The learner language

Dr. Nguyen Thuy Duong

 Learner characteristics
• Cognitive maturity
➢Young children are capable of acquiring
language ‘incidentally’, without instruction.
➢Older learners can draw on problem-solving
and metalinguistic abilities.
• Attitudinal differences between children and
adults they need to learn, are required/ requested not volunteer
➢Adults are more anxious about making errors.
 Learning conditions

• Young learners are allowed to be silent;

older learners are pressured to speak.
• Time to learn varies depending on context
(e.g. inside/outside classrooms), but younger
learners typically have more time to learn.
• Type of language varies depending on context
(e.g. feedback on error in classrooms).
• Exposure to modified input is common to all L2
learners (e.g. teacher talk/foreigner talk).
1 người nước ngoài nói tiếng việt với mình
when you teach, use simpler words for students -> mình đáp lại bằng tiếng việt đơn giản
 Studying learner language

1. What can we learn from observing,

describing, and analysing learner
language?
2. Are there developmental sequences for
L2 acquisition?
3. How does L1 knowledge affect the
acquisition of L2?
 Contrastive analysis

• Analysing the differences between the L1 and

the L2 in order to predict problematic areas
where transfer is likely to occur (Lado, 1964).
negative + positive
• Limitations:
➢Over-predicted errors
➢Under-predicted errors
➢Not all errors are ‘bi-directional’
➢Does not account for developmental errors
 Error analysis

• Analyzing second language learners’ errors rather than

predicting the errors they might make (Richards, 1974).
➢Starts with the errors that learners make and tries to
understand why they are made, with reference to the
L2, the L1, and other factors.
➢Descriptive; looks for patterns in learner language.
 Limitations of error analysis

• Does not account for learner strategies such as

error avoidance (Schachter, 1974).
• By focusing only on errors, this approach may miss
evidence of progress.
 Interlanguage

• Learner’s developing L2 knowledge

➢Systematic and rule-governed
➢Dynamic and continually evolving as
learners have more experience with the L2
➢Fossilization: when some language features
stop changing
(Selinker, 1972)
 Developmental sequences

• Like L1 learners, L2 learners pass through

developmental sequences.
• L2 sequences are similar to L1 sequences and similar
in L2 learners with different L1 backgrounds.
• Research with L2 learners in classrooms has revealed
similar developmental patterns (Pienemann, 1988).
 Movement through developmental
sequences

• Not like ‘closed rooms’.

• Emergence of new form, then increasing frequency of
use.
• Progress to a higher stage can result in new
(different) errors (e.g. He ran out the door followed
by He runned out the door).
• Developmental progress interacts with L1 influence.
 More about L1 influence

• L2 interacts with L1 (and other L2s).

• Cross-linguistic influence can promote L2 development
as learners draw on what they already know from their
L1 or other previously learned languages (N. Ellis, 2009).
• Learners may linger longer in a developmental stage
because of L1 influence, e.g. pre-verbal ‘no’ in negation
by Spanish L1 speakers (Schumann, 1979).
 More about L1 influence (cont.)

• Learners may also avoid the use of some correct L2

features that are similar in L1 and L2 because they
wish to avoid making errors that might be caused by
using the L1 pattern (Kellerman, 1986).
• It is easier for learners to acquire a new L2 feature
that does not exist in their L1 than to stop using a
feature that is present in L1 but not in L2.
 More about L1 influence (cont.)

• Translanguaging: learners benefit from opportunities

to draw on all their language resources.
➢ Using L1 allows learners to express their thoughts
more fully.
➢ Using both L1 and L2 allows learners to build a new
multilingual competence.
(García, 2009)
 Vocabulary

• The English language is estimated to have

between 100,000 and one million words.
• Everyday conversation requires about 2,000
words.
• Educated speaker of English knows at least
20,000 words.
(Moore, Horst, Milton, & Nation, 2020)
 Vocabulary (cont.)

• L2 vocabulary learning is different from L1

vocabulary acquisition.
➢Less exposure
➢Less helpful contexts
• Guessing the meaning of a new word in
context requires knowing more than 95% of
the words already in the text (Hu & Nation,
2000).
 Vocabulary (cont.)

• Factors that make some L2 words easier to learn:

➢Frequent exposures in meaningful contexts
➢Noticing, focus of attention
➢International vocabulary (e.g. dollar, sushi)
➢Cognates (e.g. music/musique)

(Horst, 2019)
 Vocabulary (cont.)
• Two important non-instructional resources for L2 vocabulary:
➢ reading for pleasure
➢ digital media (TV and gaming)
• However, research shows that:
➢ vocabulary development is facilitated when learners
focus attention on new words and use them in
productive tasks.
➢ L2 vocabulary learning requires effort by learners and
teachers.
(Webb & Nation, 2017)
 Pragmatics

• Pragmatics is the ability to use language appropriately,

e.g. knowing how to:
➢ apologize, politely refuse or disagree, express
deference or respect
➢ recognize the meanings of the same sentence in
different contexts (e.g. It’s hot in here!)
• Even learners with advanced L2 grammatical and lexical
knowledge may have difficulty using language
appropriately in some contexts.
(Bardovi-Harlig, 1999)
 Pragmatics (cont.)

• Research indicates that learners benefit

from instruction in pragmatics.
• This is good news for L2 learners who do
not have extensive exposure to
conversational interaction outside the
classroom.
(Naguchi, 2015)
 Pronunciation

• Learning to perceive differences in L2 sounds takes time and focus

(Altenberg, 2005).
• Greater differences between the L1 and L2 can lead to greater
pronunciation difficulties (Bongaerts, 1999).
• Longer periods of exposure lead to improved pronunciation
(Piske,Mackay, & Flege, 2001).
• Adults who continue to make greater use of their L1 have stronger
accents in the L2 (Piske, 2007).
• Ethnic affiliation and identity choices also contribute to
pronunciation development (Gatbonton, Trofimovich, & Magid, 2005).
 Pronunciation (cont.)

• When learners focus primarily on meaning, they may

not be able to also pay attention to the sounds of the
words (Trofimovich, 2005).
• Instruction is beneficial particularly if it focuses on
suprasegmental features rather than segmental
aspects of pronunciation (Derwing & Rossiter, 2003).
 Pronunciation (cont.)

Is the goal of L2 acquisition to sound like a

‘native speaker’?
• There are many different ‘native speaker’
varieties: international and regional varieties
of English are appropriate goals for most L2
learners (Seidlhofer, 2011).
• The priority is to be intelligible and
communicatively competent, not to sound like
a ‘native speaker’ (Derwing & Munro, 2015).
 Pronunciation (cont.)

• Research shows that the presence of a strong

foreign accent does not necessarily result in
reduced intelligibility or comprehensibility (Munro &
Derwing, 2011).
• However, even perfectly intelligible L2 speakers
may experience discrimination related to their
perceived ‘accent’.
• There are now many ‘accent reduction’ businesses
and ‘accent modification’ services whose ethics
have been questioned (Derwing & Munro, 2015).
 Sampling learner language
• Corpus linguistics emphasizes the analysis of authentic
spoken and written texts.
➢ Developing teaching materials that reflect how
language is used in the community, not how it ‘should’
be used (Bennett, 2010).
• The same computer-based tools allow researchers to collect
larger and more authentic samples of learner language
(Tarone & Swierzbin, 2011).
➢ Documented language use rather than hypotheses
about what users ‘might’ say or write (Granger, Gilquin, &
Meunier, 2015).
 Summary

• The language that L2 learners produce and understand

changes as they gain more exposure to the L2 and use it in
a variety of situations.
• There are strong patterns of similarity across learners of
different ages, learning in different contexts, and starting
from different L1 backgrounds.
• There are similarities, but there are also differences in the
rate and ultimate success of learning due to individual
variation.