Okay, let's break down programs 4, 7, 10, 16, and 17 with detailed comments for each line to

explain its function.

Program 4: Singly Linked List Insertion and Deletion
#include <stdio.h>​
#include <stdlib.h>​
​
// Define the structure for a node in the linked list​
struct Node {​
int data; // Data stored in the node​
struct Node* next; // Pointer to the next node in the list​
};​
​
// Function to create a new node​
struct Node* createNode(int data) {​
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));
// Allocate memory for a new node​
newNode->data = data; // Assign data to the new node​
newNode->next = NULL; // Initialize the next pointer to
NULL​
return newNode; // Return the newly created node​
}​
​
// Function to insert a node at the end of the linked list​
void insertEnd(struct Node** head, int data) {​
struct Node* temp;​
struct Node* newNode = createNode(data); // Create a new node with
the given data​
​
if (*head == NULL) { // If the list is empty​
*head = newNode; // Set the new node as the head​
return; // Exit the function​
}​
​
temp = *head; // Start from the head of the list​
while (temp->next != NULL) { // Traverse to the last node​
temp = temp->next;​
}​
temp->next = newNode; // Link the new node at the end​
}​
​
// Function to delete a node with a specific value​
void deleteNode(struct Node** head, int key) {​
struct Node* temp = *head; // Temporary pointer to traverse the
list​
struct Node* prev = NULL; // Pointer to the previous node​
​
// If head node itself holds the key to be deleted​
if (temp != NULL && temp->data == key) {​
 *head = temp->next; // Change head​
free(temp); // Free old head​
return; // Exit the function​
}​
​
// Search for the key to be deleted, keep track of the previous
node​
while (temp != NULL && temp->data != key) {​
prev = temp;​
temp = temp->next;​
}​
​
// If key was not present in linked list​
if (temp == NULL) return;​
​
// Unlink the node from linked list​
prev->next = temp->next;​
free(temp); // Free memory​
}​
​
// Function to print the linked list​
void printList(struct Node* node) {​
while (node != NULL) {​
printf("%d -> ", node->data); // Print the data of the current
node​
node = node->next; // Move to the next node​
}​
printf("NULL\n"); // Print NULL to indicate the
end of the list​
}​
​
int main() {​
struct Node* head = NULL; // Initialize an empty linked list​
int elements[] = {61, 16, 8, 27};​
int i;​
int keysToDelete[] = {8, 61, 27};​
​
// Inserting elements into the linked list​
for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {​
insertEnd(&head, elements[i]);​
printf("List after inserting %d: ", elements[i]);​
printList(head);​
}​
​
// Deleting elements from the linked list​
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {​
deleteNode(&head, keysToDelete[i]);​
printf("List after deleting %d: ", keysToDelete[i]);​
 printList(head);​
}​
​
return 0;​
}​

Program 7: Ordered Singly Linked List Insertion and Deletion

#include <stdio.h>​
#include <stdlib.h>​
​
// Define the structure for a node in the linked list​
struct Node {​
int data;​
struct Node* next;​
};​
​
// Function to create a new node​
struct Node* createNode(int data) {​
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));​
newNode->data = data;​
newNode->next = NULL;​
return newNode;​
}​
​
// Function to insert a node in an ordered manner​
void insertOrdered(struct Node** head, int data) {​
struct Node* newNode = createNode(data);​
struct Node* current;​
​
// Case for inserting at the beginning or as the first element​
if (*head == NULL || (*head)->data >= data) {​
newNode->next = *head;​
*head = newNode;​
return;​
}​
​
// Locate the node before the point of insertion​
current = *head;​
while (current->next != NULL && current->next->data < data) {​
current = current->next;​
}​
​
// Insert the new node​
newNode->next = current->next;​
current->next = newNode;​
}​
​
// Function to delete a node with a specific value​
void deleteNode(struct Node** head, int key) {​
struct Node* temp = *head;​
struct Node* prev = NULL;​
​
// If head node itself holds the key to be deleted​
if (temp != NULL && temp->data == key) {​
*head = temp->next;​
free(temp);​
return;​
}​
​
// Search for the key to be deleted, keep track of the previous
node​
while (temp != NULL && temp->data != key) {​
prev = temp;​
temp = temp->next;​
}​
​
// If key was not present in linked list​
if (temp == NULL) return;​
​
// Unlink the node from linked list​
prev->next = temp->next;​
free(temp);​
}​
​
// Function to print the linked list​
void printList(struct Node* node) {​
if (node == NULL) {​
printf("List is empty\n");​
return;​
}​
​
printf("List: ");​
while (node != NULL) {​
printf("%d -> ", node->data);​
node = node->next;​
}​
printf("NULL\n");​
}​
​
int main() {​
struct Node* head = NULL; // Initialize an empty linked list​
int elements[] = {61, 16, 8, 27};​
int keysToDelete[] = {8, 61, 27};​
int i;​
​
// Inserting elements into the ordered linked list​
 for (i = 0; i < 4; i++) {​
insertOrdered(&head, elements[i]);​
printf("After inserting %d: ", elements[i]);​
printList(head);​
}​
​
// Deleting elements from the linked list​
for (i = 0; i < 3; i++) {​
deleteNode(&head, keysToDelete[i]);​
printf("After deleting %d: ", keysToDelete[i]);​
printList(head);​
}​
​
return 0;​
}​

Program 10: Stack using Linked List

#include <stdio.h>​
#include <stdlib.h>​
​
// Define the structure for a node in the stack​
struct Node {​
int data;​
struct Node* next;​
};​
​
// Function to create a new node​
struct Node* createNode(int data) {​
struct Node* newNode = (struct Node*)malloc(sizeof(struct Node));​
newNode->data = data;​
newNode->next = NULL;​
return newNode;​
}​
​
// Function to push an element onto the stack​
void push(struct Node** top, int data) {​
struct Node* newNode = createNode(data);​
newNode->next = *top; // Link the old top to the new node​
*top = newNode; // Update the top to point to the new node​
printf("Pushed %d onto the stack.\n", data);​
}​
​
// Function to pop an element from the stack​
int pop(struct Node** top) {​
struct Node* temp;​
int poppedValue;​
​
if (*top == NULL) {​
 printf("Stack is empty! Cannot pop.\n");​
return -1; // Return -1 if stack is empty​
}​
​
temp = *top; // Store the current top node​
poppedValue = temp->data; // Get the data from the top node​
*top = (*top)->next; // Move the top pointer to the next node​
free(temp); // Free memory of the popped node​
printf("Popped %d from the stack.\n", poppedValue);​
return poppedValue; // Return the popped value​
}​
​
// Function to display the elements in the stack​
void display(struct Node* top) {​
struct Node* temp;​
​
if (top == NULL) {​
printf("Stack is empty.\n");​
return;​
}​
​
printf("Stack elements: ");​
temp = top; // Temporary pointer for traversal​
while (temp != NULL) {​
printf("%d -> ", temp->data);​
temp = temp->next;​
}​
printf("NULL\n");​
}​
​
int main() {​
struct Node* stack = NULL; // Initialize an empty stack​
​
// Perform stack operations​
push(&stack, 10);​
push(&stack, 20);​
push(&stack, 30);​
​
display(stack); // Display current stack​
​
pop(&stack); // Pop an element from the stack​
display(stack); // Display current stack after pop​
​
pop(&stack); // Pop another element from the stack​
display(stack);​
​
pop(&stack); // Pop last element from the stack​
display(stack);​
​
pop(&stack); // Attempt to pop from an empty stack​
​
return 0;​
}​

Program 16: String Operations

#include <stdio.h>​
#include <string.h>​
​
int main() {​
// Initialize the strings​
char S1[] = "Flowers";​
char S2[] = "are beautiful";​
char result[100]; // To store concatenated string​
char *substr; // To store extracted substring​
char *pos;​
​
// I. Find the length of S1​
int length_S1 = strlen(S1);​
printf("Length of S1: %d\n", length_S1);​
​
// II. Concatenate S1 and S2​
strcpy(result, S1); // Copy S1 to result​
strcat(result, " "); // Add a space between the two strings​
strcat(result, S2); // Concatenate S2 to result​
printf("Concatenated string (S1 + S2): %s\n", result);​
​
// III. Extract the substring "low" from S1​
substr = strstr(S1, "low"); // Find substring "low"​
if (substr) {​
printf("Extracted substring: %.*s\n", 3, substr); // Print
first 3 characters of found substring​
} else {​
printf("Substring 'low' not found in S1.\n");​
}​
​
// IV. Find "are" in S2 and replace it with "is"​
pos = strstr(S2, "are"); // Find position of "are"​
if (pos) {​
strncpy(pos, "is", 2); // Replace "are" with "is"​
strcpy(pos + 2, pos + 4); // Shift remaining part of string
left​
printf("Modified string S2: %s\n", S2);​
} else {​
printf("\"are\" not found in S2.\n");​
}​
​
 return 0;​
}​

Program 17: Adjacency Matrix of a Graph

#include <stdio.h>​
#include <stdlib.h>​
​
#define MAX 20 // Maximum number of vertices​
​
int adj[MAX][MAX]; // Adjacency matrix​
int n; // Number of vertices​
​
// Function to create the adjacency matrix​
void createGraph() {​
int origin, destin, max_edges;​
int i, j;​
​
printf("Enter the number of vertices: ");​
scanf("%d", &n);​
max_edges = n * (n - 1); // Maximum edges in a directed graph​
​
// Initialize adjacency matrix to 0​
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {​
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {​
adj[i][j] = 0;​
}​
}​
​
// Input edges​
for (i = 0; i < max_edges; i++) {​
printf("Enter edge %d (or -1 -1 to stop): ", i + 1);​
scanf("%d %d", &origin, &destin);​
if (origin == -1 && destin == -1) {​
break; // Exit if input is -1 -1​
}​
if (origin >= n || destin >= n || origin < 0 || destin < 0) {​
printf("Invalid edge!\n");​
i--; // Decrement i to repeat this iteration​
} else {​
adj[origin][destin] = 1; // Add edge to adjacency matrix​
}​
}​
}​
​
// Function to display the adjacency matrix​
void displayGraph() {​
int i, j;​
​
 printf("Adjacency Matrix:\n");​
for (i = 0; i < n; i++) {​
for (j = 0; j < n; j++) {​
printf("%d ", adj[i][j]);​
}​
printf("\n");​
}​
}​
​
int main() {​
createGraph(); // Create the graph​
displayGraph(); // Display the adjacency matrix​
return 0;​
}​

These comments should give you a very clear understanding of what each line of code is doing!