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Lab 11 Ai

The document provides an overview of propositional logic, defining propositions, logical connectives, and their syntax. It explains atomic and compound propositions, along with truth tables and logical equivalence. Additionally, it includes lab tasks for validating propositions and checking satisfiability using Python code from the AIMA logic package.

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18 views6 pages

Lab 11 Ai

The document provides an overview of propositional logic, defining propositions, logical connectives, and their syntax. It explains atomic and compound propositions, along with truth tables and logical equivalence. Additionally, it includes lab tasks for validating propositions and checking satisfiability using Python code from the AIMA logic package.

Uploaded by

aliirtza738
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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LAB 11 Propositional Logic

If you use python go to https://github.com/aimacode/aima-python/blob/master/intro.ipynb for


instructions and links to the files you need. As always, look at https://github.com/aimacode/aima-
python/blob/master/tests/test_logic.py for examples on how to use the code. The code (which includes
examples) is at https://github.com/aimacode/aima-python/blob/master/logic.py. 1

1.1 Propositions
A propositional statement or proposition is a statement that is unambiguously either true or false in a
given context. Examples include: “Quaid-e-Azam was born in July” (false), 2 + 3 equals 5 (true), and “Some
humans are reptiles” (false). The truth or falsity of a given proposition is called its truth value. Statements
that involve a subjective judgment, such as “Ali is a good guy”, are not propositional statements.

Following are some basic facts about propositional logic:

• Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.


• In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any symbol
for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
• Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
• Propositional logic consists of an object, relations or function, and logical connectives.
• These connectives are also called logical operators.
• The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
• Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
• A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid sentence.
• A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
• A proposition formula which has both true and false values is called
• Statements which are questions, commands, or opinions are not propositions such as "Where is
Ali", "How are you", "What is your name", are not propositions.

1.1.1 Syntax of propositional logic:


The syntax of propositional logic defines the allowable sentences for the knowledge representation. There
are two types of Propositions:

i. Atomic Propositions

ii. Compound propositions

1
Notes: The aima.logic package requires that propositional variables (i.e., those whose values must be True or False)
begin with an uppercase letter and logic variables (i.e., those that can take on any value) begin with a lowercase
letter. See here for a an example of using logic.py on gl. The Python examples below assume you are using Python
3.X and have done "from logic import *". The aima's logic.py package is well commented, so take a look if you have
questions. The answer might be in the comments.
Atomic Proposition: Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition
symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false. For example

• 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.


• "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.

Compound proposition: Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic


propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives. For example:

• "It is raining today, and street is wet."


• "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."
A well-formed Boolean expression in a programming language such as Python is a concrete embodiment
of a proposition. The following example uses an equality test to construct a Boolean expression:

1.1.2 Logical Connectives:


Logical connectives are used to connect two simpler propositions or representing a sentence logically. We
can create compound propositions with the help of logical connectives. There are mainly five connectives,
which are given as follows:

1. Negation: A sentence such as ¬ P is called negation of P. A literal can be either Positive literal or
negative literal.
2. Conjunction: A sentence which has ∧ connective such as, P ∧ Q is called a conjunction. For
example “Ali is intelligent and hardworking”. It can be written as,
P= Ali is intelligent,
Q= Ali is hardworking. → P∧ Q.
3. Disjunction: A sentence which has ∨ connective, such as P ∨ Q. is called disjunction, where P and
Q are the propositions. For example: "Qasim is a doctor or Engineer", Here
P= Qasim is Doctor.
Q= Qasim is an Engineer, so we can write it as P ∨ Q.
4. Implication: A sentence such as P → Q, is called an implication. Implications are also known as if-
then rules. It can be represented as
If it is raining, then the street is wet.
Let P= It is raining, and Q= Street is wet, so it is represented as P → Q
5. Biconditional: A sentence such as P⇔ Q is a Biconditional sentence, for example If I am
breathing, then I am alive
P= I am breathing, Q= I am alive, it can be represented as P ⇔ Q.

Following is the summarized table for Propositional Logic Connectives:


1.1.3 Truth Table:
In propositional logic, we need to know the truth values of propositions in all possible scenarios. We can
combine all the possible combination with logical connectives, and the representation of these
combinations in a tabular format is called Truth table. Following are the truth table for all logical
connectives:

1.1.3.1 Truth table with three propositions:


We can build a proposition composing three propositions P, Q, and R. This truth table is made-up of 8n
Tuples as we have taken three proposition symbols.

1.1.3.2 Precedence of connectives:


Just like arithmetic operators, there is a precedence order for propositional connectors or logical
operators. This order should be followed while evaluating a propositional problem. Following is the list of
the precedence order for operators:

Precedence Operators

First Precedence Parenthesis

Second Precedence Negation

Third Precedence Conjunction(AND)

Fourth Precedence Disjunction(OR)

Fifth Precedence Implication

Six Precedence Biconditional

1.1.4 Logical equivalence:


Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be logically
equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.
Let's take two propositions A and B, so for logical equivalence, we can write it as A⇔B. In below truth
table we can see that column for ¬A∨ B and A→B, are identical hence A is Equivalent to B
1.2 Lab Tasks
Exercise 11.1. Checking Validity

Use the functions in aima's logic.py to see which of the following are valid, i.e., true in every model. You
will have to

i. convert these sentences to the appropriate string form that the python code uses (see the
comments in the code) and
ii. use the expr() function in logic.py to turn each into an Expr object, and
iii. use the tt_true() function to check for validity. Provide text from a session that shows the
result of checking the validity of each. We've done the first one as an example.

a. P v ¬P
>>> tt_true(expr('P | ~P'))
True

b. P → P

c. P→ (P v Q)

d. (P v Q) → P

e. ((A ∧B) →C) ↔ (A → (B → C))

f. ((A →B) →A) →A

Exercise 11.2. Satisfiability

Use the functions in logic.py to see which of the following are are satisfiable. We've done the first one as
an example.

a. P ∧ Q
>>> dpll_satisfiable(expr('P & Q'))
{P: True, Q: True}

b. ALIVE→ ¬DEAD ∧ ¬ALIVE ∧ ¬DEAD

c. P → ¬ P v P

d. ~ (P v ¬ P)

Exercise 11.3. Propositional Consequence

For each of the following entailment relations, say whether or not it is true. The text on the left of the
entailment symbol (⊨) represents one or more sentences (separated by commas) that constitute a
knowledge base. We've done the first one for you.

a. P ∧ Q ⊨ P

b. P ⊨ P ∧ Q
c. P ⊨ P v Q

d. P ⊨ ¬ ¬ P

e. P → Q ⊨ ¬ P → ¬ Q

f. ¬P⊨P→Q

g. ¬ Q ⊨ P → Q

h. P ∧ (P → Q) ⊨ Q

i. ( ¬ P) ∧ (Q → P) ⊨ ¬ Q

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