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Computer Architectur GGL - Classroom

The document provides an overview of computer architecture, focusing on key concepts such as clock speed, instruction cycles, cores, cache memory, and the program counter. It explains the processes involved in executing instructions, the significance of multicore processors, and various performance optimization techniques like pipelining and parallelism. Additionally, it includes calculations for CPU time and speedup comparisons between different computers.

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3 views6 pages

Computer Architectur GGL - Classroom

The document provides an overview of computer architecture, focusing on key concepts such as clock speed, instruction cycles, cores, cache memory, and the program counter. It explains the processes involved in executing instructions, the significance of multicore processors, and various performance optimization techniques like pipelining and parallelism. Additionally, it includes calculations for CPU time and speedup comparisons between different computers.

Uploaded by

lalixs71
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Computer Architecture

1a. Definition: Clock speed refers to how fast a computer’s central processing
unit (CPU) can execute instructions. It’s measured in Hertz (Hz), usually in
Gigahertz (GHz) today (1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second).

 Function: It determines how many clock cycles the CPU can perform
per second.
 Example: A CPU with a clock speed of 3.0 GHz can perform 3 billion
clock cycles per second.

Definition: This is the process the CPU follows to carry out a single
instruction. It includes:

1. Fetch: Get the instruction from memory.


2. Decode: Understand what the instruction means.
3. Execute: Carry out the instruction.
4. Store (optional): Save the result.

 Function: It describes the steps taken to process one instruction.


 Duration: May take multiple clock cycles to complete one instruction
cycle, depending on instruction complexity and CPU architecture.

- The value 24 GHZ represents: the CPU can perform 2.4billion clock
cycles per second.

b. Core refers to the individual processing unit inside a CPU that can read
and execute instructions. Core i3, is a brand name of intel processors
which signifies it is multi core processor.

- Multicore processors are advantageous over mono core in that a system


with two or more processors (or cores) working together, making
execution faster.

c. Pin grid array (PGA) architecture, is one in which the pins on the
underside of the processor are inserted into the socket, usually with zero
insertion force (ZIF) to aid installation.
Zero insertion force (ZIF) is a type of Integrated Circuit (IC) socket or
electrical connector that requires very little force for insertion. With a ZIF
socket, before the IC is inserted, a lever or slider on the side of the socket
is moved, pushing all the sprung contacts apart so that the IC can be
inserted with very little force. Generally, the weight of the IC itself is
sufficient and no external downward force is required. The lever is then
moved back, allowing the contacts to close and grip the pins of the IC.

d. Cache memory is a small, high-speed memory located very close to


the CPU (sometimes even inside it) that stores frequently used data and
instructions.

Different levels of cache optimize performance by providing a smart


balance:

 L1: Fastest, for immediate needs


 L2: Bigger, for recent data
 L3: Shared, for coordination and bulk storage

Having multiple layers helps the CPU work faster, smarter, and more
efficiently.

2. Program counter

The Program Counter holds the memory address of the next instruction that the
CPU will fetch and execute.

 At the start of a program, the PC points to the first instruction.


 After each instruction is fetched, the PC is automatically incremented to
point to the next instruction.
 If there's a jump or branch instruction, the PC is updated to a new address
instead of just moving to the next one.

Assuming a program is stored in memory like this:

Memory Address Instruction


1000 LOAD A
1001 ADD B
1002 STORE C
 Initially, PC = 1000.
 CPU fetches instruction at 1000 (LOAD A).
 Then PC is updated to 1001, ready to fetch the next instruction.

The Instruction Register stores the actual instruction that has just been fetched
from memory and is now being decoded and executed.

What it does:

 Once the PC fetches an instruction from memory, it is loaded into the IR.
 The control unit decodes the instruction in the IR and sends signals to
carry it out.

Example (continued):

 PC = 1000 → CPU fetches LOAD A from memory.


 LOAD A is loaded into the IR.
 IR now holds: LOAD A.
 The CPU decodes and executes LOAD A.
 Then PC increments to 1001 for the next instruction.

b.

i. Amdahl’s law:

Amdahl’s Law is used to estimate the maximum possible speedup of a


computer program when only part of it can be parallelized.

ii. Stored program concept:

The stored program concept is the idea that instructions (programs) and data are
both stored in the same memory.

iii. Parallelism:

Parallel computing is a type of computation where many calculations or


processes are carried out simultaneously. This approach divides large problems
into smaller ones, which can then be solved concurrently. Parallel computing
has become the dominant paradigm in computer architecture, especially with the
advent of multi-core processors.
iv. Pipelining:

Pipelining is an arrangement of the CPU's hardware components to raise the


CPU's general performance. In a pipelined processor, procedures called 'stages’
are accomplished in parallel, and the execution of more than one line of
instruction occurs.

3. CPU Time=Instruction Count ×CPI ×Clock Cycle Time

Computer A:

 Clock cycle = 250 picoseconds (ps)


 CPI = 2.0

Computer B:

 Clock cycle = 500 ps


 CPI = 1.2

CPU Time (in terms of instruction count):

 Computer A:

Time A = 2.0×250 = 500 ps per instruction time

 Computer B:

Time B=1.2×500=600 ps per instruction time

How Much Faster?

Speed up = Time B/Time A => 600/500 = 1.2

Computer A is 1.2× (or 20%) faster than Computer B.

B. Calculate speed up

Time for A = 10 seconds

Time for B = 15 seconds

Calculate Speedup:

Speed up = 15/10 = 1.5


Final Answer:

Computer A is 1.5× faster than Computer B


That means A completes the task 50% faster than B.

C. CPU Time = Number of clock cycles\ clock rate

Computer A

CPU time = 1.2 sec

Clock rate = 2 GHz

Computer B

CPU time = 6 sec

Clock rate = 1.2 * clock rate of A

Clock CyclesB = 1.2 * clock cycleA = 1.2 * 20 * 109 = 24 * 109 cycles

Clock RateB = Clock CyclesB/CPU TimeB = 24 * 109/6 = 4GHz

Computer B should have a clock rate of 4GHz to run the program in 6 seconds

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