FOOD RESOURCES (PLANT, ANIMAL, MICROBES):

Food Sources
The sources of food are broadly classified into two groups, plants and animals and
Microbes.
1.1 Food from Plants
Plants are a source of a wide variety of nutrients required to keep the human body
in perfect working condition.
Humans consume everything from fruits, flowers, even the stem of some plants,
leaves and stem-like lettuce, celery, roots of some plants like carrots, beetroot, and
seeds like wheat, rice, etc.
All food comes from plants, even animals depend on plants. Hence, we obtain food
from plants directly or indirectly. The reason one is advised to consume fruits and
vegetables on a daily basis is that it is a source of rich nutrients.
Plants provide us with vegetables, coffee, cereals, pulses, fruits, sugar, spices, oil,
etc. Different parts of the plants provide different food materials.
Vegetables
Vegetables are obtained from the plants. Some nutrient-rich vegetables such as
beetroot, turnip, spinach, cauliflower, etc. are obtained from plants. Roots, leaves,
and stem of some plants is edible.
Roots
Radish, turnip, carrot, beetroot are some of the roots that are eaten as vegetables.
Stem
Potato and ginger are the stems that are eaten as vegetables.
Leaves
Spinach, cabbage, lettuce are the leaves eaten as vegetables.
Flowers
Broccoli and cauliflower are the flowers eaten in the form of vegetables.
Fruits
Fruits are a healthy source of food from plants. Orange, mango, apple, grapes are
some of the fruits consumed by humans.
Cereals
Cereals include rice, wheat, maize, jowar, barley, etc. These are a rich source of
nutrients provided by the plants.
Tea, Coffee
Coffee and tea are widely grown in the southern parts of India. These are also
obtained from the plants. Not just these, sugar is also obtained from the plants. It is
processed from the sugarcane plant.
OIL
Oil can be extracted from the seeds and leaves of the plants. Some of the plants
producing oil are castor, mustard, and sunflower.
Spices
Cinnamon, cardamom, pepper, clove, cumin seeds, and ginger are obtained from
the plants and used for cooking purposes.
1.2 Food from Animals
Animal products are used as food directly or indirectly. Milk, eggs and meat are
important examples of food from animals.
Animal products too are a rich source of nutrients.
Animal source foods (ASF) include many food items that come from an animal
source such as fish, meat, dairy, eggs and honey.
Many individuals consume little ASF or even none for long periods of time by either
personal choice or necessity, as ASF may not be accessible or available to these
people. ASF contain more bioavailable levels of essential minerals and vitamins and
provide concentrated sources of energy and fat, vitamin B12, riboflavin, vitamin A,
vitamin E, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamin D. Vitamin A in its usable form and
vitamin B12 is present only in animal source foods.
Milk
Cows, buffaloes, sheep, goat, and camels are a great source of milk.
Milk is also called as an ideal food. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, proteins,
carbohydrates and fats.
Eggs
Chickens, ducks, geese, and quails are raised for eggs and meat. The egg is a rich
source of protein and vitamin.The yolk of the egg is mostly made up of egg. It also
contains vitamins, phosphorus, calcium and iron.
Meat
Meat is of two types- red meat and white meat.
The meat of cow, goat, sheep and pigs has a lot of fat and is called red meat.
White meat contains less fat and is obtained from chicken and fish.
White meat is healthier and can be easily digested as compared to the red
meat.Meat is rich in proteins, vitamins, zinc, phosphorus and iron.
1.3 Food from Microbes
Microbes such as bacteria, molds and yeasts are employed for the foods production
and food ingredients such as production of wine, beer, bakery, and dairy products.
Microbes are responsible, on the one hand, for the spoilage of food and disease and,
on the other hand, they are used for the production of valuable material.
Microbial diversity is truly staggering, yet all these microbes can be grouped into
five major types: Viruses, Bacteria, Archaea, Fungi, and Protists.
The major groups of microorganisms—namely bacteria, archaea, fungi (yeasts and
molds), algae, protozoa, and viruses.
Spoilage microorganisms are those that can grow in a food and cause undesirable
changes in flavor, consistency (body and texture), color, or appearance.
Microorganisms can derive energy from carbohydrates, alcohols, and amino acids.
Most microorganisms will metabolize simple sugars such as glucose. Others can
metabolize more complex carbohydrates, such as starch or cellulose, or glycogen
found in muscle foods. Some microorganisms can use fats as an energy source.
Nature uses microorganisms to carry out fermentation processes, and for thousands
of years mankind has used yeasts, moulds and bacteria to make food products such
as bread, beer, wine, vinegar, yoghurt and cheese, as well as fermented fish, meat
and vegetables. Microbes contribute to digestion, produce vitamin K, promote
development of the immune system, and detoxify harmful chemicals.
3.Functional and “Super” Foods :
3.1 Superfoods”:
Superfood is a marketing term used to describe foods rich in nutrients and other
bioactive compounds.
Foods can have high nutritional quality and may exert specific functional effects
(e.g., lower blood cholesterol levels).
Super foods are considered to be beneficial for health and well-being, whereas
functional foods are fortified or enhanced foods that may provide a health benefit
beyond the traditional nutrient they contain.
Super food is a nonmedical, marketing term that refers to natural foods supposed to
be useful for health because they are rich in a particular antioxidant or any other
nutrient. They are edibles that deliver the maximum amount of nutrients with
minimum calories.
They help pets fight disease, maintain healthy skin and shiny coat, improve healthy
digestion, maintain joints and strong bones, fight tartar and bad breath, whiten teeth,
detoxify the body system, boost immune system, promote longevity, boost energy,
and maintain good health in general.
Unlike super foods, functional foods are natural or processed foods.
They contain considerable levels of biologically active components that impart
health benefits beyond the basic essential nutrients.
The philosophy of food as medicine was supported by Hippocrates in approximately
400 B.C.. Hippocrates believed that the things eaten can help the body fend off
disease and food should be the first line of disease defence, used as a disease
preventative mechanism.
Examples of super food and functional foods are oats, garlic, green tea, red grape
juice, red wine, tomatoes, soy products, flaxseed, broccoli, cocoa, blueberries,
carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, onions, kale, cherries, and apples.
Oats contain beta-glucan, a soluble fiber, which aids to reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease by lowering blood cholesterol.
Garlic is rich in allicin and lowers cholesterol levels and blood pressure. It also
stimulates immune function and slows the growth of cancer cells.
Green tea contains polyphenols and may help prevent cancer. Red grape juice and
red wine contain resveratrol, which aids in prevention of heart disease and cancer.
3.2 Functional Foods
Functional foods are ingredients that offer health benefits that extend beyond their
nutritional value. Some types contain supplements or other additional ingredients
designed to improve health
Some examples include foods fortified with vitamins, minerals, probiotics, or fiber.
Nutrient-rich ingredients like fruits, vegetables, nuts, seeds, and grains are often
considered functional foods as well.
Oats, for instance, contain a type of fiber called beta glucan, which has been shown
to reduce inflammation, enhance immune function, and improve heart health.
Similarly, fruits and vegetables are packed with antioxidants, which are beneficial
compounds that help protect against disease.
The health effects rendered by functional foods are typically due to the bioactive
compounds they contain Different compounds can exert specific effects in the body,
but most often work together to alter one or more physiological process in the body.
whole grains contain the bran, germ and endosperm of the grain.
Whole grains contain dietary fiber, B vitamins including folate, niacin, thiamine and
riboflavin, as well as trace minerals such as iron, magnesium, and zinc.
These particular nutrients are found in the outer layer of the grain or the bran that
functions as a protective shell for the germ and endosperm inside.
The germ contains phytochemicals such as polyphenols and lignans, vitamin E, and
B vitamins. The endosperm provides carbohydrates, protein and energy
That consumption of whole grains can may lower cancer, heart disease and diabetes
risk by reducing chronic inflammation and oxidative stress, preventing insulin
resistance, reducing cholesterol levels, and improving gastrointestinal health
Examples of functional foods
Functional foods are generally separated into two categories: conventional and
modified.
Conventional foods are natural, whole-food ingredients that are rich in important
nutrients like vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and heart-healthy fats.
modified foods have been fortified with additional ingredients, such as
vitamins, minerals, probiotics, or fiber, to increase a food’s health benefits.
Here are some examples of conventional functional foods:
Fruits: berries, kiwi, pears, peaches, apples, oranges, bananas
Vegetables: broccoli, cauliflower, kale, spinach, zucchini
Nuts: almonds, cashews, pistachios, macadamia nuts, Brazil nuts
Seeds: chia seeds, flax seeds, hemp seeds, pumpkin seeds
Legumes: black beans, chickpeas, navy beans, lentils 
Whole grains: oats, barley, buckwheat, brown rice, couscous
Seafood: salmon, sardines, anchovies, mackerel, cod
Fermented foods: tempeh, kombucha, kimchi, kefir, sauerkraut
Herbs and spices: turmeric, cinnamon, ginger, cayenne pepper
Beverages: coffee, green tea, black tea
Here are some examples of modified functional foods:
fortified juices
fortified dairy products, such as milk and yogurt
fortified milk alternatives, such as almond, rice, coconut, and cashew milk
fortified grains, such as bread and pasta
fortified cereal and granola
fortified eggs
6.Physiological disturbances in alcoholism, drug
abuse and smoking
6.1 Physiological disturbances in alcoholism
Alcoholism, also called alcohol dependence, is a serious condition where a person loses
control over their drinking. People with alcoholism cannot stop drinking once they start,
even if they want to. It doesn’t matter whether they drink beer, wine, or spirits — the problem
is their lack of control over alcohol.

What Happens in Alcoholism?

 1. Loss of Control:
A person becomes dependent on alcohol. This means they cannot stop drinking
easily, even when it causes problems in their life.
2. Tolerance Increases:
Over time, they need to drink more alcohol to feel the same effects. This is called
tolerance.
3. Withdrawal Symptoms:
If they try to stop drinking suddenly, they may feel very sick. This is called
withdrawal.
Common withdrawal symptoms include:
o Nausea (feeling like vomiting)
o Sweating a lot
o Feeling anxious or restless
o Feeling very angry or irritated
o Shaking (tremors)
o Seeing things that aren’t there (hallucinations)
o Seizures or convulsions

Even Small Alcohol Problems Can Be Serious

Many people think only severe alcohol addiction is dangerous. But even mild or moderate
drinking problems can:

 Hurt the person’s health

 Cause problems in their family relationships
 Affect their job or education
 Harm the community (e.g., drunk driving accidents)

6.1.1 – Disorders and Health Effects Caused by Alcoholism

Short-Term Effects (Right After Drinking)

 Hangovers: Headache, nausea, tiredness after drinking

 Memory Loss: Forgetting what happened while drunk
 Blackouts: Not remembering anything about the time when drinking

Long-Term Effects (Due to Regular Heavy Drinking)

 Liver Problems like cirrhosis (a serious liver disease)

 Heart Diseases
 Stomach problems such as ulcers
 Brain Damage that can affect thinking and memory
 Cancer (e.g., in the mouth, throat, or liver)
 Serious Memory Loss over time
 Mental Health Issues, including depression and anxiety

Accidents and Deaths

 Heavy drinkers are more likely to die from:

 o Car accidents
o Homicides (being killed or killing others)
o Suicide

Effect on Women vs. Men

 Men are more likely to become alcoholics.

 But women face greater health risks from alcohol, even if they drink less than men.
o This includes damage to the liver, brain, and other organs.

6.2 Physiological disturbances in drug abuse

Different cultures and ethnic groups may react differently to drugs because of body and
gene differences.
Poor people or homeless people may get sicker from drugs because they already have weak
health.
Young and old people are more likely to get harmed by drugs because their bodies are more
sensitive.
Mental health problems and drug use can affect each other and make the body weaker.
Men and women process drugs differently, so the effects on their bodies can be different too.
The liver can get badly damaged because it works hard to clean drugs from the body.
The heart can be hurt by drugs, causing problems like fast heartbeat, high blood pressure, or
even heart failure.
Reproductive organs can be damaged, leading to problems like infertility or pregnancy
issues.
6.3 Physiological disturbances in smoking
• Smoking causes cancer, heart disease, stroke, lung diseases, diabetes, and chronic
obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which includes emphysema and chronic
bronchitis.
• Smoking also increases risk for tuberculosis, certain eye diseases, and problems of
the immune system, including rheumatoid arthritis.
• Irritation and inflammation of the stomach and intestines.
• Increased risk of painful ulcers along the digestive tract.
• Reduced ability to smell and taste.
• Premature wrinkling of the skin.
• Higher risk of blindness.
• Gum disease (periodontitis).
• Evidence suggests that high levels of negative emotions (depression, anxiety, and
anger) is associated with smoking behaviour.
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points(HACCP
concept)
 HACCP stands for Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points – it is a science-based
food safety system.

 It helps find dangers (hazards) in food and control them to make food safe.

 It looks at all kinds of hazards — biological (like bacteria), chemical (like toxins), and
physical (like metal pieces).

 HACCP checks food safety at every step — from farming, buying raw materials, making,
storing, transporting, and eating.

 HACCP works by preventing problems early, not just testing food at the end.

 Critical Control Points (CCPs) are the important steps where we can stop or reduce
risks — for example: cooking, cooling, or metal detection.

 The most important part is Hazard Analysis — checking each step in the process for
possible dangers.

 Some examples of CCPs:

 Cooking (thermal processing)

 Cooling (chilling)
 Testing for harmful chemicals
 Checking for metal or plastic in the food
 Mixing ingredients correctly

 Monitoring is important — it means checking that everything is working correctly at each

step.

 Monitoring can be done by hand (like taking temperature readings) or using

machines (like automatic sensors).

 HACCP helps reduce the chances of foodborne illness and keeps food safe for everyone.

 It is used by food companies to keep a check on safety from farm to fork.

7.Food Related Laws

 Food law usually has two parts: a main law that gives general rules and regulations that
explain the details.

 The main law talks about big ideas, but the regulations give exact steps for different food
products.
 In most countries, the law-makers create the main food law, and government
departments make the detailed rules.

 We need clear and specific rules for things like food safety, packaging, and labels to
follow the food law properly.

 If there’s a health emergency or new science, it’s faster for government departments to
update rules than waiting for a new law.

Concerning the principles or general provisions to be

included in basic food law, the
following points should be stressed:
• Basic purposes and scope of the law
• Definitions of basic concepts
• Competence for implementation of the law
• Inspection and analytical procedures and facilities
• Enforcement, procedures for enforcement, penalties
• Regulations for additives, pesticides, contaminants
• Packaging and labelling

7.1 Food Related- Inspection

Food inspection is the process of examining and evaluating food products to ensure
that they meet certain standards and requirements for quality and safety.
The inspection can take place at various stages of the food production chain, from
the initial raw material to the final product that reaches consumers.

7.1.1 Hygiene Inspections

 These inspections check if the place is clean and if the workers maintain personal
cleanliness.
 They make sure food is made and served in a clean way.
 This helps stop the spread of diseases caused by dirty or unsafe food.
 It also encourages workers to follow good hygiene habits.

7.1.2 Food Safety Inspections

 These focus on how food is stored, cooked, and handled.

 They check if there is any risk of the food getting contaminated or spoiled.
 This helps stop people from getting sick due to unsafe food.
 It makes sure the food is safe to eat.

7.1.3 Structural Inspection

 These inspections look at the building’s structure like lighting, plumbing, and air
flow.
 They make sure the place is good and safe for preparing and serving food.
 A proper setup helps stop germs from spreading.
  It keeps the food environment safe and working well.

7.1.4 Labelling Inspections

 These check if food labels are correct and follow rules.

 They make sure all ingredients and allergy information are shown clearly.
 This helps people know what they are eating.
 It prevents allergic reactions and other problems caused by wrong labels.

7.2 Microbial Indicators of product quality

 Microbial contamination in food means the presence of harmful germs like bacteria.

 To check if food is dirty or unsafe, scientists look for certain germs called indicator
organisms, such as E. coli, coliforms, and Enterococcus.

 Finding these germs can show that the food or water has been contaminated with feces.

 Microbiology helps keep food safe during its production, processing, and storage.

 Good microbes are also used to make foods like bread, cheese, yogurt, wine, and beer.

 Food companies must follow strict cleanliness rules to prevent harmful germs from
growing.

 Scientists use special tests to detect and count microbes in food and drinks.

 These tests help check if food is still fresh and how long it can be safely stored (shelf life).

 Common ways to control germs in food include heating, drying, filtering, or using
radiation.

 Quality checks push companies to maintain hygiene and produce safe food for people.

1.Macro nutrients- carbohydrates, proteins and lipids

Macronutrients are nutrients the body needs in large amounts, because they provide
the body with energy.
Macronutrients provide the body with energy, help prevent disease, and allow the
body to function correctly.
Macronutrients are available in many food sources, but it can be difficult to
determine the right amount to consume.
There are also a number of factors that can influence the quantity of macronutrients
people may need.
Carbohydrates:
Carbohydrates – or carbs – are the body’s primary fuel. They provide energy for
your muscles and the central nervous system during movement and exercise.
Wohlford says 45-65% of calories per day should come from carbohydrates. The
amount depends on an individual’s health goals and medical conditions.
Carbohydrates are one of the four major essential biomolecules required by living
organisms.
Organisms consume them in several forms, and they are classified into four groups
based on the number of monomer units their structure has.
They include monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
Carbohydrates, or carbs, are sugar molecules. Along with proteins and fats,
carbohydrates are one of three main nutrients found in foods and drinks.
Your body breaks down carbohydrates into glucose. Glucose, or blood sugar, is the
main source of energy for your body's cells, tissues, and organs.
Carbohydrates, fat and protein are called macronutrients.
They are the nutrients you use in the largest amounts.
Macronutrients are the nutritive components of food that the body needs for energy
and to maintain the body's structure and systems
Foods and drinks can have three types of carbohydrates: starches, sugars and fiber.
Carbohydrates are found in a wide array of both healthy and unhealthy foods—
bread, beans, milk, popcorn, potatoes, cookies, spaghetti, soft drinks, corn, and
cherry pie.
Carbohydrates are helpful in performing many functions such as breakdown of
protein molecules, dehydration as well as eliminating ketosis.
Protein:
Protein is an important part of a healthy diet. Proteins are made up of chemical
'building blocks' called amino acids.
Your body uses amino acids to build and repair muscles and bones and to make
hormones and enzymes. They can also be used as an energy source.
Here is the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institutes of Medicine's (IOM)
recommended macronutrient distribution to get you started: 10-35% of calories from
protein.
Animal-based foods (meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy foods) tend to be good
sources of complete protein, while plant-based foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, nuts,
and seeds) often lack one or more essential amino acid.
Protein deficiency is not consuming enough protein to support your body's needs.
Protein is an essential macronutrient—a nutrient the body needs and uses in large
amounts. It provides structure and support to cells, helps cells communicate, and
protects the body from viruses and bacteria.
Protein is essential to many processes in the body. It provides structure to the tissue.
That includes cell membranes, organs, muscle, hair, skin, nails, bones, tendons,
ligaments and blood plasma.
Proteins are involved in metabolic, hormonal and enzyme systems and help
maintain acid-base balance in our bodies.
The Recommended Dietary Allowance is 0.8 grams of protein per kilogram of body
weight per day. For a person who weighs 150 pounds, that adds up to around 54 grams
of protein per day.
Individual needs will vary depending on age, activity level, medical conditions and
health goals.
Fat:
Fat is vital for the body as an energy reserve, for insulation and protection of your
organs, and for absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.
Macronutrients include carbs, protein, and fat. They provide energy
and support bodily functions and structure.
Current guidelines recommend that you get 45–65% of your daily
calories from carbs, 10–35% from protein, and 20–35% from fat.
If people consume more carbohydrates than they need at the time, the body stores
some of these carbohydrates within cells (as glycogen) and converts the rest to fat.
Glycogen is a complex carbohydrate that the body can easily and rapidly convert
to energy.
About 20-35% of your total daily calories should come from fat, with less than 10%
of total daily calories from saturated fat.
Fat is one of the three essential macronutrients the body needs, along with
carbohydrates and protein. A balanced diet should include healthful
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats.
Some of the best sources of these fatty acids include avocados, olive oil, nuts,
seeds, and fatty fish.
Choose foods with “good” unsaturated fats, limit foods high in saturated fat, and
avoid “bad” trans-fat. “Good” unsaturated fats — Monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fats — lower disease risk.
Foods high in good fats include vegetable oils (such as olive, canola, sunflower,
soy, and corn), nuts, seeds, and fish.
Foods high in saturated fats
fatty cuts of meat.
meat products, including sausages and pies.
butter, ghee, and lard.
cheese, especially hard cheese like cheddar.
cream, soured cream and ice cream.
some savoury snacks, like cheese crackers and some popcorns.
chocolate confectionery.
biscuits, cakes, and pastries.
Lipid:
A lipid is any of various organic compounds that are insoluble in water.
They include fats, waxes, oils, hormones, and certain components of membranes
and function as energy-storage molecules and chemical messengers.
Lipids constitute one of the main macronutrients in food and play important roles in
living organisms such as storage and provision of energy, cell structure and
organization, and regulation of cellular processes.
Lipids are fatty compounds that perform a variety of functions in your body.
They're part of your cell membranes and help control what goes in and out of your
cells.
They help with moving and storing energy, absorbing vitamins and making
hormones. Having too much of some lipids is harmful.
Lipids, in addition to providing energy, texture, and mouthfeel, play an important
role in the odor and flavor development of food.
This could be due to the ability of lipids to generate odors and flavors, act as
precursors of odor and flavor compounds, or modify the odor and flavor of other
components .
Structures of some common lipids. At the top are cholesterol and oleic acid. The
middle structure is a triglyceride composed of oleoyl, stearoyl, and palmitoyl chains
attached to a glycerol backbone. At the bottom is the common phospholipid
phosphatidylcholine.
Lipids form a protective layer surrounding a cell which is called a cell membrane.
Lipids store energy in the form of triacylglycerols combining to be stored as fat.
Lipids help in sending nerve signals through the body

3.Nutritional Physiology

3.1 Digestion

Digestion is the process by which our body breaks down the food we eat into smaller and
simpler substances. Digestion starts in the mouth and ends in the intestines. It is a
mechanical and chemical process.

In mechanical digestion, food is physically broken down into smaller pieces. This begins in
the mouth, where the teeth chew food and the tongue helps in mixing it with saliva. The food
then travels down the food pipe to the stomach, where it is churned and mixed more.

In chemical digestion, special substances called enzymes break down the large molecules of
food into smaller ones. For example, complex carbohydrates are broken into simple sugars,
proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and glycerol. This chemical digestion
mainly takes place in the stomach and small intestine with the help of digestive juices from
the stomach, liver, pancreas, and intestines.

Digestion is a type of catabolism, which means it is a process that breaks down large
substances into smaller ones. If digestion does not happen properly, our body cannot absorb
nutrients, which may lead to nutritional problems and digestive disorders like gas, acidity,
or constipation.

3.2 Absorption

Once the food is digested, the next important step is absorption. Absorption is the process of
taking the digested nutrients into the bloodstream from the digestive system. These nutrients
include carbohydrates (sugars), proteins (amino acids), fats (fatty acids), vitamins, and
minerals. These nutrients are used by the body for energy, growth, repair, and maintenance of
cells.

Absorption mainly takes place in the small intestine.

There are three types of absorption methods:

1. Passive absorption
2. Facilitated absorption
3. Active absorption

After absorption, nutrients are transported to different parts of the body through the
bloodstream. This helps in building tissues, producing energy, and maintaining body
functions.

3.3 Utilization of Major and Minor Nutrients

Our body needs nutrients to stay alive, grow, and carry out all its daily tasks. After food is
digested and nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream, they are utilized by the body in
different ways. These nutrients are grouped into:

1. Macronutrients – Needed in large amounts

2. Micronutrients – Needed in small amounts

Utilization of Macronutrients (Major Nutrients)

Macronutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The body needs them in large
quantities because they give energy and help in body building and maintenance.

1. Carbohydrates:
o Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose.
o Glucose is the main source of quick energy for all body cells.
o It is used during activities like walking, thinking, and even sleeping.
o Extra glucose is stored in the liver and muscles as glycogen, or in fat cells for
future energy use.
2. Proteins:
o Proteins are broken down into amino acids.
o These amino acids are used to build and repair tissues, such as muscles, skin,
and blood.
o Proteins are also used to make enzymes, hormones, and antibodies, which
help in digestion, growth, and immunity.
3. Fats:
o Fats are broken into fatty acids and glycerol.
o They are used to store energy, protect organs, and maintain body
temperature.
o Fats also help in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins like A, D, E, and K.

Utilization of Micronutrients (Minor Nutrients)

Micronutrients include vitamins and minerals. Even though they are needed in very small
amounts, they are essential for proper functioning of the body. They do not provide energy,
but they help in regulating various body processes.

1. Vitamins:
o Vitamins support metabolism, immunity, vision, skin health, and healing.
o For example, Vitamin C helps in healing wounds and building strong immune
response.
o Vitamin D helps the body absorb calcium and build strong bones.
2. Minerals:
o Minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, and zinc help in several body
functions.
o Iron is used to make hemoglobin, which carries oxygen in blood.
o Calcium helps in bone strength and muscle function.
o Zinc supports immunity and wound healing.

Micronutrients also help in enzyme function, nerve signals, and maintaining fluid balance
in the body.

3. Biotechnology of Food Additives

Biotechnology plays an important role in the modern food industry. It involves the use of
microorganisms (like bacteria, yeast, and fungi) to produce and improve food. In the food
processing sector, biotechnology helps in preserving food, enhancing its quality, and
producing value-added products like enzymes, flavors, vitamins, and food ingredients.

Food additives are substances added to food to improve its quality, taste, safety, and shelf
life. These are mainly used in processed foods and packaged products to make them more
attractive and longer-lasting.

There are different types of food additives, such as:

 Colours – to make food look more attractive (example: cake icing, candies).
 Emulsifiers – to help mix oil and water together in products like mayonnaise.
 Stabilizers and thickeners – to give food a smooth texture or thickness, such as in
yogurt or sauces.
 Preservatives – to prevent food from spoiling quickly.
 Sweeteners – to add sweetness without using too much sugar. Examples include
stevia and aspartame, which are much sweeter than regular sugar.

Some additives are created using microbial fermentation – this means using bacteria or
fungi to make useful substances. For example:

 Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) from Ashbya gossypii

 Astaxanthin (a red color) from Haematococcus pluvialis
 Arpink Red™ (a food color) from Penicillium oxalicum
3.1 Bioflavors and Colors

Bioflavors and biocolors are natural flavors and colors made using biotechnological
processes, often from microbes, plants, or animals. They are used to make food look good,
smell nice, and taste better.

These are very important in the food industry because they help:

 Improve the appearance of food (making it colorful and attractive)

 Improve flavor and aroma (making food more enjoyable)
 Extend the shelf life (keeping food fresh for longer)
 Improve the texture and feel of food
 Create new food products or enhance existing ones

Color additives can be natural or synthetic. Natural color sources include plants and
microorganisms. Synthetic colors are made in labs. Colors are used in foods like candies,
drinks, ice creams, bakery items, and desserts.

Uses of food colors:

 To enhance the natural color of the food

 To make colorless food more fun (e.g., cake toppings, jelly)
 To help identify different flavors by color

Flavors are also used to improve the taste or add special taste effects (like vanilla,
strawberry, mint, etc.) to products.

Types of Food Additives and Their Uses

Type Function
Anti-caking agents Prevent ingredients from clumping together
Antioxidants Stop food from going bad due to oxidation
Artificial sweeteners Make food taste sweet with fewer calories
Emulsifiers Help mix oil and water (e.g., in dressings)
Food acids Maintain the right pH or acidity level
Colours Add or enhance natural color in food
Preservatives Keep food fresh and safe for longer periods

4.Microbial polysaccharides
Microbial polysaccharides are high molecular weight carbohydrates produced by
microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, yeast, and algae.
These polysaccharides include carbohydrates that are produced and accumulated
inside the cells such as glycogen where they function as energy and carbon reserves.
It produced by a wide variety of microorganisms are generally water-soluble gums
and possess novel and unique properties.
Due to their low cost, these biopolymers have emerged as new and industrially
important polymeric substances competing with natural gums obtained from marine
algae and higher plants.
Due to diversity in structure and physicochemical characteristics, microbial
polysaccharides have found a wide range of applications as emulsifiers, stabilizers,
binders, gelling agents, coagulants, and suspending agents in food industry.
The unique rheological properties of these biopolymers are attributable to their high
purity and regular structure which make them best suited for the food industry.
Polysaccharides of microbial origin are nontoxic, biodegradable, environment
friendly, and remain active at extreme temperature, pH, and salinity.
Due to superior properties, these are good alternatives to and may replace synthetic
and other natural water-soluble gums and may prove as novel polymers in the food
industry as thickening, suspending, and gelling agents.
Employing genetically modified microorganisms under controlled fermentation
conditions may result in the production of new exopolysaccharides having novel
superior properties, which may open up new areas of industrial applications

5.Recombinant Enzymes In Food Sector

• Recombinant enzymes are increasingly used in the food industry, not only in
traditional sectors such as dairy, bakery, brewing, and wine making, but also in new
areas such as emulsifier and sweetener production.
Recombinant enzymes are specially made enzymes using modern biotechnology.
These enzymes are very helpful in scientific studies, especially when scientists need to
test how a new medicine interacts with specific enzymes in the body.

Why Are Recombinant Enzymes Useful?

 They help in studying how drugs behave in the body.

 Scientists can make them in large amounts in the lab.
 They are useful for understanding how a single enzyme works.
 They show strong catabolic activity, which means they break down substances
effectively.

Benefits of Recombinant Enzymes

 Their performance can be improved:

o Better activity (work faster or better)
o Work well at different temperatures
o Stay stable at different pH levels (acidic or basic conditions)

Use in the Food Industry

 Microbial enzymes (enzymes made by bacteria or fungi) are very useful.

 They are cheap to produce.
 Production can be done easily and on a large scale using renewable sources.
 They are good for the environment.
Examples in Food Processing

 Help break the walls of fruit cells to extract more juice.

 Help convert starch into sugar in the making of alcohol and sweeteners.
 Used in making bread, cheese, and many processed foods.

• Recombinant DNA is the method of joining two or more DNA molecules to create
a hybrid.
• The technology is made possible by two types of enzymes, restriction
endonucleases and ligase. A restriction endonuclease recognizes a specific sequence
of DNA and cuts within, or close to, that sequence.
• The enzymes which include the restriction enzymes help to cut, the polymerases
help to synthesize and the ligases- help to bind.
• The restriction enzymes used in recombinant DNA technology play a major role in
determining the location at which the desired gene is inserted into the vector
genome.

1.2 Food Packaging and Nano Materials

 Nanomaterials are materials that contain very tiny particles (between 1 to 1000
nanometers in size).

 These tiny particles can be found on the surface, inside, or in the structure of the
material.

 Nanoparticles can act differently from bigger particles of the same material – they may
have new or better properties.

 This also includes particles that are not made on purpose, but appear during production
and get added to products.

 In food packaging, it’s important to use materials that block steam and gases from
getting inside the package.

 Good packaging should also be strong and stable under heat.

 In the past, the food industry used non-biodegradable plastic (made from petroleum).

 Now, with a green and eco-friendly approach, scientists are studying nanomaterials for
better food packaging.

 These materials help make packaging that is safer, stronger, and more protective for
food

In food packaging, silicon dioxide and titanium dioxide are the most commonly used
nanoparticles.
Silicon dioxide is used as a food colorant, anticaking agent, and drying agent for
food preservation and packaging.
Nanoparticles are used in food colorings to improve their stability, solubility, and
color intensity.
Food coloring nanoparticles are made by reducing the size of color particles to the
nanoscale range, typically between 1 and 100 nanometers in diameter.
1.3 Metallic Nanomaterials

Metal and metal oxide nanomaterials can be used in food packaging to enable
antibacterial and antifungal properties of the packaging material.
Ag, Cu metals, zinc, copper, iron, and titanium oxides have typically been the main
nanoparticles used for this purpose.

1.4 Carbon Nanomaterials

Carbon nanomaterials provide a long shelf life, and exhibits no contamination

effects on food.
Carbon-based nanomaterials are synthesized mainly through the green routes.
They provide antibacterial protection to the food, which is thereby being preserved
as a result. In food packaging, carbon dots, graphene, and carbon nanotubes can be
used.
synthesized polylactic acid-graphene food packaging material to provide a
mechanically stable, biodegradable, resistance against both oxygen and steam.
This material was found to increase the shelf life of potato chips.

1.5 Organic Nanomaterials

Natural and edible biopolymers (including starch, chitosan, gelatin, and agar) are
used to protect food.
Chitosan is known to be non-toxic in nature and mechanically stable. However, it
has low moisture resistance.
Therefore, researchers have since improved this property by reinforcing it with
nanomaterials, termed as chitosan-based nanocomposite films.

1.6 Silicon Nanomaterials

Ithas been reported that silica aerogel incorporation to the food packaging polyvinyl
alcohol film exhibits an increased thermal stability and steam resistance for
chocolate packaging.
However, it has since been revealed that silica nanoparticles can be harmful to
human cells.

2.POLICIES ON USAGE OF NANO MATERIALS IN FOODS

If the Company uses any substance with nanomaterials with particle size below 500
nm in its food or beverage products or packaging, it shall provide a statement on the
label specifying which nanomaterials are incorporated in the substance.
A nanomaterial is an engineered or manufactured material containing particles in
the nanoscale range (1-1000 nm) in one or more external dimension, or in an internal
or surface structure, or a material whose nanoscale particles have different properties
or functions than macro-scale particles of the same material.
This definition also applies to incidental nanoparticles, and those not intentionally
engineered, but that are manufactured by-products and incorporated in company
products.
Naturally-occurring organic nanoscale particles (e.g. milk proteins, essential
minerals) are not considered engineered or manufactured materials for this purpose. 
The term “naturally occurring” excludes engineering or manufacturing processes
that reduce the size of materials, as well as naturally-occurring inorganic
nanomaterials, such as asbestos.
Aggregates and agglomerates of nanoparticles are considered to be nanostructured
substances.

2.1 Policy for Nanomaterials in Food and Food Packaging

Nanotoxicology studies indicate a range of harms can be caused by ingestion,

inhalation, and/or dermal exposure to a variety of nanomaterials.

We are worried that some food companies might use nanomaterials in their products
— like in food, ingredients, packaging, or surfaces that touch food — without fully
checking if they are safe for people or the environment.

This might happen by mistake because of problems in supply chains (the process of
getting ingredients and materials).

To protect people (like customers, workers, and scientists) and nature, we have made
some policy suggestions for food companies. These are rules we believe companies
should follow when using nanomaterials.

2.2 Recommended Action:

 The company should have a clear public policy on its website about how it uses
nanomaterials in food, drinks, and packaging — whether in research or in actual products.

 The policy should explain the size, shape, and amount of nanomaterials used.

 It should also explain why the company is using nanomaterials — what effects or benefits
they want from them.

 The policy must include a list of scientific studies that company experts used to check if
the nanomaterials are safe for health and the environment.

 The company should set clear rules for suppliers, either banning nanomaterials or
requiring them to follow the company’s nanomaterial policy.
 If the company uses nanoparticles smaller than 500 nanometers, it must say so on the
product label.

 This information must be placed near the nutrition label so customers can see it easily.

 The company should also list scientific proof of safety for these nanomaterials on its
website.

 To protect factory workers, the company should follow safety steps to avoid their skin or
lungs being exposed to nanomaterials during production.

3.Food product development

The process of creating, processing, and commercializing a new food product.
The process generally takes a group of people from different disciplines working
together to develop (or improve) a product.
Food product development is a process that involves a load of crucial steps ideation,
ingredient selection, taste testing, packaging design, regulatory compliance, marketing
strategy and distribution.
Ultimately, the goal is to create products that meet consumers' needs, tastes and
preferences, while also being safe, nutritious and profitable for the company.
Businesses develop new food products (or alter existing ones) for a number of
reasons: Grow revenue and market share. Stay competitive in the industry.
Gain new customers by satisfying food trends as preferences change
3.1 Steps involved in Food Product Development
Ideation
Formulation
Processing
Commercialization

At each stage, or even within the stages, there are checkpoints to decide to continue
or stop the project.
This can be done through a Stage and Gate System like the example shown here or
it can be done in a modified system.
The principle is the same, though, to develop new products strategically and use time
and resources wisely

Typically, this Stage and Gate process works like a funnel. You may start with
12 to 15 ideas and then research and evaluate those ideas. Some ideas will get
discarded because you will find the product concept already exists.
Others will get discarded because the ingredients or processing will cost more
than what consumers are willing to pay (based on products in the relevant
category).
Some ideas will seem great, but will be too niche and will not have a large enough
target audience to be successful. Once the ideas have been narrowed down, the
best 3 to 5 ideas may be moved to the Formulation stage.
In this stage, the product will be made on a small scale and consumer testing will
be done to confirm interest.
Then products will go through the second gate to determine which products have
enough consumer interest to continue.
During the Processing stage, 2 to 3 products are scaled up on larger equipment.
This helps determine production costs and efficiency. Food safety and quality
testing also are done to determine how to produce a safe and consistent product.
Shelf-life testing is conducted at the end of the Processing stage to make sure the
product will remain at an acceptable and safe quality long enough for the product
to made, shipped, purchased, and consumed.
The third gate evaluates production, food safety, quality, and shelf life to decide
which products can actually be made efficiently and consistently.
The Commercialization stage includes work to get the product ready to sell on
the grocery store shelves. Typically this includes the final costing, additional
consumer sensory testing, and package design.
The final gate makes sure that no errors or significant drawbacks have been
missed before the product is launched.
Through the Stage and Gate process, 12 to 15 ideas may get narrowed down to 1
or 2 products.
The Stage and Gate process allows many ideas to be considered efficiently. The
more viable the idea, the more time and work is needed.
When an obstacle is found at a gate, no more time or resources are committed to
that idea.
Each company may work through the stages of product development a bit
differently depending on resources, timelines, and product types being
developed. In a product development course, a product is likely developed from
start to
finish, so more market, consumer, and product research will need to be done
during the ideation stage to catch significant drawbacks
3.2 Ideation
Often the most difficult part of product development is coming up with the initial
idea.
Many food products exist in the marketplace, so coming up with a new food product
that does not exist and consumers are interested in buying can be a challenge. It is
best to simply jump in and start generating ideas.
From there, concepts can be refined and narrowed down. Ideas can come from a
variety of sources.
Some ideas are for a brand-new product and some are for a line extension of an
existing product.
Once ideas have been generated, it is important to identify the target customer.
Trends are followed closely to determine what is new and upcoming. Trends often
spark ideas for new products.
Trends change over time, so it is difficult to list current examples, but convenience
products, comfort foods, and plant-based foods have been trending over the last few
years.
Some issues with ideation include regional vs. global preferences and market size
vs. target market.
Flavors that are commonly known and liked in the Midwest may not sell well in
other parts of the country.
Consumers outside of the Midwest may not like those flavors or may simply be
unfamiliar with the flavors.
If your target market is a small part of a product category and the product category
itself is small, there may not be a large enough market share for your product.
It also can be a challenge to realize that just because you like something, many
others
may not.
We tend to develop products we like, but sometimes you may have to develop a
product for a target audience that does not include you.
3.3 Formulation
Making the new product!
Procure ingredients and make them into a product on a small laboratory scale
Produce a “gold standard” of the new product
Possible issues
Sourcing ingredients and ingredient costs
Product shelf life (often not tested in formulation, but needs to be considered early
in
the process)
Can the product really be made on a large scale?
Avoid Patent and Copyright infringement
3.4 Processing
The formulated product process is “scaled up” to produce greater volumes
Often the process is “scaled up” more than once.
Pilot plant testing
Plant testing
There are always product changes with scale-up.
Quality & Proximate Analysis testing done to set specifications, determine food
safety
concerns, and estimate shelf life
Processing experiments and runs allow a more accurate product cost to be
determined
(include processing efficiency, rework used, etc.).
3.5 Commercialization
Once the new product has been made successfully, it is sent to commercialization to
launch the new product into the store for sale.
Steps include:
determining packaging
creating a label (logo, nutrition facts, etc.)
finalizing costs
developing advertising and/or literature for the product
3.5.1 After the launch of a new product:
Determine if the new product was successful.
Success can be measured by:
Growing interest, increase in sales
Market share
Company sales revenue

1.FOOD RELATED NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS: TYPE 1

“Nutrition disorders” are health problems that happen when a person is not getting the
right amount of nutrients from food — either too little, too much, or the wrong mix.

They can happen due to:

 Undernutrition – not eating enough nutrients.

 Overnutrition – eating too much, like in obesity.
 Or, the person’s body not absorbing nutrients properly.

These disorders include:

 Deficiencies (like not enough vitamins),

 Excess intake (like eating too much fat or sugar),
 Obesity and eating problems (like anorexia),
 And long-term diseases like heart problems, high BP, cancer, and diabetes.

There are also other types of nutritional diseases like:

 Developmental problems in babies due to poor mother’s diet,

 Genetic issues that can be helped with a special diet,
 Food and medicine interactions (some medicines may not go well with certain
foods),
 Food allergies or intolerance (like lactose intolerance),
 And unsafe food items that may cause health problems.

1.2 Type I Disorders: CARDIO VASCULAR DISEASES

How Fats Can Affect Your Heart and Blood Pressure

Some types of fats in food — like saturated fats and trans fats — are not healthy for the
heart. Eating too much of these fats can:

 Increase your blood pressure

 Raise your chances of getting heart disease
What Is Heart Disease?

Heart disease usually happens when the arteries that carry blood to your heart become
narrow. This narrowing of arteries is called atherosclerosis.

How Does Atherosclerosis Happen?

 When you eat too much bad fat, fatty substances (called plaque) start building up
inside your artery walls.
 These plaque deposits make the space inside your arteries smaller.
 This means less blood and oxygen can reach your heart.
 Over time, this can cause chest pain, heart attack, or other serious heart problems.

Why It’s Dangerous

 This condition can start when you're young, and you may not notice any signs early
on.
 By the time you’re middle-aged, the problem may have become very serious.
 That’s why it’s important to eat healthy, avoid too much fat, and stay active even
from a young age.

How to Stay Safe

 Eat more fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats (like from nuts and olive
oil).
 Avoid or limit fried food, packaged snacks, fast food, and items high in saturated
and trans fats.
 Exercise regularly and keep your weight in a healthy range.

1.3 Type I Disorders: HYPERTENSION

Drinking too much alcohol (more than two drinks per day) can lead to high blood pressure,
also known as hypertension.

Vegetarian Diet and Blood Pressure

People who follow a vegetarian diet—especially vegans, who don’t eat any animal products
like milk or eggs—often have lower blood pressure compared to people who eat meat. This
may be because they eat more fruits, vegetables, and whole grains, which are good for the
heart.
Medicines for Hypertension and Nutrition

Many medicines are used to treat high blood pressure, but some can affect the body’s
nutrient balance.

One example is a medicine called thiazide diuretic. This type of medicine makes the body
lose potassium, which is an important mineral.

To replace the lost potassium, people may need to eat more foods that are rich in potassium,
like:

 Bananas
 Oranges and other citrus fruits
 Green vegetables
 Potatoes

But people should not use potassium-based salt substitutes without asking their doctor.
These can sometimes cause health problems if not used correctly.

1.4 Type I Disorders: OBESITY

Obesity is a chronic, recurring complex disorder characterized by excess body

weight.
Obesity is influenced by a combination of factors that includes genetics, hormones,
behavior, and the environment.
Having the disease of obesity increases the risk of many disorders, such
as diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, and certain cancers, and can result
in early death.
Increasing activity and reducing caloric intake are important components of
treating obesity.
Medications and weight-loss (bariatric) surgery are also important for long-term
successful treatment for many people with obesity.
Losing as little as 5 to 10% of body weight can help lessen weight-related

problems, such as diabetes, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol levels.

1.5 Type I Disorders: Kwashiorkor

Kwashiorkor is a form of malnutrition that happens when a person’s diet lacks protein,
even if they are getting enough calories.

 It usually affects young children who stop breastfeeding and start eating a diet that is
low in protein.
 The main cause is eating food that is rich in carbohydrates (like rice or maize) but
low in protein (like meat, milk, or legumes).
Signs and Symptoms of Kwashiorkor:

 The child may look very thin overall, but the legs, feet, and belly appear swollen.
This swelling is due to fluid build-up (edema).
 The skin may become cracked or patchy and hair may change color or fall out.
 The child may be irritable, have low energy, and show signs of growth failure.
 In severe cases, kwashiorkor can lead to death if not treated properly.

Treatment:

 Kwashiorkor can be treated by slowly introducing high-protein foods, such as milk,

eggs, lentils, and meat.
 Medical care and nutrition therapy are needed to restore the body’s balance and treat
any infections.

1.6 Type I Disorders: Marasmus

Marasmus is a condition caused by a severe lack of all macronutrients, including proteins,

carbohydrates, and fats.

 It happens when the body doesn’t get enough calories for a long period of time.
 This leads to the breakdown of fat and muscle in the body to create energy.

Signs and Symptoms of Marasmus:

 The person looks extremely thin, with ribs and bones clearly visible.
 There is severe weight loss and muscle wasting.
 The skin may appear loose, and the child may look old for their age.
 The child often suffers from weakness, tiredness, and stunted growth.
 Their weight-for-height ratio is far below the normal standard, often 3 standard
deviations below the average.

Causes:

 It is caused by total calorie deficiency, not just protein.

 It is common in famine areas or places with food scarcity.
 It may also happen in children who are not breastfed properly or whose families
cannot afford a balanced diet.

Treatment:

 Treatment includes giving small, frequent meals that are rich in calories and
nutrients.
 Medical help is also needed to treat dehydration, infections, and nutrient
deficiencies.
 Gradual feeding with nutritional supplements helps the child to recover strength
and weight.

Type I Disorder: Diabetes Mellitus

Diabetes Mellitus (DM) is a health condition where the body cannot properly control the
amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood.

Glucose is the main source of energy for our body. It comes from the food we eat, especially
carbohydrates. After eating, a hormone called insulin, which is produced by the pancreas,
helps move glucose from the blood into the body’s cells for energy.

In people with diabetes:

 Either the body does not make enough insulin, or

 The body cannot use insulin properly (this is called insulin resistance).

This leads to high levels of glucose in the blood, a condition known as hyperglycemia.

Types of Diabetes:

Although there are different types of diabetes, the two main ones are:

 Type 1 Diabetes: The body does not make any insulin. It usually begins in
childhood or teenage years. People with this type need daily insulin injections.
 Type 2 Diabetes: The body does not use insulin properly. It is more common in
adults and is linked to unhealthy lifestyle and obesity. It can often be managed with
diet, exercise, and medicines.

Effects of Food and Nutrition Insecurity:

When people with diabetes don’t have access to proper food (called food insecurity), it
becomes harder to manage blood sugar levels. This can lead to:

 Higher A1c levels (A1c is a test that shows average blood sugar levels over 3
months)
 More chances of complications, like kidney problems, eye damage, and heart disease
 Frequent hospital visits
 Mental health problems, such as anxiety and stress

Diet for Diabetes Management:

To manage diabetes well, it is very important to eat the right kind of food. A healthy diet for
diabetics should include:

 Lots of vegetables (like spinach, carrots, and cabbage)

 Fresh fruits (in moderation, such as apples or papaya)
 Whole grains (like brown rice, oats, and wheat)
  Lean proteins (like pulses, eggs, tofu, and fish)
 Less of sugar, sweets, and oily or fried foods

Eating at the right time, in the right quantity, and not skipping meals is also very
important.

4.Preventive and Remedial measures of nutritional disorders

Preventive measures

1. Eat Less Unhealthy Fats and Salt:

o Adults, especially men, should try to reduce the intake of total fat, saturated
fat, cholesterol, and salt (sodium).
o Eating too much of these can lead to heart diseases, high blood pressure,
and obesity.
2. Eat More Complex Carbohydrates:
o Complex carbs are good for the body. They come from foods like whole
grains, brown rice, oats, vegetables, and legumes.
o They give long-lasting energy and help in controlling blood sugar.
3. Eat Smaller Meals More Often:
o Instead of eating three big meals, try to eat smaller meals with healthy
snacks throughout the day.
o This helps in keeping your energy up and improves digestion.
4. Talk to Your Doctor:
o Always consult a doctor or dietitian before making big changes to your diet
or if you have any health problems.
5. Avoid Empty-Calorie Drinks:
o Avoid drinks like black tea, black coffee, and sodas which have no nutrients.
o Choose nutritious drinks like milk, fruit juices, or soups.
6. Add Protein and Healthy Fats to Your Diet:
o Eat more eggs, milk, curd, meat, fish, nuts, lentils, and cheese.
o Avoid sugar-rich items like candies and soft drinks.
7. Stay Physically Active:
o Light physical activity like walking, yoga, or stretching helps in keeping you
fit and improves your appetite.
8. Drink After Meals:
o Drinking water or fluids after eating (not before or during meals) can help
you eat better without feeling full too quickly.
9. Choose Easy-to-Make Foods:
o If you are tired or not feeling well, select simple, ready-to-cook or soft foods
that are easy to digest and prepare.
10. Eat High-Protein Snacks:

 Have healthy snacks like boiled eggs, peanut butter toast, dry fruits, or paneer that
give energy and improve nutrition.

Remedial measures
 Build a Good Health System:

 A good health system should offer immunizations (vaccines), oral rehydration

therapy (ORS) for diarrhea, deworming tablets, and early diagnosis and treatment
of diseases.
 These steps help prevent malnutrition and improve health in communities.

 Breastfeeding is Very Important:

 Exclusive breastfeeding should be done for the first 6 months of a baby’s life.
 Continue breastfeeding until the child is at least 2 years old for better immunity and
nutrition.
 Teach About Local Food Nutrition:
o Help people understand which local foods are healthy, rich in nutrients, and
affordable.
o Promote traditional and culturally accepted food options that are easy to find
and cook.
 Break Harmful Beliefs:
o Correct wrong cultural beliefs and food taboos that stop people from eating
healthy.
o For example, some people avoid giving eggs or pulses to kids due to wrong
beliefs.
 Proper Weaning and Supplementary Foods:
o Teach parents how to prepare healthy weaning foods (after 6 months of age)
using local ingredients like rice, dal, vegetables, eggs, etc.
 Add High-Protein Foods:
o Include foods like milk, eggs, fish, meat, or pulses in the daily diet to
improve protein intake.
 Eat During Illness:
o Encourage families to keep feeding children and adults during illness so
that they can recover faster and not become weak.
 Grow a Kitchen Garden:
o Families can grow vegetables and fruits in their backyards or balconies to
have a fresh and cheap source of healthy food.
 Keep Things Clean:
o Teach the importance of clean drinking water, handwashing, and toilet
hygiene to prevent infections.
 Vaccinate Your Children:
o Give all vaccines (like polio, measles, etc.) on time to protect children from
dangerous diseases that can cause malnutrition.

5.Energy balance and methods to calculate individual

nutrient and energy needs

Energy balance

Energy balance is achieved when input (i.e. dietary energy intake) is equal to output
(i.e. total energy expenditure), plus the energy cost of growth in childhood and
pregnancy, or the energy cost to produce milk during lactation.

When energy balance is maintained over a prolonged period, an individual is
considered to be in a steady state.

This can include short periods during which the day-to-day balance between intake
and expenditure does not occur.

An optimal steady state is achieved when energy intake compensates for total energy
expenditure and allows for adequate growth in children, and pregnancy and lactation
in women, without imposing metabolic, physiological or behavioural restrictions
that limit the full expression of a person’s biological, social and economic
potential.

5.2 ENERGY NEEDS

 Energy requirement means the amount of energy (from food) a person needs every
day to:
o Keep their body size and shape the same
o Stay active and healthy
o Support body growth and development
 This energy helps with:
o Growth in children
o Tissue building during pregnancy
o Milk production during breastfeeding to keep both mother and baby healthy
 The amount of energy needed depends on:
o Age, gender, height, weight
o Physical activity (how active the person is)
o Health status (whether the person is healthy or sick)

✅ Who Decides Energy Requirements?

 Experts calculate the average energy needs of healthy and well-nourished people
in a group (like children, adults, pregnant women).
 This is called the Recommended Dietary Energy Intake.
 These recommendations are meant to keep people healthy for a long time.

🔶 Special Situations:

 In many developing countries (like India), some children may be underweight or get
sick often with diseases like diarrhea or cough.
 For such children, special care is needed while deciding their energy needs.
 This report considers these public health problems while giving suggestions.
📅 Daily Energy Requirements and Intake

✅ What Does "Daily" Mean?

 When we say daily energy requirement, it means the average amount of energy
needed per day.
 It doesn’t mean a person must eat exactly the same amount of energy every single
day.
 Some days they may eat more, some days less — and that’s okay.

✅ Why Use 7 Days?

 Experts often use a 7-day period to understand average eating and activity patterns.
 This is because people eat and move differently on different days, like more food
on weekends or more walking during weekdays.

📊 Average Requirement and Differences Between People

✅ How Are Energy Needs Calculated?

 Scientists measure the energy use of many people with similar characteristics (age,
gender, height, weight, and activity level).
 Then they calculate the average requirement for that group.

✅ Can Two People Have Different Needs?

 Yes, even if two people seem the same (same age, weight, etc.), they may still need
different amounts of energy.
 This is because:
o Each person’s body works a bit differently
o Some may have faster metabolism, more muscle, or different routines
 That’s why even with similar features, some variation in energy needs is natural.

5.3 Methods to calculate individual nutrient

Common methods for estimating nutrient values include
o
using values from a different but similar food,
o
calculating values from different forms of the same food,
o
calculating values from other components in the same food,
o
calculating values from household recipes or commercial product
formulations for multicomponent foods,
o
converting values from information on the nutrient label of a commercial food
product,
o
calculating values from a product standard

1️⃣ Using Values from a Similar Food

 If the exact food is not tested, we can use data from a similar food.
 For example, if we don’t know the nutrients in rutabaga, we can use data from
turnip because both are root vegetables from the same plant family.
 We should also consider:
o The part of the plant (leaf, stem, root)
o The color of the vegetable (green or orange) — because this affects vitamin A
or carotenoid levels.

✅ Example: Use turnip’s nutrients for rutabaga, but don’t use cabbage (a leaf) for a root
vegetable.

2️⃣ Calculating Nutrients from a Different Form of the Same Food

 Sometimes we know the nutrient value for raw food, but not for the cooked version.
 In this case, we estimate the nutrient in the cooked food by:
o Using cooking yield (how much food is left after cooking)
o And nutrient retention (how much of the nutrient remains after cooking)

✅ Example: We use data to find out how much Vitamin C is lost when spinach is boiled, and
calculate the rest.

3️⃣ Calculating Nutrients from Other Known Nutrients

 Sometimes, we use math formulas to calculate nutrients.

 One common example is energy value using the Atwater method:
This helps estimate the calories in food based on how much protein, fat, or carbs it has.

4️⃣ Using Household Recipes or Commercial Product Formulas

 For foods with many ingredients (like pizza or biryani), we add the nutrient values
of each ingredient.
 If we have a full recipe (with quantities), we can accurately calculate the total
nutrients.
 If it's a commercial food, we may only have the ingredient list (without quantities),
so the calculation may not be exact.

✅ Example: To find nutrition in vegetable pulao, add nutrients from rice, vegetables, oil, and
spices.

5️⃣ Using Nutrient Information from Food Labels

 In many countries, food packages show nutrition labels (example: 100 kcal, 5g
protein).
 If lab data is missing, we can use this label to estimate nutrients per 100g.
 But be careful:
o Companies may round values (e.g., 4.8g becomes 5g)
o Labels follow different rules in each country

✅ Example: If a biscuit label says "150 kcal per serving," we can use this to estimate calories
in 100g.

6️⃣ Using Product Standards

 Some foods are fortified (extra nutrients added), like Vitamin D in milk or iron in
cereals.
 If we don’t have lab results, we use standards set by the government to guess the
amount added.
 In the U.S., the FDA gives minimum and maximum values in official documents.

✅ Example: If enriched macaroni must have 4–5 mg of thiamin per pound, and we don’t
know the exact value, we can assume the average (4.5 mg).
  If the law says a nutrient is "optional", we need to know what is commonly done in
that country or industry.

PLANNING A HEALTHY DIET

A healthy diet is very important for staying well and feeling good. It helps protect us from
many long-term diseases such as:

 Heart disease
 Diabetes
 Cancer
 High blood pressure

Why is a Healthy Diet Important?

Eating the right food every day helps our body:

 Grow properly
 Stay active and strong
 Fight diseases
 Maintain proper weight
 Keep organs working well (like heart, brain, liver)

What Should a Healthy Diet Include?

1. Eat a Variety of Foods

Don’t eat the same food every day. Your plate should have:
o Fruits (like banana, apple, papaya)
o Vegetables (like spinach, carrot, beans)
o Grains (like rice, wheat, oats)
o Protein foods (like egg, fish, dal, nuts, soy)
o Milk and milk products (curd, paneer, low-fat milk)
2. Eat Less of These
These can harm your health if eaten in large amounts:
o Salt (can cause high BP)
o Sugar (can lead to diabetes, weight gain)
o Saturated and trans fats (found in fried food, bakery items – can block
arteries)
3. Drink Water Instead of Sugary Drinks
Water is best. Avoid soda, cola, sweet juices.

Healthy Eating Tips

  Choose whole grains instead of white rice or bread.
 Eat lean meats (like chicken, fish) or plant protein (dal, nuts).
 Use healthy oils like sunflower or olive oil.
 Try to eat at home more often than outside.
 Use less oil, salt, and sugar in cooking.

Control Your Portions

 Don’t overeat. Take smaller plates.

 Stop eating when you feel full.
 Avoid watching TV or using phone while eating.

Calories and Weight

 If you want to lose weight, eat fewer calories and increase physical activity.
 Calories in (from food) should match calories out (used during exercise, daily work).
 Walking, dancing, cycling, yoga – are good ways to stay active.

1.Global perspective of consumers on GM foods

• Genetic modification is a special set of gene technology that alters the genetic
machinery of such living organisms as animals, plants or microorganisms.
Combining genes from different organisms is known as recombinant DNA
technology and the resulting organism is said to be ‘Genetically modified (GM)’,
‘Genetically engineered’ or ‘Transgenic’.
• The principal transgenic crops grown commercially in field are herbicide and
insecticide resistant soybeans, corn, cotton and canola. Other crops grown
commercially and/or field-tested are sweet potato resistant to a virus that could
destroy most of the African harvest, rice with increased iron and vitamins that may
alleviate chronic malnutrition in Asian countries and a variety of plants that are able
to survive weather extremes.
• There are bananas that produce human vaccines against infectious diseases such as
hepatitis B, fish that mature more quickly, fruit and nut trees that yield years earlier
and plants that produce new plastics with unique properties. Technologies for
genetically modifying foods offer dramatic promise for meeting some areas of
greatest challenge for the 21st century.
• Like all new technologies, they also pose some risks, both known and unknown.
Controversies and public concern surrounding GM foods and crops commonly focus
on human and environmental safety, labelling and consumer choice, intellectual
property rights, ethics, food security, poverty reduction and environmental
conservation.
• Genetically modified foods are foods produced from organisms that have had
changes introduced into their DNA using the methods of genetic engineering as
opposed to traditional cross breeding. In the U.S., the Department of
Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) favor the use of
the term genetic engineering over genetic modification as being more precise; the USDA
defines genetic modification to include "genetic engineering or other more traditional
methods".
• According to the World Health Organization, "Foods produced from or using GM
organisms are often referred to as GM foods."

What counts as a genetically modified organism (GMO) is not the same everywhere.
Different countries and groups have different rules, and these rules have changed over time.
For example, the EU doesn't count "mutation breeding" as GMO.

There's also a lot of confusion with labels like "Non-GMO" or "GMO-free" on food. Some
things like water or salt, which don’t even have genes to modify, still get these labels to make
them seem healthier — even though it doesn’t really make sense.

2.Major concerns of transgenic in gm foods:

· Transgenic organisms (living things with changed DNA) have been used in science for a
long time. They helped scientists prove that DNA carries genetic information and that some
genes (called oncogenes) can cause cancer.

· There are some health risks for humans, like:

New allergies from eating genetically modified food.

Antibiotic resistance—some genes might move to the bacteria in our stomach,

making antibiotics less effective.

· There’s a risk of gene mixing ("outcrossing"), where GMO plant genes can mix with wild
plants or other crops. This can:

Harm insects and other animals.

 Reduce the number of plant species (hurting biodiversity).

· The biggest danger from these GMOs may come from the new proteins or chemicals
they make. These might be harmful to people either directly or after changing inside the
body.

· The main disadvantages of transgenic animals are mutagenesis and function

disorders, ecological problems, antibiotic resistance, and population of clones.
Keywords: Transgenic animal, Monoclonal antibodies, Vaccines, Angiogenesis,
Boon, Bane, and Cancer.
• A transgenic, or genetically modified, organism is one that has been altered through
recombinant DNA technology, which involves either the combining of DNA from
different genomes or the insertion of foreign DNA into a genome.

.Regulatory agencies involved in GM foods

Genetically Modified (GM) foods are controlled by government agencies to make sure they
are safe for people, animals, and the environment. These agencies perform strict checks
before GM foods are allowed in the market.

In the United States, three main agencies are responsible:

1. FDA (Food and Drug Administration)

o The FDA checks and approves most foods for humans and animals, including
GM foods.
o They make sure GM foods follow the same strict safety rules as other foods.
o The FDA looks at the nutritional value, possible toxins, and any allergic
effects of the GM food.
2. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency)
o EPA makes sure that GM crops used in farming (like Bt crops that kill pests)
do not harm the environment or human health.
3. USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture)
o The USDA checks whether GM crops are safe to grow and do not harm
other plants or animals.

Together, these three agencies make sure GM foods are safe to eat, safe to grow, and safe
for the environment.

Regulation of GM Foods in India

In India, several organizations are responsible for the safety and control of GM foods:

1. FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India)

o FSSAI is the main authority that controls food safety in India.
 oGM foods are now included in the definition of food by FSSAI.
oFSSAI will check GM foods to make sure they are safe for human health and
will also create rules for labeling GM foods.
2. GEAC (Genetic Engineering Appraisal Committee)
o GEAC is the top biotech regulator in India.
o It works under the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change
(MoEFCC).
o GEAC approves or rejects genetically engineered crops and products based
on their safety.
o It was formed under the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
3. BRAI (Biotechnology Regulatory Authority of India) (Proposed)
o If the BRAI bill is passed, a new group called the Environment Appraisal
Panel (under BRAI) will take over from GEAC.
o This will help in faster and more scientific approval of GM foods.

Foods GM ingredients in food products safety aspects:

Genetically Modified (GM) crops and food products have been a topic of concern for many
people, especially when it comes to human health. Different GM foods are made using
different genes and techniques. So, it is important to check the safety of each GM food
individually before allowing it in any country.

Every country must do its own risk assessment before deciding whether to allow or ban a
GM food product. The way people eat and their health conditions are different in every place,
so safety checks should be done according to the local population and environment.

The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agriculture Organization
(FAO) have created a set of safety rules called the Codex Alimentarius. These rules help in
testing GM foods to make sure they are safe to eat.

Key Safety Tests for GM Foods

1. Toxicity Tests
o Check whether the GM food causes harm in the short term or long term (acute,
sub-chronic, or chronic).
2. Allergy Risk (Allergenicity)
o Check if the GM food can cause allergic reactions due to new proteins or by
mixing with other allergens.
3. Nutritional Comparison
o Compare the nutrients in GM foods with regular foods to ensure there is no
loss or harmful change.
4. Changes in Nutritional Value
o See if the added gene changes the crop's DNA in a way that affects the
nutrients.
5. Stability of the Gene
o Make sure the added gene does not move into human cells or gut bacteria.
This is important if antibiotic-resistant genes are used.
 6. Unwanted Changes
o Sometimes the added gene may cause unknown or harmful changes in the
plant's metabolism. These effects must be studied.

Safety Guidelines in India

In India, the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has published guidelines for
checking the safety of GM foods. These were released in 2008 and updated in 2012. The
rules are based on the international Codex guidelines.

A Parliamentary Committee Report in 2017 found several problems related to the safety of
GM crops in India:

 There has been no Indian study on how GM crops affect human health.
 Long-term health effects are not studied yet.
 The Department of Health Research has not taken steps to study GM health effects.
 The government is depending only on foreign studies, which may not match Indian
conditions like climate, food habits, and health.
 The report suggested that the government should reconsider allowing GM crops
until proper Indian studies are done.
 It also said that FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) is late in
labeling GM foods.
o The committee strongly recommended that labelling GM foods should begin
immediately, so people know what they are eating.