and drag on supersonic airfoils

2
 Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

▪ Distinguish between incompressible and compressible flows, and know

when the approximations associated with assuming fluid incompressibility
are acceptable.

▪ Understand some important features of different categories of compressible

flows of ideal gases.

▪ Explain speed of sound and Mach number and their practical significance.

▪ Solve useful problems involving isentropic and non-isentropic flows

including flows across normal shock waves.

3
 Introduction to compressible flow
What do you mean by a compressible flow?

❑ Fluids have the capacity to change volume and density, i.e. compressibility.

❑ Gas is much more compressible than liquid.

❑ Compressible flow is a flow in which there are significant or noticeable

changes in fluid density.

▪ Just as inviscid (which means frictionless) fluids do not actually exists,

incompressible fluids do not actually exist.

▪ For example, most of the time we have treated water as an incompressible

fluid, although in fact the density of sea water increases by 1% for each mile
or so of depth. Hence whether or not a given flow can be considered/ treated
as incompressible is a judgment call:

4
 .. cont’d
❑ Therefore, liquid flows will almost always be considered as incompressible,
but gas flows could easily be either incompressible or compressible.
▪ Gas has large compressibility but when its velocity is low compared with the
sonic velocity the change in density is small and it is then treated as an
incompressible fluid.
▪ The compressibility factor has to be considered in the following engineering
problems.
➢ The flight of projectiles and airplanes moving at high altitudes
➢ The flow of gases through nozzles and orifices
➢ In meteorological studies where the gas system involves appreciable
variation in density due to greater heights involved
➢ In quick-return-valves, water hammers, acoustics, rapid & repeated
vibrations and such other fields.

5
 .. cont’d

❑ Mach number, Ma is defined as the ratio of the value of the local

flow velocity, V to the speed of sound, c or a.
▪ The Mach number is the dominant parameter in compressible-flow
analysis, with different effects depending upon its magnitude.
▪ It found that, the proper criterion for a nearly incompressible flow
was a small Mach number.
𝑉
𝑀a = ≪ 1
𝑎
Where V = the flow velocity and
a = the speed of sound of the fluid

6
 .. cont’d
Flows according to Mach number:
▪ Incompressible Ma < 0.3
▪ Subsonic 0.3 < Ma < 0.8
▪ Transonic 0.8 < Ma < 1.2
Compressible flows
▪ Supersonic 1.2 < Ma < 3.0
▪ Hypersonic 3.0 < Ma
❑ Modern aircraft are mainly powered by gas turbine engines that
involve transonic flows.
❑ When a space shuttle reenters the earth’s atmosphere, the flow is
hypersonic. Future aircraft may be expected to operate from subsonic to
hypersonic flow conditions.

7
 .. cont’d
▪ Ma < 1 Subsonic ▪ Ma > 1 Supersonic
In general when:
▪ Ma = 1 Sonic ▪ Ma > 5 Hypersonic

➢ Under small Mach number condition, change in fluid density are everywhere
small in the flow field.
➢ If the density change is significant, it follows from the equation of state the
temperature and pressure change are also substantial.
➢ The consequence of compressibility are not limited simply to density changes.
➢ Density change means that, we can have significant compression or expansion
work on a gas, so the thermodynamics states of the fluid will change, meaning
that in general all properties like – temperature, internal energy, entropy,
enthalpy and so on can change.
➢ For this reason, we begin with a review of the thermodynamics need to study
compressible flow.
8
A review of the thermodynamic properties .. cont’d
Compressible flows require:
▪ Continuity equation
▪ Momentum equation
▪ Energy equation
▪ Equation of state
➢ Basic thermodynamics relations:

9
 .. cont’d

➢ Basic thermodynamics relations:

𝑅𝑈
R=
➢ Characteristic values for air: 𝑀
Where 𝑅𝑈 = 8314J/(kgK) (universal
gas constant)
M = 29.98 ( Molecular weight)

10
 .. cont’d
Basic Thermodynamics Process:
▪ Isochoric process (constant volume)
𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑃
= 𝑂𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 , 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇2
𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑇

▪ Isobaric process (constant pressure)

2
𝑉1 𝑇1 𝑉
= 𝑂𝑟 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘: 𝑊 = න 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑇 1

➢ For a non –flow process: 𝛿𝑄 = 𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐸

Or 𝑄 = 𝑃(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 ) - (𝐸2 − 𝐸1 ) = (𝐸2 +𝑃2 𝑉2 ) − (𝐸1 +𝑃1 𝑉1 )
➢ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐸 + 𝑃𝑉 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 & 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦(ℎ)
➢ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝛿𝑄 = m𝐶𝑃 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )

▪ Isothermal process
𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

11
 .. cont’d
Basic Thermodynamics Process:
▪ Adiabatic process:
𝛾 𝛾
𝐴𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑤: 𝑃1 𝑉1 = 𝑃2 𝑉2 = 𝑃𝑉 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝐶

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 ∶ 𝛿𝑄 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑉1 − 𝑃2 𝑉2
𝛿𝑊 + 𝛿𝐸 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 =
𝛾−1

▪ Isentropic Process (reversible adiabatic)

12
 .. cont’d
▪ Isentropic Process (reversible adiabatic)

▪ The changes in the internal energy û and enthalpy h of a perfect gas

are computed for constant specific heats as

13
Cont…

14
 Speed of Sound

▪ The so-called speed of sound is the rate of propagation of a pressure

pulse of infinitesimal strength through a still fluid.

▪ Or propagation speed for small pressure disturbances

▪ The speed sound tells us at which speed information can be transmitted

in a gaseous medium

▪ To derive an expression for the speed of sound( i.e. sound wave

propagation) in terms of fluid property changes across the wave, let
consider propagation of a sound wave of infinitesimal strength in to
undisturbed medium as shown in fig. below

15
Speed of Sound … cont’d
▪ Imagine a sound source that creates pressure disturbance
at a certain point (i.e p is changed to P + dP due to the
sound. From that point sound waves will propagate
equally in all directions similar to the wave that occur
when throwing a stone in to water.
▪ Where, C = wave speed
➢ Note that: the wave strength (sound wave) is regarded as a wake
wave and that the change in properties are therefore infinitesimal.
➢ To derive an expression for the speed of sound, we set up the
continuity equation as follows:

▪ This is a 1D problem, Continuity across the wave is:

∆𝜌
𝜌𝐴𝐶 = 𝜌 + ∆𝜌 𝐴 𝐶 − ∆𝑉 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑉 = 𝐶 ⇒ ∆𝑉 ≪ 𝐶
𝜌+∆𝜌
16
Speed of Sound … cont’d
Momentum conservation along x:

17
Speed of Sound … cont’d

𝑃
▪ From equation of state, = 𝑅𝑇
𝜌

▪ From this equation the following are recognized for speed the of sound
➢ The speed of sound is only dependent on gas properties and temperature
➢ The higher the temperature the higher the speed of sound; this is due to
increased activity of the gas molecules

18
 … cont’d
Example:
▪ Estimate the speed of sound of carbon monoxide at 200-kPa pressure and 300°C in m/s.
Solution
From Table A.4, for CO, the molecular weight is 28.01 and k =1.40.
Thus RCO = Ru/Mm= 8314/28.01 = 297 m2/(s2K),
For the given temperature T = 300°C + 273 = 573 K.
Thus, from the equation of speed of sound
aCO = (kRT)1/2 = [1.40(297)(573)]1/2 = 488 m/s
Table A.4 Properties of Common Gases at 1 atm and 20°C
(68°F)

▪ The

19
… cont’d

20
Adiabatic and Isentropic Steady Flow

𝑉2
▪ 𝑇𝑂 = 𝑇 + is the stagnation or total head temperature of the flow stream.
2𝐶𝑃
▪ Maximum velocity obtained when enthalpy & temperature drop to(absolute)
zero:
1 1
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = (2ℎ𝑜 ) ൗ2 = (2𝐶𝑃 𝑇𝑂 ) ൗ2

21
 … cont’d
Mach number relations for adiabatic flow (isentropic or not!)

22
 … cont’d
• Mach number relations for isentropic flow (must be adiabatic, too!)

23
 … cont’d
Critical values (at Ma=1.0)
• Values at critical point, where Mach number is equal to one (sonic
conditions) are of special importance for compressible flow calculations.
For that reason, we mark these values by an asterisk:

24
 … cont’d
Some Useful Numbers for Air
▪ For k = 1.4, the following numerical versions of the isentropic and adiabatic
flow formulas are obtained:

▪ Or, if we are given the properties, it is equally easy to solve for the Mach
number (again with k = 1.4)

• Note that these isentropic-flow formulas serve as the equivalent of the

frictionless adiabatic momentum and energy equations. They relate velocity to
physical properties for a perfect gas, but they are not the “solution’’ to a gas-
dynamics problem.

25
 … cont’d
Example:1. Explain the concept of stagnation properties:
▪ A supersonic plane flies at 2000km/hr at an altitude of 9km above sea
level in standard atmospheric. If the pressure and density of air at this
attitude are states to be 30kN/m2 absolute and 0.45kg/m3, make
calculations for the pressure, temperature and density at the stagnation
point on the nose of the plane. Take R = 287 J/kg.K and γ= 1.4

26
… cont’d

27
 Isentropic Flow with Area Changes

▪ By combining the isentropic- and/or adiabatic-flow relations with the

equation of continuity we can study practical compressible-flow problems.
This section treats the one dimensional flow approximation.
One-dimensional Flow in Ducts

(a) real-fluid velocity profile; (b) one-dimensional approximation.

28
Isentropic Flow with Area Changes …cont’d

❑ Basic Velocity and Pressure Changes

How ? proof

▪ An appropriate equation of motion in the streamwise direction for the steady,

one-dimensional, and isentropic (adiabatic and frictionless) flow of an ideal
gas is obtained from Eq. 11.41 as

▪ See Munson page 593 -594

29
 …cont’d
Convergent (nozzle) and Divergent (diffuser) Duct

30
 …cont’d
❑ Flow through converging–diverging nozzle (nozzle with a throat)
(De Laval nozzle)
• It is required to accelerate a flow from subsonic to supersonic flow
conditions.
• Used in supersonic aircrafts

• Flow through diverging - converging nozzle (nozzle with a bulge)

31
 …cont’d
Perfect Gas Area Change
❑ Area ratio (relative to the critical area) can be expressed for the
convergent/ divergent nozzle as a function of Mach number only.
After lengthy algebra:

For, k = 1.4

32
 Choking …cont’d

▪ Choked flow occurs when the Mach number is 1.0 at the minimum cross-
sectional area.
▪ From the 1D mass conservation, the ratio of mass flow rates per unit area is
inversely proportional to the area ratio:

▪ The maximum flow rate occurs when the narrowest area (the throat) reaches
the sonic conditions (Ma=1). We call such flow choked, since any increase of
incoming velocity will decrease the mass flow rate. The maximum mass
flow rate is thus:
33
 …cont’d

The Local Mass Flow Function

▪ Here is a useful mass flow function, giving the actual mass flow rate when
the flow is not choked, as a function of local area, A, local pressure, p, and
stagnation pressure and temperature:

▪ The mass flow function starts at 0, for p=p0, and levels off as p/p0
approaches the critical value of 0.5283 (sonic conditions).

34
Isentropic Flow Tables for k = 1.4 …cont’d

35
Isentropic Flow Table (continued)

36
…cont’d

37
…cont’d

38
 Normal Shocks
▪ When air undergoes large and rapid compression (e.g. following an
explosion, the release of engine gases into an exhaust pipe, or where
an aircraft or a bullet flies at supersonic velocity) a thin wave of large
pressure change is produced as shown in Fig.1.

Fig. 1, Jet plane flying at supersonic velocity

Definition of shock wave
▪ Shock wave is a very thin (a few micrometers thick )region in a flow
where a supersonic flow is decelerated to subsonic flow. The process is
adiabatic but non-isentropic.
39
 … cont’d

Types of Shock Waves:

▪ Normal shock: plane of shock perpendicular to the direction of flow

ii) Oblique shock: plane of shock

inclined to the direction of flow

40
 …cont’d
Normal-Shock Wave Relations:
▪ To compute all property changes rather than just the wave speed, we
use all our basic one-dimensional steady-flow relations.

41
 …cont’d
▪ The first successful analyses of these normal-shock relations are credited
to W. J. M. Rankine (1870) and A. Hugoniot (1887), hence the modern
term Rankine-Hugoniot relations.

➢ Assumed upstream conditions (p1, V1, ρ1, h1, T1) and (p2, V2, ρ2, h2,
T2) are unknowns
➢ Due to velocity-squared term, two solutions are found, and from
2nd law of thermodynamic S2 >S1 and again with eliminating V1
and V2 from mass & energy equations the Rankine-Hugoniot
relations obtained as:

42
 …cont’d

➢ Introducing the perfect-gas law h =CpT = kp/[(k -1)ρ ], Pressure and

density ratios are :

From conservation of mass:

From equation of state:

➢ Also, the actual change in entropy across the shock can be computed
from the perfect gas relation:

43
 Mach-Number Relations with Normal shock …cont’d
▪ Property change across the normal shock for a perfect gas are obtained as:

Change in flow properties

Across a normal-shock
wave for k = 1.4.

44
 …cont’d
Some remarks
▪ The upstream flow is supersonic, and the downstream flow is subsonic.

▪ There is entropy increase across the wave, thus the flow is adiabatic but
not isentropic (because it is irreversible). So, and .

▪ Shock wave is very thin – typically few millimeters at atmospheric

pressure.

▪ Stagnation temperature remains the same across the shock wave, but the
stagnation pressure and density decrease in the same ratio.

▪ Any stagnation process (e.g. Pitot tube) must induce a shock wave in
front of it, if it is inserted into a supersonic flow

45
 Operation of Converging and Diverging Nozzles
❑ Converging Nozzle
• Consider the converging nozzle sketched in Fig. Where, 𝑇0 and 𝑝0
(stagnation properties), pe - exit pressure and pb - back pressure.

Pressure distribution caused Mass flow versus back pressure.

by various back pressures. 46
 …cont’d
❑ Converging-Diverging Nozzle operation

A. Subsonic, possibly incompressible flow

B. Subsonic, compressible flow
C. Flow in the throat just becomes sonic,
then returns to subsonic. Flow rate
reached maximum, Ae/At = Ae/A*
D. Normal shock after the throat
E. Normal shock moved downstream
F. Normal shock reached the exhaust
plane
G. Over - expanded jet
H. Supersonic flow (design back pressure)
I. Under - expanded jet.

(b) Pressure distribution caused by ▪ A nozzle when operating below the design
various back pressures value is said to be under-expanding and
above the design pressure is called over -
expanding
47
 …cont’d

Solution: see White, page 602 - 603

48
 Fanno line and Rayleigh line

▪ So far we have limited our consideration mostly to isentropic flow (no

heat transfer and no irreversibility such as friction)

▪ Actual fluid flows are generally non-isentropic. An important example

of non-isentropic flow involves adiabatic flow with friction.

▪ Friction must be included for flow through long ducts, especially if the
cross-sectional area is small.

▪ Fanno flow – is an adiabatic flow of an ideal gas through a constant

area duct with friction.

▪ Rayleigh flow - is frictionless constant area duct flow with heat

transfer.

49
 …cont’d

▪ Combining the conservation of mass and energy equation relations

into a single equation and plot it on an h-s diagram, using property
relations. The resultant curve is called the Fanno line.
Property relations for Fanno Flows:
➢ Recalling that,

➢ Dividing the first equation by the second one and noting that T01 = T02,
we have:
…………..……….. (a)

➢ From the ideal-gas equation of state,

…..………... (b)

50
 …cont’d

➢ Substituting these into the conservation of mass relation ρ1V1 = ρ2V2 and
noting that, Ma = V/a and , a = √kRT, we have

…..…………………………….…... (c)

➢ Combining Eqs. (a) and (c) gives the pressure ratio across the shock as:

…..………………….…... (d)

51
 …cont’d

➢ Thus, Eq. (d) is a combination of the conservation of mass & energy

equations; also called the equation of the Fanno line for an ideal gas
with constant specific heats.
➢ Fanno line is the locus of states that have the same value of
stagnation enthalpy and mass flux (mass flow per unit flow area).

❑ Likewise, combining the conservation of mass and momentum

equations into a single equation and plotting it on the h-s diagram
yield a curve called the Rayleigh line.

52
 …cont’d
Property relations for Rayleigh Flows:
➢ Recalling the momentum equation as: P1 - P2 = ρ2V22 - ρ1V12
And, ρV2 = PkMa2
➢ After certain manipulation, we obtain

……….……….. (e)

➢ Eq. (e) is the Rayleigh line equation.

➢ Combining Eqs. (d) and (e) yields

…….…….. (f)

❑ Eq. (f) represents the intersections of the Fanno and Rayleigh lines and
relates the Mach number upstream of the shock to that downstream of the
shock.
53
 …cont’d
Fanno & Rayleigh lines plots on h-s diagram

▪ There are 2 points where the Fanno

and Rayleigh lines intersect : points
where all 3 conservation equations
are satisfied
– Point 1: before the shock
(supersonic)
– Point 2: after the shock
(subsonic)
▪ The larger Ma is before the shock,
the stronger the shock will be.
▪ Therefore the flow must change
from supersonic to subsonic if a
shock is to occur.
▪ Entropy increases from point 1 to
point 2 : expected since flow
through the shock is adiabatic but
irreversible
54
 Summary …cont’d
▪ Equation for the Fanno line for an ▪ The heat addition causes a
ideal gas with constant specific decrease in stagnation pressure,
heats can be derived which is known as the Rayleigh
effect and is critical in the design of
combustion systems.

▪ Heat addition will cause both

▪ Similar relation for Rayleigh line is
supersonic and subsonic Mach
numbers to approach Mach 1.

▪ Conversely, heat rejection decr-

▪ Combining this gives the eases a subsonic Ma no. and
intersection points increases a supersonic Ma no.
along the duct.

▪ It can be shown that, for calorically

Variation of flow properties across perfect flows the maximum entropy
a normal shock [Rayleigh flow] occurs at Ma = 1.

55
Summary …cont’d

56
 …cont’d

Two-Dimensional Supersonic Flow

▪ Up to this point we have considered only one-dimensional compressible-
flow theories. But, now we:

o Extend one-dimensional supersonic flow to two dimensions

o Derive Mach Cone relations
o Analyze oblique shock wave
o Explain the shape of shock wave around an obstacle in
supersonic flow
o Illustrate consequences to supersonic body shape design

57
 …cont’d
Sound Wave Propagation from a Moving Source
▪ As the particle moves, it continually crashes against fluid particles
and sends out spherical sound waves emanating from every point
along its path.

▪ This radiated pattern of the pressure wave is seen to be a cone, called

the Mach cone.

▪ The semi-angle of the cone is called the Mach angle,𝜇 and it is given
by:

▪ In a 2D flow, the cone reduces to a pair of intersecting lines each of

which is called Mach line or Mach wave.

58
 …cont’d
Sound wave propagation from a moving source

▪ As the particle moves, it

continually crashes against
fluid particles and sends
out spherical sound waves
emanating from every point
along its path.

59
 …cont’d

▪ The pressure waves do not reach the region to the left of the normal
front and this region is called the silence zone (out side the cone)

▪ In supersonic flow the pressure disturbance are felt only inside the
cone and this region is called zone of action.

▪ It is precisely due to this reason that an airplane moving at supersonic

speed is not heard by stationary observer until the plane has passed
him.

60
 …cont’d
.

61
 …cont’d
Example 2
▪ An aircraft cruising at 1000-m elevation, above you moves past in a flyby. It
is moving with a Mach number equal to 1.5, speed of sound 343.3 m/s and
the ambient temperature is 20 °C. Find, How many seconds after the plane
passes overhead do you expect to wait before you hear the aircraft?

▪ Solution:

62
 …cont’d

Oblique Shock Waves

▪ Not all shocks are normal to

flow direction.

▪ Some are inclined to the flow

direction, and are called
oblique shocks

Reading Assignment
▪ Oblique shock waves: characteristic features, governing
equations, calculation of properties
▪ Textbook : White and Manson

63
Oblique Shock Waves …cont’d
.
▪ At leading edge, flow is deflected
through an angle  called the
turning/deflection angle

▪ Result is a straight oblique shock

wave aligned at shock angle 
relative to the flow direction

▪ Due to the displacement

thickness,  is slightly greater
than the wedge half-angle .

64
 Oblique Shock Waves …cont’d

▪ Like normal shocks, Ma decreases across the oblique shock, and

are only possible if upstream flow is supersonic

▪ However, unlike normal shocks in which the downstream Ma is

always subsonic, Ma2 of an oblique shock can be subsonic, sonic,
or supersonic depending upon Ma1 and .

✓ If wedge half angle  > max, a

detached oblique shock or bow
wave is formed

✓ Much more complicated that

straight oblique shocks.

✓ Requires CFD for analysis.

65
 Lift & Drag on Supersonic Airfoil
▪ Shock expansion theory: a very successful application theory for
supersonic airfoil, which is the combination of oblique-shock and Prandtl-
Meyer expansion theories.

Flat plate and a diamond-shaped foil

▪ Fig. a shows a flat-plate foil at an angle of attack. There is a LE shock on the

lower edge with flow deflection, 𝜃 = 𝛼 while the upper edge has an
expansion fan with increasing Prandtl-Meyer angle 𝛥𝜔 = 𝛼.
66
 Lift & Drag on Supersonic Airfoil …..cont’d
▪ We compute, P3 with expansion theory and p2 with oblique-shock theory.
▪ Force on the plate is: F = (p2 -p3)Cb
➢ Where C is the chord length and
▪ Lift force normal to the stream is:
b the span width (assuming no
L = F cos𝛼 and the wingtip effects).
➢ F is normal to the plate,
▪ Drag parallel to the stream is:
D = F sin𝛼
➢ Introducing perfect-gas-law identity:

Note: the typical supersonic CL is much smaller than the subsonic value CL ≈ 2π𝛼,
but the lift can be very large because of the large value of 1/2ρV2 at supersonic
speeds.

67
 …..cont’d
.

68
.

Thank you
End

69