Experiment No.

1
Topic: Shaping
Problems
How can a subject learn a new behavior through successive reinforcement of closer
approximations to the desired behavior?
Introduction
Shaping is a behavioral training technique used in operant conditioning, introduced by B.F.
Skinner. Instead of waiting for the complete desired behavior to occur, the trainer reinforces
smaller steps—also called successive approximations—that lead toward the final behavior. It is
commonly used in behavior therapy, education, animal training, and rehabilitation settings.
Hypothesis
A subject will eventually perform the desired behavior if successive approximations toward the
behavior are consistently reinforced.
Apparatus and Material
 Stickers, tokens, or small candies (as reinforcers)
 Stopwatch or timer
 A bottle or any identifiable target object
 A room with various objects (e.g., chair, bag, books)
 One participant (subject)
 Record sheet
 Optional: Clicker, clap sound, or other reinforcement cue
Experiment
The subject is placed in a room and encouraged to act freely. The experimenter provides
reinforcement for any behavior that gradually approximates the final desired behavior (e.g.,
touching a bottle). The subject is unaware of the goal and learns the task through successive
reinforcement.
Instructions (to Subject)
“You may move freely and do whatever you want. If you do something correct, I will give you a
sticker/token. Try to figure out what behavior is being reinforced.”
Procedure
1. The experimenter decides a target behavior (e.g., touching a bottle) without informing the
subject.
 2. The subject enters the room and is observed by the experimenter.
3. The experimenter reinforces any behavior that is a closer approximation to the target
behavior.
4. Non-relevant behaviors are ignored.
5. Reinforcement continues step-by-step until the subject performs the target behavior.
6. Each behavior and corresponding reinforcement is recorded.
Treatment of Result
The experiment is successful if the subject performs the final target behavior through a clear
sequence of reinforced approximations. This demonstrates the effectiveness of shaping in
developing new behaviors.
Observation Table

Step No. Behavior Performed Reinforced (Yes/No)

1 Looked toward right side Yes
2 Walked toward the table Yes
3 Reached hand forward Yes
4 Touched a bag No

Discussion/Conclusion
This experiment confirms that shaping is an effective learning technique in operant conditioning.
The subject gradually learned the desired behavior through the reinforcement of small steps. The
success of the experiment supports Skinner's idea that complex behaviors can be taught without
verbal instruction.
This technique is useful in education, therapy, and rehabilitation. However, factors like timing,
type of reinforcement, and individual differences may influence the rate of learning.
 Experiment No. 2
Topic: Discrimination
Problems
How does a subject learn to respond selectively to one stimulus over another when only one is
associated with reinforcement?
Introduction
Discrimination refers to the learned ability to distinguish between different stimuli and respond
appropriately to only the one that signals reinforcement. This experiment focuses on how
individuals can learn to make such distinctions over repeated exposures when only one stimulus
is consistently rewarded. Discrimination learning is key to adaptive behavior and forms the basis
of stimulus control.
Theoretical Background
Operant discrimination occurs when a subject's response is reinforced in the presence of one
stimulus (S⁺) and not reinforced in the presence of another (S⁻). Over time, the subject learns to
respond selectively to S⁺. This principle is widely used in behavioral training and therapy to
enhance desired behaviors.
Operational Definition
Discrimination in this context is defined as the ability to differentiate between two stimuli—
visual or auditory—and respond only to the one consistently paired with reinforcement.
Hypothesis
If reinforcement is given for responding only to the reinforced stimulus (S⁺), then the subject
will gradually learn to discriminate and respond primarily to that stimulus.
Apparatus and Material
 Two visual stimuli: e.g., red circle (S⁺) and blue square (S⁻) printed on cards or projected
on a screen
 Two auditory stimuli: high-pitched and low-pitched tones (played via phone or laptop)
 Reinforcers:
o Verbal praise, Stickers/stars, Extra points, Applause from peers (if done in a group
setting)
 Record sheet
Experiment
The participant is presented with either a visual or auditory stimulus in random order. Only one
stimulus (S⁺) in each category is associated with reinforcement. The participant is required to
respond (e.g., press a button or raise their hand) only when they see or hear the reinforced
stimulus. Reinforcement is given for correct responses to S⁺ only.
Instructions (to Subject)
"You will be shown shapes or hear different sounds. Raise your hand only when you see the red
circle or hear the high-pitched tone. You will receive a reward when you respond correctly."
Procedure
1. The participant is seated comfortably in front of a screen or with audio setup.
2. A total of 8–10 trials are conducted, with stimuli presented randomly.
3. The subject is instructed to respond only to S⁺ (red circle or high-pitched tone).
4. Reinforcement is immediately provided after a correct response.
5. No reinforcement is given for incorrect or missed responses.
6. The experimenter records all responses on a trial-by-trial basis.
Treatment of Result
Count the number of correct and incorrect responses across all trials. An increasing number of
correct responses to S⁺ and decreasing incorrect responses over time indicates successful
discrimination learning.
Observation Table

Stimulus Stimulus Response Correct? Reinforcemen

Trial No.
Type Presented (Yes/No) (Yes/No) t Given
Red Circle
1 Visual Yes Yes Sticker
(S⁺)
Blue Square
2 Visual No Yes None
(S⁻)
High-pitched
3 Auditory Yes Yes Praise
(S⁺)
Low-pitched
4 Auditory Yes No None
(S⁻)
Discussion/Conclusion
This experiment shows how reinforcement can shape behavior through discrimination learning.
By selectively reinforcing responses to one specific stimulus, subjects learn to distinguish
relevant cues from irrelevant ones. The inclusion of both auditory and visual stimuli allows for
flexible application and richer analysis of perceptual learning. The use of non-edible reinforcers
makes the design more inclusive and suitable for a variety of age groups and settings.
 Experiment No. 3
Topic: Rate of Responding as a Function of Motivation
Problem
How does the level of motivation influence the frequency or speed of a subject's responses?
Introduction
Motivation plays a vital role in learning and behavior. In operant conditioning, a motivated
subject typically responds more frequently or more rapidly to obtain a reward. This experiment
explores the relationship between motivational states (e.g., hunger, desire for reward) and the
rate at which a subject performs a learned behavior.
Theoretical Background
According to Hull’s drive theory and principles of operant conditioning, motivation increases the
probability and rate of a response. When a subject is in a heightened motivational state (e.g.,
hungry or eager to gain points), they tend to perform the target behavior more frequently or more
quickly to gain reinforcement.
Operational Definition
Motivation is defined operationally as a manipulated variable (e.g., increased desire for a
reinforcer), and the rate of responding is measured as the number of correct responses in a fixed
period.
Hypothesis
If motivation increases, then the rate of responding will also increase.
Apparatus and Material
 Reinforcers (varied by group): Tokens/stars for points, Verbal praise, Access to music or a
preferred activity for a few seconds
 Stopwatch
 Click counter or tally sheet
 Task-related material (e.g., button to press, card-sorting task, or simple reaction activity)
 Record sheet
 Two participant groups with different levels of motivation (e.g., promised reward vs. no
reward)
Experiment
The experiment compares two groups (or conditions):
 High-motivation group: participants are told they will receive a meaningful reward for
each correct/quick response.
  Low-motivation group: no reward is promised.
Each participant performs a simple, repetitive task (e.g., pressing a button when a light
flashes) for a fixed time (e.g., 2 minutes), and the number of responses is recorded.
Instructions (to Subject)
"You will be performing a task for two minutes. Try to respond as quickly and accurately as
possible whenever the signal appears. You will get a reward for each correct response."
(Change instruction depending on whether the subject is in the high or low motivation group.)
Procedure
1. Divide subjects into two groups: high-motivation and low-motivation.
2. Explain the task to both groups but only offer reinforcement to the high-motivation
group.
3. Present a stimulus (e.g., light flash, card to sort) repeatedly over a 2-minute session.
4. Instruct participants to respond (e.g., press a button or sort a card) immediately upon
seeing the stimulus.
5. Record the number of correct responses in the allotted time.
6. Reinforce correct responses in the high-motivation group only.
Treatment of Result
Compare the mean response rates between the two groups. A higher number of responses in the
motivated group supports the hypothesis that motivation increases responding.
Observation Table

Total Time Responses Reinforcer

Subject Group
(mins) Made Given
1 High Motivation 2 36 Token + Praise
2 High Motivation 2 33 Token
3 Low Motivation 2 19 None
4 Low Motivation 2 17 None

Discussion/Conclusion
The results typically show a higher rate of responding in the high-motivation group, confirming
that motivational states significantly influence behavioral performance. This supports the notion
that reinforcement and internal drives can modulate behavior frequency and intensity