6/11/25, 2:26 PM Architecture of Linux Operating System - GeeksforGeeks

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Architecture of Linux Operating System

Last Updated : 31 May, 2025

Linux is an open-source UNIX-based operating system. The main

component of the Linux operating system is Linux kernel. It is developed
to provide low-cost or free operating system service to personal system
users, which includes an X-window system, Emacs editor, IP/TCP GUI,
etc.

Linux distribution
A Linux system package, known as a distribution, consists of multiple
Linux distributions available for different computing needs. Linux
distribution is developed using a set of software based on compatibility
with the Linux core kernel, using which Linux-based operations in
different systems, such as personal systems, embedded systems, etc.
There are around 600 distributions available.

Each distribution has specialized packages installed to support specific

tasks. This means you can download software related to your field of
work using a Linux distribution.

Some Linux distributions are: MX Linux, Manjaro, Linux Mint,

elementary, Ubuntu, Debian, Solus, Fedora, openSUSE, Deepin

Components of Linux
Like any operating system, Linux consists of software, computer
programs, documentation, and hardware.

The main components of Linux operating system are: Application, Shell,

Kernel, Hardware, Utilities

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Linux operating system architecture

1. Kernel

Kernel is the main core component it is lies between the shell and the
hardware. It controls the activity of other hardware components. It
visualizes the common hardware resources and provide each process
with necessary virtual resources. It makes the process to wait in the
ready queue and execute in consequently to avoid any kind of conflict.

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The kernel is software that manages communication between the

hardware and the system. It cannot directly interact with directories or
files. Instead, the kernel handles the communication between the
computer system and the hardware.

The kernel is responsible for:

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Memory management: Manages and allocates memory efficiently.

Resource allocation: Distributes system resources to different
processes.
Device management: Controls input/output devices like printers and
scanners.
Process management: Manages process execution and scheduling.
Application interaction: Bridges applications with system-level
functions.
Security: Provides essential system-level security.

Different of types of kernel

There are several kernel types

1. Monolithic Kernel

A Monolithic kernel is an operating system kernel where all concurrent

processes run simultaneously within the kernel itself, sharing the same
memory resources. This type of kernel operates on a step-by-step
dependency model, internally managing the various components or
scripts an application may rely on to function correctly.

If you’ve ever seen a terminal prompt saying dependencies are being

downloaded or destroyed, that’s because the kernel must ensure the
right support exists before running the app. This makes Monolithic
kernels powerful but also heavy.

2. Micro kernel

In micro kernel user services and kernel services are executed in

separate address spaces. User services are kept in user address space
and kernel services are kept in kernel address space. This architecture
means dependencies are not embedded directly within the kernel,
instead, applications must install and manage their own. While this
design enhances modularity, it can lead to slower performance as
everything relies on external services.

Microkernels are advanced but can be slower because they don’t have
dependencies pre-installed like Monolithic kernels do. They're
commonly used in systems that prioritize security and modularity.
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3. Exokernel

Exo-kernel is designed to manage hardware resources at application

level. High level abstraction is used in this operating system to offer
hardware resources access to kernel.

4. Hybrid kernel

It is the combination of both monolithic kernel and microkernel.

Windows uses a Hybrid Kernel. It supports system-level performance
like a Monolithic kernel while offering the modular design of
Microkernels.

For example, it includes Microkernel-level readability while managing

dependencies internally like a Monolithic kernel. This makes it suitable
for tasks like scheduling, performance optimization, and balancing CPU
load during video editing, gaming, etc.

Hybrid kernels provide balanced performance without drastically

increasing system size. However, they do tend to have slightly larger
kernel images—ranging up to 500–600MB.

Main Subsystems of kernel:

Process scheduler: Responsible for fairly distributing the the

processing time among all the concurrently running process.
Memory management unit: This kernel sub unit is responsible for
proper distribution of memory resources among the concurrently
running process.
Virtual file system: This subsystem provides interface to access
stored data across different file system and different physical media.

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Kernel subsystems

2. System Library

System libraries are some predefined functions by using which any

application programs or system utilities can access kernel's features.
These libraries are the foundation upon which any software can be built.

Some of the most common system libraries are:

1. GNU C library: This is the C library that provides the most

fundamental system for the interface and execution of C programs.
This provides may in-built functions for the execution.
2. libpthread (POSIX Threads): This library plays important role for
multithreading in Linux, it allows users for creating and managing
multiple threads.
3. libdl (Dynamic Linker): This library is responsible for the loading and
linking file at the runtime.
4. libm (Math Library): This library provides user with all kind of
mathematical function and their execution.
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Some other system libraries are: librt (Realtime Library), libcrypt
(Cryptographic Library), libnss (Name Service Switch Library), libstdc++
(C++ Standard Library)

3. Shell

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The Shell is also software or It can be determined as the interface to the

kernel. It takes commands from the user and interprets them. The shell
transmits these commands to the kernel, which then performs the
requested operations. Users can just enter the commend and using the
kernel's function that specific task is performed accordingly.

Different types of shell

Each shell offers unique features and user experiences for interacting
with Unix/Linux systems, from basic scripting to advanced
customization.

1. Bourne Shell (sh)

The Bourne Shell was one of the first shells in Unix. Think of it as the
"basic command helper" that lets you talk to your computer. You could
type commands, run simple programs, and even write small scripts to
automate tasks. It doesn’t have fancy features, but it’s reliable and still
used in scripting today.

2. C Shell (csh)

The C Shell was made to feel more like the C programming language,
which many developers already knew. It added cool features like the
ability to go back and run previous commands without typing them
again. It was great for quick tasks, but not the best for serious scripting
jobs.

3. Korn Shell (ksh)

The Korn Shell came later to improve on both the Bourne and C shells.
It was powerful, easy to script with, and worked with older scripts too.
Big companies used it because it balanced old and new features well.
But at first, it wasn’t free, which made it harder for everyone to use.

4. Bash (Bourne Again Shell)

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Bash is the most popular shell today. It's like an upgraded version of the
Bourne Shell. It lets you use arrow keys to go through old commands,
press Tab to auto-complete file names, and run powerful scripts. It’s
free and comes by default in most Linux systems and even on Mac
computers.

5. Z Shell (zsh)

Z Shell or zsh is super popular with developers. It combines features

from all the other shells, looks nice, and is very customizable. It fixes
many problems found in older shells and adds fun features like themes
and plugins. Mac now uses it by default.

7. Fish (Friendly Interactive Shell)

Fish is made to be super beginner-friendly. It highlights mistakes as you

type, suggests commands, and even lets you set things up using a web
browser. It’s not the best for big scripts, but perfect if you want
something easy and nice to use for everyday work.

Linux shell

4. Hardware Layer

Hardware layer of Linux is the lowest level of operating system track. It

is plays a vital role in managing all the hardware components. It
includes device drivers, kernel functions, memory management, CPU

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control, and I/O operations. This layer generalizes hard complexity, by

providing an interface for software by assuring proper functionality of
all the components.

5. System utility

System utilities are the commend line tools that preforms various tasks
provided by user to make system management and administration
better. These utilities enables user to perform different tasks, such as
file management, system monitoring, network configuration, user
management etc.

Conclusion:
The most powerful and versatile component of Linux operating system
is Kernel, using which functional of whole operating system can be
controlled. Kernel provides a huge range of functionality, which can be
easily accessed by the user in an interactive way using shell. For the
proper functionality of the operating system, proper hardware are
needed. All the components of the the operating system make it easier,
faster, stable and reliable.

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