Unit-IV

NETWORK LAYER

Routing is the process of establishing the routes that data packets must follow
to reach the destination. In this process, a routing table is created which
contains information regarding routes that data packets follow. Various routing
algorithms are used for the purpose of deciding which route an incoming data
packet needs to be transmitted on to reach the destination efficiently.
Classification of Routing Algorithms

The routing algorithms can be classified as follows:

1. Adaptive Algorithms
2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms
3. Hybrid Algorithms

Types of Routing Algorithm

Routing algorithms can be classified into various types such as distance vector,
link state, and hybrid routing algorithms. Each has its own strengths and
weaknesses depending on the network structure.
1. Adaptive Algorithms

These are the algorithms that change their routing decisions whenever network
topology or traffic load changes. The changes in routing decisions are reflected
in the topology as well as the traffic of the network. Also known as dynamic
routing, these make use of dynamic information such as current topology, load,
delay, etc. to select routes. Optimization parameters are distance, number of
hops, and estimated transit time.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Isolated: In this method each, node makes its routing decisions using the
information it has without seeking information from other nodes. The
sending nodes don’t have information about the status of a particular link.
The disadvantage is that packets may be sent through a congested network
which may result in delay. Examples: Hot potato routing, and backward
learning.
 Centralized: In this method, a centralized node has entire information about
the network and makes all the routing decisions. The advantage of this is
only one node is required to keep the information of the entire network and
the disadvantage is that if the central node goes down the entire network is
done. The link state algorithm is referred to as a centralized algorithm since
it is aware of the cost of each link in the network.
 Distributed: In this method, the node receives information from its
neighbors and then takes the decision about routing the packets. A
disadvantage is that the packet may be delayed if there is a change in
between intervals in which it receives information and sends packets. It is
also known as a decentralized algorithm as it computes the least-cost path
between source and destination.

2. Non-Adaptive Algorithms

These are the algorithms that do not change their routing decisions once they
have been selected. This is also known as static routing as a route to be taken is
computed in advance and downloaded to routers when a router is booted.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Flooding: This adapts the technique in which every incoming packet is sent
on every outgoing line except from which it arrived. One problem with this is
that packets may go in a loop and as a result of which a node may receive
duplicate packets. These problems can be overcome with the help of
sequence numbers, hop count, and spanning trees.
 Random walk: In this method, packets are sent host by host or node by node
to one of its neighbors randomly. This is a highly robust method that is
usually implemented by sending packets onto the link which is least queued.

Random Walk

3. Hybrid Algorithms
As the name suggests, these algorithms are a combination of both adaptive and
non-adaptive algorithms. In this approach, the network is divided into several
regions, and each region uses a different algorithm.
Further, these are classified as follows:
 Link-state: In this method, each router creates a detailed and complete map
of the network which is then shared with all other routers. This allows for
more accurate and efficient routing decisions to be made.
 Distance vector: In this method, each router maintains a table that contains
information about the distance and direction to every other node in the
network. This table is then shared with other routers in the network. The
disadvantage of this method is that it may lead to routing loops.
Difference between Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Routing
Algorithms
The main difference between Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Algorithms is:
Adaptive Algorithms are the algorithms that change their routing decisions
whenever network topology or traffic load changes. It is called Dynamic
Routing. Adaptive Algorithm is used in a large amount of data, highly complex
network, and rerouting of data.
Non-Adaptive Algorithms are algorithms that do not change their routing
decisions once they have been selected. It is also called static Routing. Non-
Adaptive Algorithm is used in case of a small amount of data and a less complex
network.
For more differences, you can refer to Differences between Adaptive and Non-
Adaptive Routing Algorithms.

Non-Adaptive Routing
Adaptive Routing algorithm algorithm

A non-adaptive algorithm involves a

An adaptive algorithm involves routers for network administrator for the
exchanging and updating router table data. manual entry of the routing paths
into the router.

Whereas this algorithm creates a

This algorithm creates a routing table static table in order to determine
based on network conditions. when to send packets and which
node.

Whereas this algorithm is used by

This algorithm is used by dynamic routing.
static routing.

Whereas in a non-adaptive routing

In adaptive routing algorithm, the routing
algorithm, the routing decisions are
decisions are made based on network
not made based on network traffic
traffic and topology.
and topology.

Adaptive routing algorithms are more While non-adaptive routing

complex as compared to non-adaptive algorithms are simple in terms of
routing algorithms in terms of complexity. complexity.
 Non-Adaptive Routing
Adaptive Routing algorithm algorithm

While in non-adaptive routing

In adaptive routing algorithm, the routing
algorithm, the routing decisions are
decisions are not static tables.
static tables.

Adaptive routing algorithm is categorized Whereas non-adaptive routing

into distributed, centralized and isolation algorithm is categorized into
algorithm. random walks and flooding.

Whereas non-adaptive routing

Adaptive routing algorithm is more used as
algorithm is comparatively less
compared to non-adaptive.
used.

The dynamic protocols are employed to The manual setup is performed for
update the routing table and determine the establishing an optimal path
best route between the source and between the source and destination
destination computers. computers.

It is mostly used for-

It is mostly used for-
 Simple, Closed network
 Open, Complex network topologies
topologies

Purposes-
Purposes-
 It enables fine-grained control
 Enhancement in network performance
over packet paths.
 Prevents packet delivery failure
 Suited for reliable networks with
 Aid in controlling congestion
stable loads

Advantages of Adaptive Routing Algorithms

 Dynamic: Adaptive routing algorithms can adjust to changing network

conditions, such as traffic congestion, link failures, and topology changes,
by selecting a better path for the data packets. This results in better
network performance, higher throughput, and reduced latency.
 Load Balancing: Adaptive routing algorithms can distribute network
traffic across multiple paths to avoid congestion and ensure that all
network links are utilized efficiently.
 Fault Tolerance: Adaptive routing algorithms can reroute data packets
around network failures, which enhances network availability and
reliability.
 Better Performance: Adaptive routing algorithms can provide better
network performance by selecting the shortest or the least congested
path for the data packets.

Disadvantages of Adaptive Routing Algorithms

 Complexity: Adaptive routing algorithms are more complex than non-

adaptive algorithms, which makes them harder to implement and
maintain.
 Overhead: Adaptive routing algorithms require more processing power
and memory to execute, which can lead to increased overhead and
resource utilization.
 Routing Loops: Adaptive routing algorithms may sometimes result in
routing loops, which can cause data packets to be stuck in the network
indefinitely.
 Delay: Adaptive routing algorithms may introduce additional delay in the
network due to the time required to calculate the best path for each data
packet.

Advantages of Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithms

 Simplicity: Non-adaptive routing algorithms are simple to implement and

maintain, which reduces the cost and complexity of the network
infrastructure.
 Low Overhead: Non-adaptive routing algorithms require minimal
processing power and memory to execute, which reduces the overhead
and resource utilization.
 Avoid Routing Loops: Non-adaptive routing algorithms are less likely to
result in routing loops, which reduces the chances of data packets being
stuck in the network indefinitely.
 Fast: Non-adaptive routing algorithms can provide faster routing
decisions since they do not require the calculation of the best path for
each data packet.
Disadvantages of Non-Adaptive Routing Algorithms
 Inefficient: Non-adaptive routing algorithms may select suboptimal paths
for the data packets, which can result in congestion, longer latency, and
reduced throughput.
 Inflexible: Non-adaptive routing algorithms cannot adjust to changing
network conditions, which may result in network failures, reduced
performance, and increased latency.
 Unresponsive: Non-adaptive routing algorithms cannot respond to
network faults, which may result in data packet loss and reduced network
availability.
 Uneven Traffic Distribution: Non-adaptive routing algorithms may lead
to uneven traffic distribution, which may result in some links being
underutilized while others are congested.

Types of Routing Protocol in Computer Networks

1. Routing information protocol (RIP)

One of the earliest protocols developed is the inner gateway protocol, or RIP.
we can use it with local area networks (LANs), that are linked computers in a
short range, or wide area networks (WANs), which are telecom networks
that cover a big range. Hop counts are used by the Routing Information
Protocol (RIP) to calculate the shortest path between networks.

2. Interior gateway protocol (IGRP)

IGRP was developed by the multinational technology corporation Cisco. It
makes use of many of the core features of RIP but raises the maximum
number of supported hops to 100. It might therefore function better on
larger networks. IGRPs are elegant and distance-vector protocols. In order to
work, IGRP requires comparisons across indicators such as load, reliability,
and network capacity. Additionally, this kind updates automatically when
things change, such as the route. This aids in the prevention of routing loops,
which are mistakes that result in an unending data transfer cycle.

3. Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP)

Exterior gateway protocols, such as EGP, are helpful for transferring data or
information between several gateway hosts in autonomous systems. In
particular, it aids in giving routers the room they need to exchange data
between domains, such as the internet.
4. Enhanced interior gateway routing protocol (EIGRP)
This kind is categorised as a classless protocol, inner gateway, and distance
vector routing. In order to maximise efficiency, it makes use of the diffusing
update method and the dependable transport protocol. A router can use the
tables of other routers to obtain information and store it for later use. Every
router communicates with its neighbour when something changes so that
everyone is aware of which data paths are active. It stops routers from
miscommunicating with one another. The only external gateway protocol is
called Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).

5. Open shortest path first (OSPF)

OSPF is an inner gateway, link state, and classless protocol that makes use of
the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm to guarantee effective data transfer.
Multiple databases containing topology tables and details about the network as
a whole are maintained by it. The ads, which resemble reports, provide
thorough explanations of the path’s length and potential resource
requirements. When topology changes, OSPF recalculates paths using the
Dijkstra algorithm. In order to guarantee that its data is safe from modifications
or network intrusions, it also employs authentication procedures. Using OSPF
can be advantageous for both large and small network organisations because to
its scalability features.

6. Border gateway protocol (BGP)

Another kind of outer gateway protocol that was first created to take the role of
EGP is called BGP. It is also a distance vector protocol since it performs data
package transfers using the best path selection technique. BGP defines
communication over the internet. The internet is a vast network of
interconnected autonomous systems. Every autonomous system has
autonomous system number (ASN) that it receives by registering with the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.

Difference between Routing and Flooding

The difference between Routing and Flooding is listed below:

Routing Flooding
 Routing Flooding

A routing table is required. No Routing table is required.

May give the shortest path. Always gives the shortest path.

Less Reliable. More Reliable.

Traffic is less. Traffic is high.

No duplicate packets. Duplicate packets are present.

ROUING ALGORITHM

In computer networks, the shortest path algorithms aim to find the optimal
paths between the network nodes so that routing cost is minimized. They are
direct applications of the shortest path algorithms proposed in graph theory.

Explanation

Consider that a network comprises of N vertices (nodes or network devices)

that are connected by M edges (transmission lines). Each edge is associated
with a weight, representing the physical distance or the transmission delay of
the transmission line. The target of shortest path algorithms is to find a route
between any pair of vertices along the edges, so the sum of weights of edges is
minimum. If the edges are of equal weights, the shortest path algorithm aims
to find a route having minimum number of hops.

Common Shortest Path Algorithms

Some common shortest path algorithms are

  Bellman Fords Algorithm

 Dijkstras Algorithm

 Floyd Warshalls Algorithm

The following sections describes each of these algorithms.

Bellman Ford Algorithm

Input A graph representing the network; and a source node, s

Output Shortest path from s to all other nodes.

 Initialize distances from s to all nodes as infinite (); distance to itself as

0; an array dist[] of size |V| (number of nodes) with all values as
except dist[s].

 Calculate the shortest distances iteratively. Repeat |V|- 1 times for each
node except s

o Repeat for each edge connecting vertices u and v

 If dist[v] > (dist[u] + weight of edge u-v), Then

 Update dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge u-v

 The array dist[] contains the shortest path from s to every other node.

Dijkstras Algorithm

Input A graph representing the network; and a source node, s

Output A shortest path tree, spt[], with s as the root node.

Initializations
  An array of distances dist[] of size |V| (number of nodes), where dist[s]
= 0 and dist[u] = (infinite), where u represents a node in the graph
except s.

 An array, Q, containing all nodes in the graph. When the algorithm runs
into completion, Q will become empty.

 An empty set, S, to which the visited nodes will be added. When the
algorithm runs into completion, S will contain all the nodes in the graph.

 Repeat while Q is not empty

o Remove from Q, the node, u having the smallest dist[u] and which
is not in S. In the first run, dist[s] is removed.

o Add u to S, marking u as visited.

o For each node v which is adjacent to u, update dist[v] as

 If (dist[u] + weight of edge u-v) < dist[v], Then

 Update dist[v] = dist[u] + weight of edge u-v

 The array dist[] contains the shortest path from s to every other node.

Step-by-Step Implementation
1. Set dist=0 and all other distances as infinity.

2. Push the source node into the min heap as a pair <distance, node> →
i.e., <0, source>.

3. Pop the top element (node with the smallest distance).

1. For each adjacent neighbor of the current node:
2. Calculate the distance using the formula:
dist[v] = dist[u] + weight[u][v]
If this new distance is shorter than the current dist[v], update it.
Push the updated pair <dist[v], v> into the min heap

4. Repeat step 3 until the min heap is empty.

5. Return the distance array, which holds the shortest distance from the
source to all nodes.
Here are the main differences between Dijkstra’s algorithm and
Bellman-Ford algorithm:

Feature: Dijkstra’s Bellman Ford

Bellman-Ford algorithm is
optimized for finding the
optimized for finding the
shortest path between a
shortest path between a
single source node and all
single source node and all
other nodes in a graph
other nodes in a graph
with non-negative edge
with negative edge
weights
Optimization weights.

the Bellman-Ford
Dijkstra’s algorithm uses a
algorithm relaxes all edges
greedy approach where it
in each iteration, updating
chooses the node with the
the distance of each node
smallest distance and
by considering all possible
updates its neighbors
Relaxation paths to that node

Dijkstra’s algorithm has a Bellman-Ford algorithm

time complexity of O(V^2) has a time complexity of
for a dense graph and O(E O(VE), where V is the
log V) for a sparse graph, number of vertices and E
Time Complexity where V is the number of is the number of edges in
 Feature: Dijkstra’s Bellman Ford

vertices and E is the the graph.

number of edges in the
graph.

Dijkstra’s algorithm does

Bellman-Ford algorithm
not work with graphs that
can handle negative edge
have negative edge
weights and can detect
weights, as it assumes that
negative-weight cycles in
all edge weights are non-
the graph.
Negative Weights negative.

Floyd Warshall Algorithm

Input A cost adjacency matrix, adj[][], representing the paths between the
nodes in the network.

Output A shortest path cost matrix, cost[][], showing the shortest paths in
terms of cost between each pair of nodes in the graph.

 Populate cost[][] as follows:

o If adj[][] is empty Then cost[][] = (infinite)

o Else cost[][] = adj[][]

 N = |V|, where V represents the set of nodes in the network.

 Repeat for k = 1 to N

o Repeat for i = 1 to N

 Repeat for j = 1 to N

 If cost[i][k] + cost[k][j] < cost[i][j], Then

 Update cost[i][j] := cost[i][k] + cost[k][j]

 The matrix cost[][] contains the shortest cost from each node, i , to
every other node, j.
What is an IP Address?

An IP address, or Internet Protocol address, is a unique string of numbers

assigned to each device connected to a computer network that uses the
Internet Protocol for communication. It serves as an identifier that allows
devices to send and receive data over the network, ensuring that this data
reaches the correct destination.

Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6

In the digital world, where billions of devices connect and
communicate, Internet Protocol (IP) Addresses play a crucial role. These
addresses are what allow devices to identify and locate each other on a
network.
Currently, there are two primary versions of Internet Protocol in
use: IPv4 and IPv6. Each version has distinct characteristics, capabilities, and
was developed to meet the specific needs of the internet’s growth. IPv4 was the
first to be widely implemented, laying the groundwork for early network
communications.
However, as the internet grew and more devices started connecting online, the
limitations of IPv4 became clear, leading to the creation of IPv6. This newer
version was designed to address the shortcomings of its predecessor and to
future-proof the network against an ever-increasing demand for more
addresses and improved network efficiency.

What is IPv4?

IPv4, or Internet Protocol version 4, is the original addressing system of the

Internet, introduced in 1983. It uses a 32-bit address scheme, which
theoretically allows for over 4 billion unique addresses (2^32). IPv4 addresses
are typically displayed in decimal format, divided into four octets separated by
dots. For example, 192.168.1.1 is a common IPv4 address you might find in a
home network.
IPv4 Address Format

IPv4 Address Format is a 32-bit Address that comprises binary digits separated
by a dot (.).

IPv4 Address Format

Characteristics of IPv4

 32-bit address length: Allows for approximately 4.3 billion unique

addresses.
 Dot-decimal notation: IP addresses are written in a format of four decimal
numbers separated by dots, such as 192.168.1.1.
 Packet structure: Includes a header and payload; the header contains
information essential for routing and delivery.
 Checksum fields: Uses checksums in the header for error-checking the
header integrity.
 Fragmentation: Allows packets to be fragmented at routers along the route if
the packet size exceeds the maximum transmission unit (MTU).
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Used for mapping IP network addresses
to the hardware addresses used by a data link protocol.
 Manual and DHCP configuration: Supports both manual configuration of IP
addresses and dynamic configuration through DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol).
 Limited address space: The main limitation which has led to the
development of IPv6 to cater to more devices.
 Network Address Translation (NAT): Used to allow multiple devices on a
private network to share a single public IP address.
 Security: Lacks inherent security features, requiring additional protocols
such as IPSec for secure communications.

Drawbacks of IPv4

 Limited Address Space : IPv4 has a limited number of addresses, which is

not enough for the growing number of devices connecting to the internet.
 Complex Configuration : IPv4 often requires manual configuration or DHCP
to assign addresses, which can be time-consuming and prone to errors.
 Less Efficient Routing : The IPv4 header is more complex, which can slow
down data processing and routing.
 Security Issues : IPv4 does not have built-in security features, making it
more vulnerable to attacks unless extra security measures are added.
 Limited Support for Quality of Service (QoS) : IPv4 has limited capabilities
for prioritizing certain types of data, which can affect the performance of
real-time applications like video streaming and VoIP.
 Fragmentation : IPv4 allows routers to fragment packets, which can lead to
inefficiencies and increased chances of data being lost or corrupted.
 Broadcasting Overhead : IPv4 uses broadcasting to communicate with
multiple devices on a network, which can create unnecessary network traffic
and reduce performance.

What is IPv6?

Another most common version of the Internet Protocol currently is IPv6. The
well-known IPv6 protocol is being used and deployed more often, especially in
mobile phone markets. IPv6 was designed by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF) in December 1998 with the purpose of superseding IPv4 due to
the global exponentially growing internet of users.
IPv6 stands for Internet Protocol version 6. IPv6 is the new version of Internet
Protocol, which is way better than IPv4 in terms of complexity and
efficiency. IPv6 is written as a group of 8 hexadecimal numbers separated by
colon (:). It can be written as 128 bits of 0s and 1s.
IPv6 Address Format
IPv6 Address Format is a 128-bit IP Address, which is written in a group of 8
hexadecimal numbers separated by colon (:).

IPv6 Address Format

To switch from IPv4 to IPv6, there are several strategies:

 Dual Stacking : Devices can use both IPv4 and IPv6 at the same time. This
way, they can talk to networks and devices using either version.
 Tunneling : This method allows IPv6 users to send data through an IPv4
network to reach other IPv6 users. Think of it as creating a “tunnel” for IPv6
traffic through the older IPv4 system.
 Network Address Translation (NAT) : NAT helps devices using different
versions of IP addresses (IPv4 and IPv6) to communicate with each other by
translating the addresses so they understand each other.

Characteristics of IPv6

 IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses, offering a much larger address space than
IPv4’s 32-bit system.
 IPv6 addresses use a combination of numbers and letters separated by
colons, allowing for more unique addresses.
 The IPv6 header has fewer fields, making it more efficient for routers to
process.
 IPv6 supports Unicast, Multicast, and Anycast, but no Broadcast, reducing
network traffic.
 IPv6 allows flexible subnetting (VLSM) to divide networks based on specific
needs.
 IPv6 uses Neighbor Discovery for MAC address resolution instead of ARP.
 IPv6 uses advanced routing protocols like OSPFv3 and RIPng for better
address handling.
 IPv6 devices can self-assign IP addresses using SLAAC, or use DHCPv6 for
more control.
 IPv6 handles fragmentation at the sender side, not by routers, improving
speed.

Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It Supports Manual It supports Auto and renumbering address

and DHCP address configuration configuration

In IPv4 end to end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is

integrity is Unachievable Achievable

It can generate The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can

4.29×10 9 address space produce 3.4×10 38 address space

The Security feature is IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6

dependent on the application protocol
 IPv4 IPv6

Address representation of IPv4

Address representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal
is in decimal

Fragmentation performed by In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the

Sender and forwarding routers sender

In IPv4 Packet flow In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available

identification is not available and uses the flow label field in the header

In IPv4 checksum field is

In IPv6 checksum field is not available
available

It has a broadcast Message In IPv6 multicast and anycast message

Transmission Scheme transmission scheme is available

In IPv4 Encryption and

In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are
Authentication facility not
provided
provided

IPv4 has a header of 20-60

IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed
bytes.

IPv4 can be converted to IPv6 Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4

IPv4 consists of 4 fields which

IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated by a
are separated by addresses dot
colon (:)
(.)
 IPv4 IPv6

IPv4’s IP addresses are divided

into five different classes. Class
IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP address.
A , Class B, Class C, Class D ,
Class E.

IPv4 supports VLSM( Variable

IPv6 does not support VLSM.
Length subnet mask ).

Example of IPv6:
Example of IPv4: 66.94.29.13
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

Benefits of IPv6 over IPv4

The recent Version of IP IPv6 has a greater advantage over IPv4. Here are some
of the mentioned benefits:

 Larger Address Space: IPv6 has a greater address space than IPv4, which is
required for expanding the IP Connected Devices. IPv6 has 128 bit IP
Address rather and IPv4 has a 32-bit Address.
 Improved Security: IPv6 has some improved security which is built in with
it. IPv6 offers security like Data Authentication, Data Encryption, etc. Here,
an Internet Connection is more Secure.
 Simplified Header Format: As compared to IPv4, IPv6 has a simpler and
more effective header Structure, which is more cost-effective and also
increases the speed of Internet Connection.
 Prioritize: IPv6 contains stronger and more reliable support for QoS
features, which helps in increasing traffic over websites and increases audio
and video quality on pages.
 Improved Support for Mobile Devices: IPv6 has increased and better support
for Mobile Devices. It helps in making quick connections over other Mobile
Devices and in a safer way than IPv4.
Why IPv4 is Still in Use?

1. Infrastructure Compatibility Many systems and devices are built for IPv4
and require significant updates to support IPv6, including routers, switches,
and computers.
2. Cost of Transition – Switching to IPv6 can be expensive and complex,
involving hardware updates, software upgrades, and training for personnel.
3. Lack of Immediate Need – Techniques like NAT (Network Address
Translation) help extend the life of IPv4 by allowing multiple devices to
share a single public IP address, reducing the urgency to switch to IPv6.
4. Coexistence Strategies – Technologies that allow IPv4 and IPv6 to run
simultaneously make it easier for organizations to adopt IPv6 gradually
while maintaining their existing IPv4 systems.
5. Slow Global Adoption – The adoption of IPv6 varies significantly around the
world, which necessitates the continued support of IPv4 for global
connectivity.
6. Lack of Visible Benefits – Many users and organizations don’t see immediate
improvements with IPv6 if they don’t face an IP address shortage, reducing
the incentive to upgrade.

Conclusion
The shift from IPv4 to IPv6 is more than just an expansion of address space; it
represents a necessary evolution in internet architecture to accommodate
future growth and innovation. Understanding these differences helps not only
in appreciating how the internet works but also in foreseeing how technology
will continue to evolve to meet the needs of an increasingly connected world.