Ch .

1 -

Logic

>
-
Basics

·
Statement/Proposition -

a sentence that is true or false but not both

Truth value -

indicates whether the statement is true or false

has 7 possible values :

True/False/ Unknown/matter of opinion

Predicate -

logical statement whose truth value is a function of one or more variables

P
can depend on >1 variable

Eg . "I is an odd number" is a

predicate ,
not a proposition

Eg. PredicatesQ and r-Q(u y) ,

: n =
y
~
(n , y, z) : n + y
= z

* 3 types of statements

Universal -
for all , every ,

conditional - if ..
then
..,

Existenitial -

there exists..,

-
Sets

set is a collection of items or

objects
·

UES :
u is an element of the set s

S =
2 , 3
1, 2
,
43 T = 22 , 3, 4
,
53

·
S + T = 33 ,
5
,
7 93
,

·
S + + =
3(1 ,
2) ,
11 , 3) , 11 , 4)
,
(1 , 5) ,
12 2),
,
(2 3),
,
12 43 (2
, ,
5)
, .
(4 5) 3
,
,
. .
.

* EntS (P(n) 3 :
set of all elements in in S such that P(n) is true
set
- * such that
>
-
Operations
pand a

(p-q)&
English :

Conjunction
·

but a
p ,

TF F
-
and operation
T F despite the pact that p q
E ,

F
FF although p , q

Disjunction (pvq)
p
·

-
inclusive or (v) TF T
TF T

FT T
FTT
-
exclusive or (0) FF F
F
FF

(up)
~
Negation
·

-not operation F T

>
-
Truth tables

statement/propositional form-made
up
of statement variables (p , a , r ,
s ,
t ,
u
,
v)

and logical connectives (v ,

v
,
1)

·
Truth tables

-
TT TF
T T FT

T TF F

T FT T

TFT F

I
F F
FF :
F + T

FTT

: i
:
·

Logical equivalence

P = Q means P is logically equivalent to Q

that always true

* Tautology : statement form is
De Morgan's Law

statement form that is

always false
Contradiction :

~
(p1q) = up v -q

~
(pvq) = up 1 ~g

=>
Conditional and Biconditional
(p +
q) (peal) -
p
:
hypothesis

& : conclusion

pea
= if p ,
then g

ps a if and only if liff then a)

·
=
p , , of p

equivalent
logically

pa
per
* For a conditional pea
, to the conditional
tapositive
wa-up
: peq
T F
converse :
q +
P
·

FT T F

F T T inverse
F ·
: up - uq

Order of
operations
>
-

1
~
V -
,
use parenthesis as needed
>
-
Laws of Propositional Logic
1) commutative :
pro = q1p pug = aup

2) Associative :
(p19)1r = pr(q1r)

3) Distributive :
pr(qur) = (p1g)v/pur) plan) =
(Ava)n(pur)

4) Identity :
pat =
p PVE = P

5) Negation :
prup = prup
= E

6) Double negative : v(up) =

P

2) Idempotent : p1p =
p prp =
P

8) Universal bound puT T F

p1F
= =
:

9) (pva) up1 ~q
Demorgan's ~(p1q)
=
~preq
~
:

10) Absorption : pr(p1q) = p pr/pvq) =

p

11) Negation of Tand F : nT = F ~FET

-

Arguments
·

Argument :
sequence of statements

Argument form :
Sequence of statement forms

consist of Premises and

e conclusion

Syllogism -

argument w/ premises & conclusion

be J
I
Eg
.
If p then Q
premises
Syllogism
If Q then R

Therefore if P then R
. P-RJ conclusion
- Premises

PQ R #R - Pe RJ conclusion

TT T T
T T

F J F #
TT
T
T F T F T

F
F T
T F F

T T
F TT T

T T T
F T F

T T T
FFT

T T T
FFF

↑
4) critical Rows for critical row if the premises and
every
-

conclusion are true

, argument is valid

that valid
* Rules of inference : Forms of
arguments a re
-

110 rules on next page)

↓
>
- Rules of inference

1) Modus
* Converse error : P Q
Ponens peq
-

Q
P
.. P

: g
*
·

Inverse e r ro r :
pr Q

~ P

2) Modus tollens : D-q . ~Q

~ q

.. ~P

3) Generalisation : a) p b) q

: Pvq : pra

4) specialisation :
a) pag b) p1q
.. P .: qu

5) Conjunction :
P
qu

.: prq

6) Elimination :
a) pug b) prq

~
p ~ q

: -

q .. P

P -a
7) Transitivity : 9) Contradiction : up -c
q
+
r
:
·

P
i - r
.

p
prop
8) Proof by division in cases : 10) Resolution :
pug
p - r

~
pvr
a = r

: vV
·
: r
>
-
Quantifiers

·
Universal : f (for all , for every) - Fu ,
P(n)

Existential E (there exists) En P(n)

:

· -

plu) =
Q() is element the truth set of P is truth set of Q
every
·

in in

P(n) > Q(n) means P(n) and Q(n) have identical with values

>
-
Negating Quantifiers

~
(FRED ,
Pln)) =
Ju ED ,
~P(n)

~ (In E D, Plub) = Fu ED ,
~P(n)

~ (fu ED, if P(u) then Q(u)) = In ED ,

P(n) and wQ(n)
 Textbook
-

>
- 1 6
.
Predicates and Quantifiers

Predicate -

logical statement whose truth value is a function of one or more variables

P
can depend on >1 variable

Eg . "I is an odd number" is a

predicate ,
not a proposition

Eg. PredicatesQ and r-Q(u y) ,

: n =
y
~
(n , y, z) : n + y
= z

>
-
1 13-.
Rules of inference w/ quantifiers

Arbitrary element special properties than those shared

by all elements
·

no other
-

of the domain

Particular element -

may have properties that a re not shared

by all elements

of the domain

Particular elements defined hypothesis

-

are i n the
Proofs

● Direct proof

● Disproof by counterexample

●
·
Proof by contradiction - tip: gure out what you want to contradict rst

● Proof by contraposition

● Proof by cases

● Proof by mathematical Induction &

● Set theory: (1) Element proof (2) Algebraic proof

*** Remember to ***

● Write full sentences

● Give title

● Suppose…

● We wish to show

● Include explanations (by def, by algebra, by sub, by __ law)

● So, since, then, etc.

● End with therefore / thus

● End with black square

● In this proof, we will use the following de nitions (optional)

fi
fi
Induction

● Basis step - prove the property is true for the rst element of the set

● Inductive step - if the property is true for P(k), then it is true for P(k+1)

● When you use P(k) in the inductive step, write (by inductive hypothesis)

● *Work on LHS and RHS separately

● Can prove for P(k-1) instead of P(k+1)

fi
 * Induction

Q Prove that for all (5n

n(
. integers n
,
n - 1
,
1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ... + -

4) =
-

3)

Proof by mathematical induction :

Let P(n) be 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ... + (5n -

4) =
n((y 3)
-

Basis step : We wish to show that P(1) .

is live

1-3)
LMs : 1 RMS : = 1 + LMS = RHS
,
so PCI) is doe
,

Inductive step : We wish to show that for all K31 ,

if P(K) is true , then Plrt1) is ,
true

P(r) inductive (5k 4) -3)

hypothesis
4
means 1 + 6 + 11 + 6 + . . .
+ -
=

u)=is a
P(k + 1) meare 1ts + 11 + 16 +... + (5(4 + D -

(RMS)

2Ms :
1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ...
+ (5y + 1) = 1 + 6 + 11 + 16 + ...
+ (5k -
4) +
(5k + 1) (by sub)

(by
k(-b) step
=
+ 154 +
1) inductive

·
Since LHS =
RHS ,
P(K + 1) is true ·
2

Therefore ,
for all
integers n ,
n31 ,

6 11 + 16 (5 4)
n
=
1 + + + +
-

...
 * Proof by
contradiction

Q .

If a and b are rational numbers ,

by0 and w is an irrational
,

number
,
then a + br is irrational .

Proof : Suppose not .

That is
, suppose a
and b are rational , b =0 w is an irrational
,

number and atbr is not irrational

We wish to show that this supposition leads logically to a

contradiction . -

since a is rational , a :

E where n
,
m El and moo

since b is rational ,
b =
1 where p , g El
and 0

g
If a + br is rational ,
then a + br
= S
,
t X, + 0
.

So a + br
=

prev
~=
smont - state
This shows v is rational (by def) , which is a contradiction .

Since our supposition is false ,

the original statement must be true .
 * Disproof by

counter example

①I Prove that for all

integers n ,
if n is odd then n-1 is odd
-

Disproof by counter example

:

Let n = .
5

Then : : =

But , 2 is even .
Thus , this statement is False .

Q2 .
Prove that the sum of any two old integers is even

Proof and odd

:
Suppose n
y are
any two
arbitrary integers .

We wish to show thatwry is even.

Sincei is odd then x = 2k + 1 for s om e

integer K.

Since y is odd then y : en + 1 for some

integer .
n

son +
y =
(2k + 1) + (2n + 1)
=
2k + 2n + 2

=
2(k + n + 1)

Let 1 I of integer integer

k + n + 1 Then is
integer since the sum is an .
=
. an

Therefore man =
21 for some
integer 1 .

So min is even
(by def of even) as we wished to show .
Proof by contrapositive:

Q. For every integer n, if n^2 is odd, then n is odd.

Proof: Suppose n is an even integer. We wish to show that if n is even, then n^2 is even.

Since n is even, n = 2k for some integer k.

Then, n^2 = (2k)^2 = 4k^2 = 2(2k^2).

Let 2k^2 be m where m is an integer (by def).

Then, n^2 = 2m. By de nition of even integers, this shows that n^2 is even.

Therefore, since we have proven the contrapositive of the initial statement to be true, the

initial statement itself must be true. That is, if n^2 is odd, then n is odd.
fi
Set theory