Module 2

A. Primary and secondary hazards:

Primary hazards in electrical use include electric shock, burns, and falls resulting from muscle spasms
caused by shock. Secondary hazards are those that arise as a consequence of the primary hazards, such as
falls from heights, injuries from falling tools, or collisions with objects. Burns can be caused by direct
contact with hot electrical equipment or by arc flash. Falls are a significant concern, as shock can cause
involuntary muscle contractions leading to loss of balance or falling from heights.

Primary Electrical Hazards:

 Electric Shock:

This is the primary hazard when someone makes contact with an energized electrical circuit, causing a
current to flow through their body.

 Electrical Burns:

These can be caused by the heat generated by the electrical current passing through the body or by the
heat from arc flash.

 Falls:

Shocks can induce violent muscle contractions, potentially causing a person to lose their balance and fall.

Secondary Electrical Hazards:

 Falls from Heights:

Muscle spasms caused by electric shock can lead to a person falling from a height if they are working on
elevated surfaces.

 Injuries from Falling Tools:

The forceful muscle contractions induced by shock can cause a person to lose their grip on tools, resulting
in injuries from falling objects.

 Collisions with Objects:

The sudden, uncontrolled movements caused by shock can lead to a person colliding with objects or
structures, causing injuries.

 Burns from Arc Flash:

Arc flash, a sudden explosion of electrical energy, can cause severe burns.

 Thermal Burns:

Prolonged contact with hot electrical equipment or overheated components can result in thermal burns.
B. Insulation-classes of insulation:

Insulation classes are categories that define the temperature limits a material can withstand before
degradation, and they are crucial for ensuring the safety and performance of electrical equipment. The
most common classes are Y, A, E, B, F, H, and C, each with a specific temperature rating. The higher the
insulation class, the greater the temperature the insulation can withstand.

1. Class Y: This class is suitable for use in applications with a maximum temperature of 90°C.
2. Class A: This class can handle temperatures up to 105°C and is often used in applications like
impregnated paper, silk, cotton, polyimide, and resins.

3. Class E: This class is suitable for temperatures up to 120°C and is often used in enameled wire
insulations on the base of molded polyvinyl epoxy resins, powder plastics.

4. Class B: This class is designed for temperatures up to 130°C and is often made with inorganic materials
like mica, fiber, glass, and asbestos, impregnated with varnish and other compounds.
5. Class F: This class is rated for 155°C and is commonly used in induction motors, using materials like
mica, polyester, and epoxy resins.

6. Class H: This class can withstand temperatures up to 180°C and is often made with composite
materials like mica, fiberglass, and asbestos bases, impregnated with silicone rubber.
7. Class C: This class is the highest, capable of handling temperatures above 180°C, and is made with
materials like mica, ceramics, glass, Teflon, and quartz.

What Are Electrical Insulations and How to Classify Them

Electrical insulations are materials that resist the flow of electric current. They are used to prevent electric
shocks, short circuits, and overheating in electrical equipment, such as motors, transformers, cables, etc.
Electrical insulations have different temperature ratings, which indicate how much heat they can
withstand without losing their insulating properties. These ratings are based on the types of materials used
and their thermal stability.

The temperature ratings of electrical insulations are divided into seven classes: Y, A, E, B, F, H, and C.
Each class has a maximum temperature limit in degrees Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F), and Kelvin (K).
The table below shows the temperature limits for each class of insulation.
The classes of insulation are also associated with different types of materials, which have different
physical and chemical properties. Some examples of materials used for each class of insulation are:

Class Y (90 °C): Silk, cotton, certain thermoplastics that soften above 90 °C.

Class A (105 °C): Reinforced silk, cotton and paper (with impregnated varnish or insulation oil).

Class E (120 °C): Powder plastics, polyurethane, molded polyvinyl epoxy resins, polyethylene
terephthalate.

Class B (130 °C): Inorganic materials such as asbestos, glass fibers, mica with varnish.

Class F (155 °C): Mica, class B materials that perform well at higher temperatures.

Class H (180 °C): Fiberglass, mica, asbestos impregnated in silicone rubber.

Class C (180 °C+): Polyimide films, quartz, mica, teflon, polyimide enamel.

Insulating materials are may be in the form of solid, liquid and gas.

Solid - Mica, teflon, cotton tape, PVC tape, etc.

Liquid - Insulating Oil.

Gases - SF6 Gas, inert gases, etc.

It is important to choose the right class of insulation for the intended application and environment of the
electrical equipment

C. What is Voltage?

Voltage, often referred to as electric potential difference, is the force that pushes electrical charges
through a conductor, allowing an electrical current to flow. It is measured in volts (V).

Types of Voltage

1. AC and DC Voltage

The two primary types of voltage used today are AC voltage (alternating current) and DC voltage (direct
current).

 AC Voltage: AC voltage is the most commonly used type of voltage for residential and
commercial applications. In AC voltage, the direction of the electric current reverses
periodically, typically 50 or 60 times per second (depending on the region).

 DC Voltage: DC voltage flows in one constant direction. This type of voltage is used in
applications where a steady current is necessary, such as in electronic devices like smartphones,
laptops, and battery-operated tools. DC voltage is less efficient for long-distance transmission
compared to AC voltage, but it's perfect for small, portable devices.

2. Single-Phase and Three-Phase Voltage

There are also different ways that voltage is distributed to your home or business. The two common types
are single-phase voltage and three-phase voltage.
  Single-Phase Voltage: Single-phase voltage is the most common voltage for appliances in
residential settings. It operates using a two-wire system that supplies power at 220V or 110V,
depending on the region. Single-phase voltage is sufficient for most home appliances like
televisions, lamps, computers, and smaller appliances. It’s affordable, easy to install, and works
well for homes with lower energy consumption.
 Three-Phase Voltage: Three-phase voltage is used primarily in industrial, commercial, and large
residential setups. It uses three separate conductors to carry three alternating currents, which
ensures that the electrical supply is more stable and efficient. Three-phase voltage is used for
heavy machinery, large air conditioning systems, and high-powered equipment that require a
higher power output. It is particularly useful for industries that need continuous, stable power for
operations.

Voltage Classifications:

Low Voltage

Low voltage refers to systems that operate under 1,000 volts. Most household appliances, such as light
bulbs, kitchen gadgets, and small electronics, work within this range. Low voltage is generally considered
safer because it reduces the risk of electrical shock or fires. Common appliances like home entertainment
systems, refrigerators, and small appliances operate on low voltage.

 Appliance Examples: Electric fans, microwaves, coffee makers, and lighting systems.

 Safety Tips: While low voltage is safer compared to high voltage, it’s still essential to use
proper wiring and insulation, along with ground protection, to avoid electrical hazards.

Medium and High Voltage

 Medium Voltage: This refers to systems that operate between 1kV and 35kV. Medium
voltage is often used in commercial or industrial settings to power larger equipment or
machinery. It’s also used in some residential applications when the power demand is high.

 High Voltage: High voltage systems operate above 35kV and are used for power transmission
over long distances. High voltage lines transport electricity from power plants to cities, ensuring
that energy is distributed efficiently.

D. Static electricity:

It is a form of electricity resulting from the imbalance between positive and negative charges within a
material that occurs when electrons (the negatively charged particles in an atom) move from one material
to another. If the electron-receiving material is either isolated or not an electrical conductor, it tends to
hold on to the electrons, resulting in a buildup of electric charge. Since this charge is not moving, it is
referred to as static electricity. When conditions allow the built-up charge to flow, the surplus of static
electricity is discharged, and it becomes current electricity.

How static electricity forms?

When different atoms make contact with one another, electrons can transfer between them. The material
shedding electrons also loses negative charge, and it becomes positively charged when there are
more protons (positively charged particles) than electrons. Conversely, a material that gains electrons
becomes negatively charged. As more electrons move from one material to the other—due to repeated
contact between them—additional negative charge will build up in a process that is referred to as the
triboelectric effect.

E. Hazardous conditions:

Hazardous conditions are situations or environments that pose a risk to safety, health, or well-
being. These conditions can arise in various settings, including workplaces, homes, and public
spaces. Examples include exposed wiring, slippery floors, toxic chemicals, or environmental hazards like
mold. Identifying and addressing these conditions is crucial for preventing accidents and ensuring a safe
environment.

Types of Hazardous Conditions:

 Workplace Hazards: Include slipping, tripping, falls, exposure to toxic substances, or using
unsafe equipment.

 Environmental Hazards: Can include mold, asbestos, lead paint, or poor ventilation.

 Chemical Hazards: Involve exposure to dangerous chemicals that can cause various health
problems.

 Physical Hazards: Include noise, vibration, extreme temperatures, or radiation.

 Technological Hazards: Result from technological failures, industrial accidents, or specific

human activities.

 Natural Hazards: Include earthquakes, floods, wildfires, or extreme weather events.

 Psychosocial Hazards: Relate to the psychological effects of stress, bullying, or workplace

violence.

 Ergonomic Hazards: Involve musculoskeletal disorders caused by poor work postures,

repetitive motions, or awkward movements.

 Biological Hazards: Involve exposure to microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, or fungi.

F. What are the Electrical causes of fire and explosion ionization?

Electrical causes of fire and explosion can include overloaded circuits, faulty wiring, faulty appliances,
static electricity, and the presence of flammable materials. Ionization, while related to electricity, is not a
direct cause of fire or explosion. Instead, it is the process by which atoms gain or lose electrons, creating
ions, and can be a factor in certain electrical phenomena like arc flashes, which can cause explosions.

Electrical Causes of Fire and Explosion:

Overloaded Circuits:

Using too many devices on a single circuit can cause wires to overheat, potentially leading to fires.

Faulty Wiring:
Damaged, old, or improperly installed wiring can create sparks or cause wires to overheat, igniting
surrounding materials.

Faulty Appliances:

Defective appliances can malfunction, creating sparks or overheating, potentially starting a fire.

Static Electricity:

Static discharges, especially in environments with flammable materials like dust or gases, can ignite
these materials and cause fires or explosions.

Arc Flash:

A massive electrical explosion that can cause severe burns and ignite surrounding materials. Arc
flashes are often caused by voltage transients, accidental contact, or other electrical faults.

Combustible Dust:

Dust can be a significant fire hazard, particularly when combined with a source of ignition like a static
discharge or spark.

Flammable Liquids and Gases:

These materials are highly flammable and can easily ignite, leading to fires or explosions in the
presence of an ignition source.

G. What is Spark?

When the high voltage produced by the ignition system is applied between the center electrode and
ground electrode of the spark plug, the insulation between the electrodes breaks down, current flows in
the discharge phenomenon, and an electrical spark is generated.
This spark energy trigger ignition and combustion in the compressed air-fuel mixture. This discharge is of
extremely brief duration (about 1/1000 of a second) and is extraordinarily complex.

What is Ignition?
Ignition by electrical spark occurs because the fuel particles between the electrodes are activated by the
spark to discharge, a chemical reaction (oxidation) is triggered, the heat of reaction is generated, and the
flame core is formed.

This heat activates the surrounding air-fuel mixture, eventually a flame core is formed that spreads the
combustion to the surroundings itself.

H. National electrical safety code ANSI:

The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC), also known as ANSI/IEEE C2, is a safety standard in the
United States that sets guidelines for the safe installation, operation, and maintenance of electric supply,
communication lines, and associated equipment. It is published by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and approved by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The
NESC is a consensus-based standard, meaning it is developed with input from various stakeholders,
including utilities, regulatory agencies, and the public.

I. What is Earthing?

Earthing is a connection done through a metal link between the body of any electrical appliance, or
neutral point, as the case may be, to the deeper ground soil. The metal link is normally of MS flat, CI flat,
and GI wire which should be penetrated into the ground earth grid.

Why Earthing is important?

Earthing is important to ensure:

1. Safety of personnel
2. Safety of equipment
3. Prevent or at least minimize damage to equipment as a result of flow of heavy currents
4. Improvement of the reliability of the power system.

Classification of Earthing

The earthing is broadly divided as

1. System earthing (Connection between part of plant in an operating system like LV neutral of
a power transformer winding) and earth.
2. Equipment earthing (safety grounding) connecting bodies of equipment (like electric motor body,
transformer tank, switchgear box, operating rods of air break switches, LV breaker body, HV
breaker body, feeder breaker bodies etc) to earth.

Explain different types of earthing:

The common types of earthing are:

 Pipe Earthing:

A galvanized steel perforated pipe is buried vertically in the ground, serving as an earth electrode. The
depth of the pipe varies based on soil conditions. This method is known for being affordable and
requiring low maintenance.

 Plate Earthing:

A galvanized iron or copper plate is buried in the ground, acting as the earth electrode. The plate is
typically placed at a depth of no more than three meters from the ground level. This method is somewhat
more costly and requires some maintenance.

 Strip Earthing:

Copper strips are buried horizontally in trenches. The strips should have a cross-sectional area of at least
25 mm x 1.6 mm. This method is suitable for rocky soil conditions.

 Marconite Earthing:
Marconite, a conductive material, can be used for earthing in various soil conditions, including rocky,
desert, saline, and acidic soils.

 Rod Earthing:

A copper rod is driven vertically into the ground until the desired depth is reached. This method is
effective for low-resistivity soil conditions.

Earth resistance:

Earth resistance refers to the opposition that the ground offers to the flow of electric current. It's
essentially the resistance of the soil to the current passing through it. Ideally, this resistance should be as
low as possible to ensure efficient and safe grounding.

Earth pit resistance:

Earth pit resistance refers to the opposition that an earth electrode (like a grounding rod or plate) offers to
the flow of electrical current into the ground. This resistance is measured in ohms and it's crucial for the
safety and proper functioning of electrical systems. A low earth pit resistance is desired to ensure fault
currents can flow quickly to the ground, protecting people and equipment.