TERMS (COMPARATIVE POLITICS)

1.​ Empowering Voices: This refers to the process of enabling individuals or groups,
especially those who are marginalized or unheard, to express their opinions,
needs, and perspectives, and to have these taken seriously. It involves creating an
environment where people feel confident and have the platforms to articulate
their views and influence decisions.
○​ Example: A community project that trains residents to speak at city council
meetings about local issues is an example of empowering voices.

2.​ Unlocking New Perspectives: This means discovering or understanding

different ways of looking at a situation, idea, or the world. It involves challenging
one's own assumptions and being open to alternative viewpoints that can lead to
new insights, solutions, or a broader understanding.
○​ Example: Traveling to a different country and experiencing its culture can
unlock new perspectives on your own societal norms.

3.​ The Charisma: Charisma is a compelling attractiveness or charm that can inspire
devotion or enthusiasm in others. It's often associated with leaders or public
figures who possess a natural ability to draw people in and make them feel a
strong connection or admiration.
○​ Example: A political leader who can captivate large audiences with their
speeches and inspire widespread support is said to have charisma.

4.​ Pragmatism: This is a philosophical approach that assesses theories or beliefs in

terms of the success of their practical application. It emphasizes practical
consequences and real-world outcomes over abstract theories or dogmatic
principles, focusing on what works.
○​ Example: A company choosing a particular software not because it's the
newest, but because it's the most reliable and integrates best with their
existing systems, demonstrates pragmatism.
5.​ The Reign of Elite: This describes a situation where a small, powerful group of
people (the elite) controls or governs a society or an organization. This control
can be based on wealth, social status, education, or political power, and often
implies that the interests of this group are prioritized.
○​ Example: A country where a few wealthy families have historically dominated
political offices and economic policies illustrates the reign of an elite.

6.​ East Communism: This term generally refers to the communist states that
existed in Eastern Europe and Asia during the 20th century, heavily influenced by
the Soviet Union or Maoist China. These systems were characterized by
one-party rule, state control of the economy, and a Marxist-Leninist ideology,
though with regional variations.
○​ Example: The German Democratic Republic (East Germany) during the Cold
War, with its centrally planned economy and single-party socialist rule, was an
example of East Communism.

7.​ Polyarchy: Coined by political scientist Robert Dahl, polyarchy describes a form
of government where power is invested in multiple people. It is not a perfect
democracy but a system with high levels of both public contestation (free and fair
elections) and the right to participate in politics.
○​ Example: Modern Western democracies, like the United States or the United
Kingdom, with their multi-party systems and widespread suffrage, are
considered polyarchies.

8.​ Reimagining Reality: This concept involves creatively rethinking and

reinterpreting the nature of existence, societal structures, or personal
experiences. It often means challenging conventional understandings and
envisioning new possibilities or alternative ways of being and interacting with the
world.
○​ Example: Science fiction authors often engage in reimagining reality by
creating worlds with different physical laws or social norms.

9.​ Reserve Army of Labor: A Marxist concept, the reserve army of labor refers to
the unemployed and underemployed in a capitalist society. This pool of available
workers, according to Marx, keeps wages down by creating competition for jobs
 and can be drawn upon when the economy expands.
○​ Example: During an economic recession, the increased number of
unemployed people actively seeking work forms a larger reserve army of
labor.

10.​Radical Feminism: This is a perspective within feminism that calls for a radical
reordering of society in which male supremacy (patriarchy) is eliminated in all
social and economic contexts. It views patriarchy as the root cause of women's
oppression and seeks to dismantle it through fundamental societal change,
rather than just legal reforms.
○​ Example: Campaigns against pornography and prostitution, viewing them as
manifestations of male dominance and exploitation of women, are often
associated with radical feminism.

11.​ Meta Ideology: This refers to an overarching ideology that provides a framework
for understanding or critiquing other ideologies. It's a higher-level system of
thought that examines the structures, assumptions, and functions of various
ideological systems themselves.
○​ Example: A philosophical analysis that compares and contrasts liberalism and
socialism, not to promote one over the other, but to understand how each
functions as a system of belief, could be considered a meta-ideological
approach.

12.​Deliberative Democracy: This is a form of democracy where deliberation is

central to decision-making. It emphasizes informed discussion, debate, and
reasoned argument among citizens and their representatives, rather than simply
aggregating preferences through voting. The goal is to arrive at more legitimate
and well-considered political outcomes.
○​ Example: Citizens' assemblies, where randomly selected individuals are
brought together to learn about, discuss, and make recommendations on
policy issues, are a practical application of deliberative democracy.

13.​General Will (Volonté Générale): A concept in political philosophy, most

famously associated with Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the general will refers to the
collective will or common interest of the people as a whole. It is what is best for
the community, distinct from the sum of individual private wills, and should guide
 the laws of a state.
○​ Example: A law requiring universal education, even if some individuals would
prefer not to contribute through taxes, could be justified as reflecting the
general will for an educated citizenry.

14.​Deterrence: This is a strategy intended to dissuade an adversary from taking an

action not yet started, or to prevent them from doing something that another
state desires.1 It relies on the threat of retaliation (punishment) if the undesirable
action is taken, making the costs of the action outweigh the potential benefits.
○​ Example: Nuclear deterrence is based on the principle that the catastrophic
retaliation from a nuclear attack would prevent any country from launching a
first strike.

15.​Empirical Knowledge: This is knowledge gained through observation,

experience, and sensory perception, rather than solely through reason or theory.
It is based on evidence that can be verified or disproven through experimentation
or further observation.
○​ Example: Knowing that water boils at 100°C (212°F) at sea level is empirical
knowledge, as it's based on repeated, verifiable observations.

16.​Secularism: This is the principle of the separation of government institutions and

persons mandated to represent the state from religious institutions and religious
dignitaries.2 It advocates for a public sphere independent of religious influence
and ensures that religious beliefs do not dictate public policy or the rights of
citizens.
○​ Example: A country having no official state religion and guaranteeing
freedom of religion for all its citizens is practicing secularism.

17.​Identity Politics: This refers to political approaches and analyses based on the
shared experiences and perspectives of people who identify with particular social
groups. These groups are often based on race, ethnicity, gender, sexual
orientation, religion, or disability, and the politics focus on advancing their
specific interests and challenging discrimination.
○​ Example: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States, which sought to
end racial segregation and discrimination against African Americans,3 is a
prominent example of identity politics.
18.​Military-Industrial Complex: This term, popularized by U.S. President Dwight D.
Eisenhower, describes the close and influential relationship between a nation's
military, its defense industry, and its political establishment. It suggests that this
powerful alliance can lead to excessive military spending and an overemphasis on
military solutions to foreign policy challenges.
○​ Example: Significant lobbying by defense contractors for increased military
budgets, supported by politicians with military bases or defense companies in
their districts, illustrates the military-industrial complex at work.

19.​Elective Dictatorship: This term describes a system where a government, once

elected (often with a strong parliamentary majority), has such extensive power
that it can effectively govern without significant checks or balances from the
legislature or other institutions. While democratic in its origin, its practice can
resemble a dictatorship.
○​ Example: A government using its large majority to push through legislation
with minimal debate or opposition scrutiny might be labeled an elective
dictatorship.

20.​Peoples Participation in Interest Articulation: This refers to the various ways

citizens and social groups express their needs, demands, and preferences to the
government and political system. It's a fundamental aspect of democratic
governance, allowing policymakers to understand and respond to public
concerns.
○​ Example: Citizens writing to their elected officials, participating in protests, or
joining advocacy groups are all forms of people's participation in interest
articulation.

21.​Responsible Government: This is a system of government where the executive

branch (the government) is accountable to the legislature (parliament), and in
turn, the legislature is accountable to the electorate. The government must
maintain the confidence of the legislature to remain in power.
○​ Example: In countries like Canada or Australia, the Prime Minister and cabinet
are members of parliament and can be removed by a vote of no confidence,
demonstrating responsible government.
22.​Government Organs and Classification: This refers to the main institutions or
branches through which a government exercises its authority, typically the
legislature (makes laws), executive (implements laws), and judiciary (interprets
laws). Governments can be classified based on various criteria, such as the
relationship between these organs (e.g., parliamentary vs. presidential) or the
distribution of power (e.g., unitary vs. federal).
○​ Example: The United States has a presidential system with a clear separation
of powers between the legislative (Congress), executive (President), and
judicial (Supreme Court) branches.

23.​National Power and its Elements: National power is the sum of a country's
capabilities that enable it to influence other countries or achieve its objectives in
the international arena. Its elements are diverse and include geography, natural
resources, population, economic strength, military might, technological
advancement, political stability, national morale, and diplomatic skill.
○​ Example: A country's large, well-equipped military and its advanced
technology sector are key elements contributing to its national power.

24.​Leveling the Playing Field: This phrase refers to creating a situation where
everyone has a fair and equal chance of success, by removing unfair advantages
or disadvantages. It aims to ensure that opportunities are based on merit, effort,
and ability, rather than on pre-existing privilege or discrimination.
○​ Example: Affirmative action policies, which aim to address historical
disadvantages faced by certain groups in employment or education, are
intended to help level the playing field.

25.​From Utopian Visions to Real: This describes the process of attempting to

translate idealized, perfect societal concepts (utopian visions) into practical,
functioning realities. It often involves confronting the complexities, compromises,
and unintended consequences that arise when abstract ideals meet the
messiness of the real world.
○​ Example: The early kibbutzim in Israel aimed to create egalitarian, communal
societies based on utopian socialist ideals, representing an effort to move
from utopian visions to real-world communities.
26.​Liberalism: This is a broad political and moral philosophy based on liberty,
consent of the governed, and equality before the law. Liberals typically advocate
for individual rights (including civil and human rights), democracy, secularism, rule
of law, economic freedoms, and international cooperation.
○​ Example: The emphasis on free speech, freedom of the press, and the right
to a fair trial are core tenets of liberalism found in many democratic societies.

27.​Authority and Legitimacy: Authority is the right to exercise power, given by the
state, an institution, or by consent. Legitimacy refers to the popular acceptance
and recognition of this authority; it's the belief that the authority is rightful and
just, making people more likely to obey.
○​ Example: A democratically elected government has the authority to make
laws, and its legitimacy comes from the fact that citizens consented to its rule
through elections.

28.​Hyper Power: This term describes a state that dominates all other states in every
sphere of power (military, economic, cultural, technological) and is considered to
be in a class of its own, significantly above any other great power or superpower.
It has no near-peer competitor.
○​ Example: The United States was widely considered a hyperpower in the
immediate post-Cold War era due to its unparalleled global influence.

29.​Permissiveness: This refers to an attitude or policy of being tolerant of or

allowing behavior that others might disapprove of or forbid. It can relate to social
norms, parenting styles, or legal regulations, implying a high degree of freedom
and a lack of strict enforcement of rules.
○​ Example: A society with very few restrictions on artistic expression, even for
controversial topics, could be described as having a permissive attitude
towards the arts.
30.​Ethnocentrism: This is the evaluation of other cultures according to
preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture.4 It
often involves a belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group or
culture and judging others as strange, inferior, or wrong.
○​ Example: Assuming that one's own culture's traditional food is the only
"normal" or "correct" way to eat, while viewing the culinary practices of other
cultures as bizarre, is an example of ethnocentrism.