Theme 2 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Key Points
• The domains and ranges (principal value branches) of inverse trigonometric functions are
given below:
Functions Domain Range (Principal Value Branches)

 −π π 
y = sin–1 x [–1, 1]
 2 , 2 

y = cos–1 x [–1, 1] [0, π]

 −π π 
y = cosec–1 x R – (–1, 1)      ,  – {0}
 2 2
π
y = sec–1 x R – (–1, 1)    [0, π] – { }
2

y = tan–1 x R    − π , π 
 2 2
 
y = cot–1 x R (0, π)

 −π π 
• sin–1 (sin θ) = θ, for all θ ∈  , 
 2 2
• cos (cos θ) = θ,
–1
for all θ ∈ [0, π]
 −π π 
• tan–1 (tan θ) = θ, for all θ ∈  , 
 2 2
• sin (sin x) = x,
–1
for all x ∈ [–1, 1]
• cos (cos x) = x,
–1
for all x ∈ [–1, 1]
• tan (tan x) = x,
–1
for all x ∈ R
• sin–1 (–x) = –sin–1 x, for all x ∈ [–1, 1]
• cos (–x) = π – cos x, for all x ∈ [–1, 1]
–1 –1

• tan–1 (–x) = –tan–1 x, for all x ∈ R

1
• sin–1   = cosec–1 x, for all x ∈ [–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞]
x
1
• cos–1   = sec–1 x, for all x ∈ [–∞, –1] ∪ [1, ∞]
x
–1  1 
cot −1 x ,
 for x > 0
• tan   = 
 x  −π + cot x , for x < 0
−1

Mathematics Lab Manual-XII 17

 Theme 3 Continuity and Differentiability

Key Points
• A real valued function f (x) is continuous at a point ‘a’ in the domain iff
lim f (x) = f (a), i.e., the limit of the function at x = a is equal to the value of the function
x→a
at x = a.
• A function f (x) is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every point of its domain.
• Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous, i.e., if f and
g are continuous functions, then
(f ± g) (x) = f(x) ± g(x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f(x) . g(x) is continuous.
f f ( x)
( x) = ( where g ( x ) ≠ 0) is continuous .
g g( x)
• Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.
• Let f and g be real functions such that fog is defined. If g is continuous at x = a and f
continuous at g(a), then fog is continuous at x = a.
• Following functions are everywhere continuous:
  (i) A constant function (ii) The identity function
(iii) A polynomial function (iv) Modulus function
(v) Exponential function (vi) Sine and Cosine functions
• Following functions are continuous in their domains:
  (i) A logarithmic function (ii) A rational function
(iii) Tangent, cotangent, secant and cosecant functions
1
• If f is continuous function, then  f and are continuous in their domains.
f
• sin–1 x, cos–1 x, tan–1 x, cot–1 x, cosec–1 x and sec–1 x are continuous functions on their respective
domains.
• Let f (x) be a differentiable or derivable function on [a, b]. Then,
f ( x + h) − f ( x) f ( x − h) − f ( x)
lim or lim is called the derivative or differentiation of f (x)
h →0 h h →0 −h
d d
with respect to x and is denoted by f '(x) or (f (x)) or Df (x), where D ≡ .
dx dx
 dy 
• If y = f(x), then   gives the slope of the tangent to the curve y = f(x) at point P.
 dx  p

26 Mathematics Lab Manual-XII

 8. Reduce the increment in x to ∆x2 (i.e., ∆x2 < ∆x1) to get another point Q2 (x0 + ∆x2 ,0). Get the
corresponding point P2 on the curve.
9. Let the perpendicular AT1 intersects P2Q2 at T2.
10. Again measure AQ2 = ∆x2 and record it.
Measure P2T2 = ∆y2 and record it.
11. Repeat the above steps for some more points so that ∆x becomes smaller and smaller.

OBSERVATIoNS
1.
S. No. Value of increment in x0 Corresponding increment in y

1. ∆x1 = .............. ∆y1 = ..............

2. ∆x2 = .............. ∆y2 = ..............

3. ∆x3 = .............. ∆y3 = ..............

4. ∆x4 = .............. ∆y4 = ..............

5. ∆x5 = .............. ∆y5 = ..............

6. ∆x6 = .............. ∆y6 = ..............

7. ∆x7 = .............. ∆y7 = ..............

8. ∆x8 = .............. ∆y8 = ..............

9. ∆x9 = .............. ∆y9 = ..............

10. ∆x10 = .............. ∆y10 = ..............

2. So, ∆y becomes ..................... when ∆x becomes smaller.

Thus, lim ∆y = 0 for a continuous function.
∆x → 0

CoNcLUSIoN
From the above it is verified that for a function to be continuous at any point x0, ∆y = f (x0 + ∆x) – f
(x)is arbitrary small, provided ∆x is sufficient small.

APPLIcATIoN
This activity is useful for explaining the concept of derivative (left hand or right hand) at any
point on the curve corresponding to a function.

1
Q.1. What is the domain for the function f(x) = 2 where it represents a continuous
function? x − 6 x + 8
Ans. R – {2, 4}
Mathematics Lab Manual-XII 37
 Theme 4 Application of Derivative

Key Points
• If two variables x and y are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e., if x = f (t) and
y = g(t), then by Chain Rule
dy dy dx dy
= , if ≠0
dx dt dt dx
• If y = f (x), then
 dy 
     = Slope of the tangent to y = f (x) at point P.
 dx  p
−1
     = Slope of the normal to y = f (x) at point P.
 dy 
 
 dx  P
dy
If the tangent is parallel to x-axis, then = 0.
dx
dx
If the tangent is parallel to y-axis, then dy = 0.

• If P (x1, y1) is a point on the curve y = f (x), then

 dy 
y – y1 =   (x – x1) is the equation of tangent at P.
 dx  P
1
y – y1 = – (x – x1) is the equation of normal at P.
 dy 
 
 dx  P
• A function f (x) is said to be a strictly increasing function on an interval (a, b) if
x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) < f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b).
If x1 < x2 ⇒ f (x1) > f (x2) for all x1, x2 ∈ (a, b), then f (x) is said to be strictly decreasing on
(a, b).
• A function f (x) is said to be monotonic on (a, b) if it is either strictly increasing or strictly
decreasing on (a, b).
• A function f (x) is said to be increasing (decreasing) on [a, b], if it is increasing (decreasing)
on (a, b) and it is increasing (decreasing) at x = a and x = b.
• The necessary and sufficient condition for a differentiable function defined on (a, b) to be
strictly decreasing on (a, b) is that f '(x) < 0 for all x ∈ (a, b).

44 Mathematics Lab Manual-XII

 (vi) Area of rectangle R6 = 15 × 22 = 330 cm2 (after 5 sec).
(vii) Area of rectangle R7 = 14 × 24 = 336 cm2 (after 6 sec).
(viii) Area of rectangle R8 = 13 × 26 = 338 cm2 (after 7 sec) and so on.
(ix) Area of rectangle R9 = 12 × 28 = 336 cm2 (after 8 sec) and so on.
Clearly, the area of the rectangle is maximum after 7 sec.

OBSERVATIoNS
1. Area of the rectangle R2 (after 1 sec) = ............................ .
2. Area of the rectangle R4 (after 3 sec) = ............................ .
3. Area of the rectangle R6 (after 5 sec) = ............................ .
4. Area of the rectangle R7 (after 6 sec) = ............................ .
5. Area of the rectangle R8 (after 7 sec) = ............................ .
6. Area of the rectangle R9 (after 8 sec) = ............................ .
7. Rectangle of Maximum area (after ..... seconds) = ............................ .
8. Area of the rectangle is maximum after ............................ sec.
9. Maximum area of the rectangle is ............................ .

CoNcLUSIoN
Area of rectangle is keep on increasing but after certain time it start decreasing, as there is change
in dimensions with a given rates.

APPLIcATIoN
This activity may be used in explaining the concept of rate of change and optimization of a
function.

Q.1. Is there any change in area of rectangle if length and breadth changes with given rate
of time?
Ans. Yes
Q.2. Is this activity true for a square, if side of the square increases with a given rate?
Ans. No
Q.3. If side x, of a square is increases by 2 cm/sec then what will be the area after t secs?
Ans. Rate after t secs = (x + 2t)2
Q.4. What do you mean by rate of change of function y = f (x)?
dy
Ans. If a quantity y varies with another quantity x such that y = f (x), then represents rate of
change of y w.r.t x. dx

Q.5. Give the chain rule.

dy dy dt
Ans. = ×
dx dt dx
Mathematics Lab Manual-XII 55
 Theme 5 Integrals

Key Points
• Integration is the inverse process of differentiation.
d
• Let F(x) = f (x). Then we write ∫ f (x) dx = F (x) + C. These integrals are called indefinite
dx
integrals or general integrals, C is called constant of integration.
• Some properties of indefinite integrals are as follow:
(i) ∫[f (x) + g (x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ g (x) dx
(ii) For any real number k, ∫k f (x) dx = k ∫ f (x) dx
• Some standard integrals
xn + 1
 (i) ∫ x dx = n
+ C, n ≠ − 1. Particularly, ∫ dx = x + C   (ii) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
n+1
  (iii) ∫ sin x dx = –cos x + C   (iv) ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + C
  (v) ∫ cosec2 x dx = –cot x + C   (vi) ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
dx
(vii) ∫ cosec x cot x dx = –cosec x + C (viii) ∫ 1−x 2
= sin −1 x + C

dx dx
 (ix) ∫ 1−x 2
= − cos −1 x + C  
(x)
∫1+x 2
= tan −1 x + C

dx
 (xi) ∫1+x 2
= − cot −1 x + C (xii) ∫ ex dx = ex + C

a x + C (xiv) dx
(xiii) ∫ ax dx =
log a
∫x x −12
= sec −1 x + C

dx dx
(xv) ∫x = − cosec −1 x + C (xvi) ∫ 1 dx = log= sec
x +−1
C
2
x −1 xx x − 1
2

• Integration by partial fractions

P( x )
• If f (x) = is a rational function of two polynomial and the degree of the polynomial
Q( x )
P (x) is greater than the degree of the polynomial Q (x), then we may divide P (x) by
P(x ) P (x )
Q (x) so that = T (x) + 1 , where T(x) is a polynomial in x and degree of P1(x) is
Q(x ) Q(x )
less than the degree of Q(x).
Mathematics Lab Manual-XII 59