Network Essentials

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 Network Essentials

An Introduction to Networking
 Network Essentials

Introducing Networks

A network is an interconnection of a group of computers that

can communicate and share resources such as hard disks
and printers.
A network is a group of computers and other devices that
are connected by some type of transmission media.
The initial idea of a network was perceived by Department
of Defense (DOD) in USA for the purpose of security.
Some advantages of networks are:
Sharing of information across the network
Optimum utilization of hardware resources
Centralization of data management
 Network Essentials

How Networks Are Used

File services: capability of a server to share data files,

applications, and disk storage space.
Print services: used to share printers across a network.
Communications services: Allow remote users to connect to the
remote network.
Mail services: Transfer of e-mail between users on a network.
Internet services: Supplying Web pages, file transfer
capabilities, and a means for directly logging on to other
computers on the Internet.
Management services: centrally administer management
tasks on the network like Traffic monitoring and control.
 Network Essentials

Understanding Internetworking Servers

Internetworking services are the services in a networking

environment that are accessible to users within an intranet
or the Internet.
The following are some of the services provided by the
Internetworking servers:
File Transfer
WWW
E-mail
 Network Essentials

Network Topologies
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Network Topologies

Network topology is a schematic layout or a map of the

arrangement of nodes over a network.
This layout also determines the manner in which information
is exchanged within the network.
There are five types of network topologies:
Bus
Star
Ring
Mesh
Cellular
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Bus Topology

The bus topology connects all the nodes on a network to a

main cable called bus.
In the bus topology, each packet that is placed on the bus
contains the address of the destination node and is
transmitted in both directions along the bus.
A single high capacity cable is required thus requiring
minimum cabling and its cost.
Entire cable setup needs to be reconfigured to add a node.
Time consuming process to troubleshoot as every point
needs to be checked to locate the fault.

The Bus Topology

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Bus Topology (Continued)

A Terminated Bus Topology

network
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Star Topology

The star topology connects nodes over a network using a

central control unit called the hub.
Nodes to a star-based network can be easily attached to the
hub.
All the nodes are connected to the hub thus requiring lot of
cabling and cost.
A faulty hub can disrupt the entire network.

The Star Topology

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Star Topology (Continued)

A Typical Star Topology Network

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Ring Topology

The ring topology connects the nodes on a network through

a point-to-point connection.
Easy to locate cable faults in a ring.
The entire network stops functioning, if any of the nodes in
the network malfunctions.

The Ring Topology

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Ring Topology (Continued)

A Typical Ring Topology Network

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Mesh Topology

The mesh topology involves point-to-point connection

between every node in the network.
High reliable as network connectivity does not depend on
any one node.
Useful for large network connections.
Involves high installation and setup costs due to elaborate
cabling required to connect each node with the other node.
Difficult to manage as the size of the network increases.

The Mesh Topology

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Cellular Topology

The cellular topology is a wireless topology, where

geographic area is divided into cells or regions.
In cellular topology, each cell is a separate entity that is
controlled by a central station.
Operates on wireless media, thus do not require cabling.
Easy to install as only requirement is the availability of a
central location and signal strength.
Cell Node

The Cellular Topology

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Network Categories
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Network Categories

The resources and software capabilities that nodes in a

network share are commonly known as services.
Networks are categorized as:
Peer-to-peer
Client / Server
 Network Essentials

Peer-to-Peer Networks

In a peer-to-peer network, there is no specific distinction

between a client and a server.
Every computer can communicate directly with every other
computer.
By default, no computer has more authority than another.
Every computer is capable of sending and receiving
information to and from every other computer.
The following figure illustrates the peer-to-peer network:

The Peer-to-Peer Network

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Peer-to-Peer Networks (Continued)

Resource sharing on a Simple Peer-to-Peer Network

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Client / Server Networks

In a client / server network, the requests are processed

centrally by one or more servers.
The server is a system with high processing power, which
provides services for the other computers in a network.
The client is a system that accesses resources available on
a server.
In a client / server network setup, the server is responsible
for processing the requests sent by the clients.

The Client / Server Network The Client-Server Network Setup

 Network Essentials

Client / Server Networks (Continued)

Resource sharing on a Client / Server Network

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Client / Server Networks (Continued)

Advantages of using client/server networks over peer-to-peer

networks:
User logon accounts and passwords can be assigned in one place.
Access to multiple shared resources can be centrally granted to a
single user or groups of users.
Problems can be tracked, diagnosed, and often fixed from one
location.
Servers are optimized to handle heavy processing loads and
dedicated to handling requests from clients, enabling faster
response time.
Because of their efficient processing and larger disk storage, servers
can connect more than a handful of computers on a network.
To function as a server, a computer must be running a network
operating system (NOS).
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Elements of Client / Server Networks

Client
Server
Network interface card (NIC)
NOS
Connectivity device
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Network Operating Systems

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Network Operating System

Network Operating System (NOS) is an enhanced version

of an operating system, with features that allow the
management and connectivity of nodes within a network.
NOS allows the sharing of information and resources based
on the accessibility privileges allocated to each user or
node.
Popular NOSs include:
Windows Server 2003, 2003R2, 2008, 2008 R2, 2012, 2012R2,
2016, 2019, 2022
UNIX
Linux
 Network Essentials

Functions of Network Operating System

Centrally manage network resources, such as programs, data,

and devices.
Allow remote users to connect to a network.
Allow users to connect to other networks.
Secure access to a network.
Data backup & restore.
Allow for simple additions of clients and resources.
Monitor status and functionality of network elements.
Distribute programs and software updates to clients.
Provide fault tolerance in case of a hardware or software
problem.
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Windows Server 2008/2012 R2

Windows Server 2008/2012 R2 is a 64-bit operating system.

It is a Microsoft product, which operates on single and
multiprocessor systems.
The features of the Windows Server 2008 R2 operating
system are as follows:
Active Directory
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Terminal services
NTFS
Windows Deployment Services
Hyper V
IPv6 Implementation
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UNIX

Bell Labs launched the UNIX network operating system.

Many versions of UNIX, such as Sun Solaris, AIX UNIX, HP
UNIX, and BSD, are available in the market.
Some of the features of UNIX, which allow networking at the
operating system level, are:
Internet-based services
Compatibility with different protocols
Network security
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LINUX

The Linux network operating system, developed by Linus

Torvalds, is based on the UNIX architecture.
Linux is an open source operating system in which the
source code or the program of the operating system is
available free of cost.
This provides flexibility to the user to modify the operating
system according to individual requirements.
Linux provides services like Apache, Samba and NFS.
 Network Essentials

Types of Network
 Network Essentials

Types of Network

Depending on the size and the area that networks cover,

the networks are primarily categorized into the following
types:
Local Area Networks (LANs)
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
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Local Area Network

A LAN is a small-scale network that extends over relatively

small distances.
The following figure depicts a typical LAN setup:

Node1

Node 2 Node 3

Typical LAN Setup

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Wide Area Network

A Wide Area Network (WAN) provides network connectivity

spanning across large geographical area, such as across
states, countries, or across the globe.
The following figure depicts WAN connectivity between two
buildings at Miami and Texas, across the Internet using the
services of a service provider.

The WAN Connectivity

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Transmission Basics
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Transmission Direction

There are 3 different transmission modes characterized according to

the direction of the exchanges:
Simplex
Half-Duplex
Full-Duplex (Duplex)
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Transmission Direction (Continued)

Simplex: signals may travel in only one direction.

Half-Duplex: signals may travel in both directions over a medium

but only one direction at a time.

Full-Duplex or Duplex: signals free to travel in both directions

over a medium simultaneously.
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Bandwidth

In computer networking bandwidth refers to the data rate supported

by a network connection.

In the field of electrical engineering, bandwidth represents the

difference between highest and lowest frequencies that a medium
can transmit.

Bandwidth represents the capacity of the connection.

The greater the capacity, the more likely that greater performance
will follow, though overall performance also depends on other
factors, such as latency.

We most commonly expresses bandwidth in terms of bits per

second (bps).
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Latency

Delay between transmission and receipt of a signal.

Many possible causes:

Cable length
Inter connectivity device e.g. routers.

Round Trip Time (RTT)

Time for packets to go from sender to receiver and back.

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Throughput

In communication networks, network throughput is the average rate

of successful message delivery over a communication channel.

The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bps).

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Baseband

In Baseband networks a digital signal is placed directly on the

transmission medium without requiring a carrier, i.e. without
modulation.

Only one signal may be present on the baseband channel at a

time.

Baseband networks may use twisted pair, coaxial cable, or

optical fiber for data transmission.
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Broadband

A term used to describe a network that can transmit a wide range

of signals, including audio and video.

Broadband networks are especially useful in the Networked

World, as they can carry many signals at once, resulting in faster
data transmission.
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Transmission Flaws (Noise)

Electro Magnetic Interference: also called Radio Frequency

Interference RFI) is a disturbance that affects an electrical circuit
due to either electromagnetic induction or electromagnetic
radiation emitted from an external source such as electrical
devices or cables.

Crosstalk: refers to electromagnetic interference from one

unshielded twisted pair to another twisted pair, normally running
in parallel. In that case signal traveling on a wire or cable
infringes on signal traveling over adjacent wire or cable.

Certain amount of signal noise is unavoidable.

All forms of noise measured in decibels (db).

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Attenuation

Attenuation is a general term that refers to any reduction in the

strength of a signal.

Attenuation occurs with any type of signal, whether digital or

analog. Sometimes called loss, attenuation is a natural
consequence of signal transmission over long distances.
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Transmission Media
 Network Essentials

Transmission Media

The physical channel that is used for connecting the

components of a network, such as nodes and printers, is
known as transmission medium.
The types of transmission media include the following:
Cables
Wireless
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Cables

Cables are the conventional media used to setup networks.

There are three types of cables:

Coaxial Cables
Twisted Pair Cables
Fiber-optic Cables
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Coaxial Cables

These cables are designed in such a manner that the center

conductor and the outside braided metal shield share a
common axis.
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Twisted Pair Cables

These cables use copper wires, which are good conductors

of electricity.
Color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together.
Twist ratio: twists per meter or foot.
Higher twist ratio reduces crosstalk and increases
attenuation
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Types of Twisted Pair Cables

There are two types of twisted pair cables:

Shielded Twisted Pair Cables (STP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cables (UTP)

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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

These cables consist of multiple twisted pairs (TPs) surrounded

by an insulator shield. This insulator shield, in turn, is covered
with a plastic encasement.
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Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) (Continued)

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Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

These cables consist of a set of twisted pairs that are covered

with a plastic jacket, as shown in the following figure.
Most common form of cabling found on LANs today.
TIA/EIA 568 standard divides twisted-pair wiring into several
categories: CAT 3, 4, 5, 5e, 6, 6e, 7
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Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

CAT 3 (Category 3): up to 10 Mbps of throughput

CAT 4 (Category 4): 16 Mbps throughput
CAT 5 (Category 5): up to 1000 Mbps throughput
CAT 5e (Enhanced Category 5): higher twist ratio
CAT 6 (Category 6): six times the throughput of CAT 5
CAT 6e (Enhanced Category 6): reduced attenuation and crosstalk
CAT 7 (Category 7): signal rates up to 1 GHz
 Network Essentials

Comparing STP & UTP

STP cables are shielded while UTP cables are unshielded.

STP cables are more immune to interference and noise than UTP
cables.
STP cables are better at maximizing bandwidth compared to UTP
cables.
STP cables cost more per meter compared to UTP cables.
STP cables are heavier per meter compared to UTP cables.
UTP cables are more prevalent in SOHO networks while STP is
used in more high-end networks.
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Fiber-optic

These cables are based on fiber optic technology, which uses

light rays instead of electricity to transmit data. The following
figure shows a fiber-optic cable.
Contains glass or plastic fibers at core surrounded by layer of
glass or plastic cladding.
Reflects light back to core.
 Network Essentials

Types of Fiber-optic

Fiber-optic cables can be differentiated into the following two

categories:
Single-mode
Multimode
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Single Mode Fiber

Narrow core through which laser-generated light travels over one

path, reflecting very little.
Accommodates high bandwidths and long distances.
Expensive.
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Multi Mode Fiber

Multi-mode optical fiber is a type of optical fiber mostly used for

communication over short distances, such as within a building or
on a campus.
 Network Essentials

Benefits over copper cabling

Nearly unlimited throughput.

Transmission rates exceed 10 Gigabits per second.
Very high resistance to noise.
Excellent security.
Ability to carry signals for much longer distances before requiring
repeaters than copper cable.
Cost: most expensive transmission medium.
Connector: uses 10 different types of connectors.
Typically use SC, ST & MTRJ connectors.
Noise immunity: unaffected by EMI.
Size and scalability: segment lengths vary from 150 to 40,000
meters.
Industry standard for high-speed networking.
 Network Essentials

Wireless Transmission

The wireless technology helps connect distant networks,

without needing to physically set up cables between the
destination and the source point.
In a wireless setup, the atmosphere is used to transmit and
receive signals in the form of electro-magnetic waves through
an antenna.
These electro-magnetic waves can be transmitted through
different types of wireless transmission carriers, which include
the following:
Radio: Radio transmissions operate on radio waves. Radio waves
are only limited to low transmission capacities, from 1 Mbps to 10
Mbps.
Microwave: Microwaves transmit data over a higher bandwidth as
compared to radio transmissions.
Infrared: Infrared transmissions use infrared radiation to transmit
data. Infrared is an electro-magnetic radiation.
 Network Essentials

Connectors
&
Media Converters
 Network Essentials

Connectors for Coaxial Cable

 Network Essentials

Connectors for UTP Cable

RJ45 Connector for UTP Cable

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Connectors for Fiber-optic Cable

MTRJ
SC

ST
 Network Essentials

Media Converters
Media converters are simple networking devices that
make it possible to connect two dissimilar media types
such as twisted pair with fiber optic cabling.
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OSI Reference Model

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The OSI Model

Established in 1947, the International Standards Organization

(ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.

An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network

communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
 Network Essentials

Note:

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model
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The OSI Model

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Why a Layered Network Model?

Application • Reduces complexity (one big

problem to seven smaller ones)
Presentation
• Standardizes networking
Session • Simplifies teaching and learning
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Network Essentials
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OSI layers
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An exchange using the OSI model

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Physical layer
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Note:

The physical layer is responsible

for the movement of individual bits from
one node to the next.
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Data link layer

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Note:

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node) to
the next.
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Hop-to-hop delivery
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Network layer
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Note:

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
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Source-to-destination delivery
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Transport layer
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Note:

The transport layer is responsible for

the delivery of a message from one
process to another.
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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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Session layer
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Note:

Session layer is responsible for

establishing, managing, and
terminating the communication between
the two nodes.
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Presentation layer
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Note:

Presentation layer is responsible for

encoding & decoding, compression
& decompression, encryption &
decryption of data.
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Application layer
 Network Essentials

Note:

Application layer provides the

interface between the user and the
network.
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Summary of layers
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Application Layer

7 Application Provides network access to application

programs (such as electronic mail, file
transfer)
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Presentation Layer

7 Application Network access to application programs

6 Presentation Data representation

• Ensures data is readable by
receiving system
• Format of data
• Negotiates data transfer syntax for
application layer
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Session Layer

7 Application Network services to applications

6 Presentation Data representation

5 Session Inter-host communication

• Establishes, manages, and
terminates sessions between
applications
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Transport Layer

7 Application Network services to applications

6 Presentation Data representation

5 Session Inter-host communication

4 Transport End-to-end connection reliability

• Concerned with data transport issues
between hosts
• Data transport reliability
• Establishes, maintains, and
terminates virtual circuits
• Error detection and recovery
• Information flow control
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Network Layer

7 Application Network services to applications

6 Presentation Data representation

5 Session Inter-host communication

4 Transport End-to-end connection reliability

3 Network Addresses and best path

• Define Logical addressing and path
selection between two end systems
• Routing of packets
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Data Link Layer

7 Application Network services to applications

6 Presentation Data representation

5 Session Inter-host communication

4 Transport End-to-end connection reliability

3 Network Addresses and best path

2 Data Link Access to media

• Physical addressing, error
notification, flow control
 Network Essentials

Physical Layer

7 Application Network services to applications

6 Presentation Data representation

5 Session Inter-host communication

4 Transport End-to-end connection reliability

3 Network Addresses and best path

2 Data Link Access to media

1 Physical Binary transmission

• Wires, connectors, data rates
 Network Essentials

Communication

Host A Host B
7 Application Application

6 Presentation Presentation

5 Session Session

4 Transport Segments Transport

3 Network Packets Network

2 Data Link Frames Data Link

1 Physical Bits Physical

 Network Essentials

Data Encapsulation
Host A Host B
Application Application

Presentation

Session

Transport
} { Data Presentation

Session

Transport

Network Network

Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical
 Network Essentials

Data Encapsulation (Continued)

Host A Host B
Application Application

Presentation

Session

Transport
} { Data

Network Data
Header
Presentation

Session

Transport

Network Network

Data Link Data Link

Physical Physical
 Network Essentials

Data Encapsulation (Continued)

Host A Host B
Application Application

Presentation

Session

Transport
} { Data

Network Data
Header
Presentation

Session

Transport

Network Network

Frame Network Data Frame

Data Link Data Link
Header Header Trailer

Physical Physical
 Network Essentials

Data Encapsulation (Continued)

Host A Host B
Application Application

Presentation

Session

Transport
} { Data

Network Data
Header
Presentation

Session

Transport

Network Network

Frame Network Data Frame

Data Link Data Link
Header Header Trailer

Physical Physical
0101101010110001
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Host Layers

}
7 Application
6 Presentation Host layers: Provide accurate
data delivery between computers.
5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network

2 Data Link
1 Physical
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Media Layers

}
7 Application
6 Presentation Host layers: Provide accurate
5 Session
data delivery between computers.

4 Transport

}
3 Network
Media layers: Control physical
delivery of messages over the
2 Data Link
network.
1 Physical
 Network Essentials

Physical Layer

The Physical layer specifies the electrical, mechanical,

procedural, and functional requirements for activating,
maintaining, and deactivating a physical link between end
systems.
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Data Link Layer

Data Link layer is divided into two sub layers:

Media Access Control (MAC)
Logical Link Control (LLC)

The Data Link layer is responsible for the following aspects of

communication:
Providing unique identification (MAC
address) to each node on the network.
Transforming data bits from the Physical
layer into groups called frames.
Detecting errors that occur during a
transmission.
 Network Essentials

Data Link Layer (Continued)

The Data Link Layer and it’s Sub Layers

 Network Essentials

Data Link Layer (Continued)

Logical Link Control (LLC):

Provides interface to Network layer protocols.
Manages flow control.

Media Access Control (MAC):

Manages access to physical layer.
Appends destination computer’s physical address onto
data frame (MAC address, Data Link layer address, or
hardware address).
 Network Essentials

MAC Address (Physical Address, Hardware Address)

24 bits 24 bits

Vendor Code Serial Number

0000.0c12. 3456
ROM
RAM

MAC address is burned into ROM on a network interface card

 Network Essentials

Data Link Layer (Continued)

A NIC’s MAC address

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Network Layer

This layer is responsible for the following functions:

Providing unique logical addresses to each node on the
network.
Transmitting data across networks.
Controlling network traffic.
Best Path Determination.
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Network Layer : Best Path Determination

Layer 3 functions to find the best path through the internetwork.

Which
Which Path?
Path?
 Network Essentials

Transport Layer

Establishes an end-to-end connection.

Sends segments from one end host to another.
Ensures data reliability.
Organizing messages into segments or breaking large
segments into smaller segments.
Delivering segments to the recipients.
Providing error control.
 Network Essentials

Transport Layer (Continued)

Sender Receiver
Synchronize
Negotiate Connection
Synchronize
Acknowledge

Connection Established
Data Transfer
(Send Segments)
 Network Essentials

Transport Layer (Continued)

Transmit
Sender Receiver

Buffer Full
Not Ready
Stop Process
Segments

Go Ready
Buffer OK

Resume Transmission
 Network Essentials

Transport Layer (Continued)

• Window Size = 1
Send 1 Receive 1
Ack 2
Sender Send 2 Receive 2 Receiver
Ack 3

• Window Size = 3
Send 1 Receive 1
Send 2 Receive 2
Sender
Send 3 Receive 3 Receiver
Ack 4
Send 4
 Network Essentials

Transport Layer (Continued)

Sender Receiver

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Send 1
Send 2
Send 3
Ack 4
Send 4
Send 5
Send 6
Ack 5
Send 5
Ack 7
 Network Essentials

Transport Layer To Network Layer

End-to-End Segments

Routed Packets
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Session Layer

Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications.

Service Request

Service Reply
 Network Essentials

Presentation Layer
Provides code formatting and conversion for applications.

• Text • Graphics
• Data • Visual images
ASCII PICT
login:
EBCDIC TIFF
Encrypted JPEG
• Sound GIF
MIDI
• Video
MPEG
QuickTime
 Network Essentials

Application Layer

Provides the interface between the user and the network.

COMPUTER
APPLICATIONS NETWORK
Word Processor APPLICATIONS INTERNETWORK
Presentation Graphics Electronic Mail APPLICATIONS
Spreadsheet File Transfer Electronic Data Interchange
Database Remote Access World Wide Web
Design/Manufacturing Client-Server Process E-Mail Gateways
Others Network Management Special-Interest Bulletin Boards
Others Financial Transaction Services
Internet Navigation Utilities
Conferencing (Voice, Video, Data)
Others
 Network Essentials

Functions of the OSI Layer

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Summary

OSI reference model describes building blocks of functions for

program-to-program communications between similar or
dissimilar hosts.
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What is Protocol?

A protocol is a set of established and agreed-upon rules

required to enable effective communication on a network.
Protocols can either be developed by a vendor or by a
networking standard organization.
A protocol suite is a hierarchical collection of protocols.
Some of the protocol suites are:
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
IPX/SPX Protocol Suite
AppleTalk Protocol Suite
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Introduction to TCP/IP
(DoD Model)
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TCP/IP Model (DoD Model)

The DoD model is basically a condensed version of the OSI

model.
It’s composed of four, instead of seven, layers:
1) Process/Application layer
2) Host-to-Host layer (Transport layer)
3) Internet layer
4) Network Access layer
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Comparing The OSI Model and TCP/IP Model

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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Application Layer

The TCP/IP protocol suite combines all application related

issues into one layer and ensure this data is properly packaged
before passing it on to the next layer.

Handles high-level protocols, issues of representation, encoding,

decoding and session control.
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Application Layer Protocols

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Host-to-Host Layer (Transport Layer)

The main purpose of the Host-to-Host layer is to shield the

upper- layer applications from the complexities of the network.

This layer says to the upper layer, “Just give me your data
stream, with any instructions, and I’ll begin the process of getting
your information ready to send.”
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Host-to-Host Layer (Transport Layer) Protocols

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Internet Layer

The purpose of the Internet layer is to send packets from a

network host and have them arrive at the destination node
independent of the path taken.
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Internet Layer Protocols

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Network Access Layer

.
The network access layer is concerned with all of the issues that an
IP packet requires to actually make a physical link to the
transmission media.

It includes the LAN and WAN technology details, and all the details
contained in the OSI physical and data link layers.
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Network Access Layer Protocols

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Transmission Control Protocol

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Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

Creates a reliable connection between two computers.

TCP is one of the main protocol in TCP/IP protocol suite.

Whereas the IP protocol deals only with packets, TCP enables

two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of
data.

TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that

segment will be delivered in the same order in which they were
sent.
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Note:

A packet in TCP is called a

segment.
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Key Features of TCP

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TCP 3 way Handshake

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TCP 3 way Handshake (Continued)

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Stream delivery
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TCP segment format

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Control field
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Description of flags
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Description of flags (Continued)

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Encapsulation and decapsulation

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A TCP Connection

TCP is connection-oriented.

A connection-oriented transport protocol establishes a virtual

path between the source and destination.

All of the segments belonging to a message are then sent over

this virtual path.

A connection-oriented transmission requires three phases:

Connection establishment
Data transfer
Connection termination
 Network Essentials

Connection establishment using three-way handshaking

 Network Essentials

Note:

The bytes of data being transferred in

each connection are numbered by TCP.
The numbering starts with a randomly
generated number.
 Network Essentials

Note:

The value of the acknowledgment field

in a segment defines the number of the
next byte a party expects to receive.
 Network Essentials

Data transfer
 Network Essentials

Connection termination using three-way handshaking

 Network Essentials

Example 1
Suppose a TCP connection is transferring a file of 5000 bytes.
The first byte is numbered 10001. What are the sequence
numbers for each segment if data is sent in five segments, each
carrying 1000 bytes?
Solution
The following shows the sequence number for each segment:
Segment 1 ➡ Sequence Number: 10,001 (range: 10,001 to 11,000)
Segment 2 ➡ Sequence Number: 11,001 (range: 11,001 to 12,000)
Segment 3 ➡ Sequence Number: 12,001 (range: 12,001 to 13,000)
Segment 4 ➡ Sequence Number: 13,001 (range: 13,001 to 14,000)
Segment 5 ➡ Sequence Number: 14,001 (range: 14,001 to 15,000)
 Network Essentials

Aborting a connection
 Network Essentials

Denying a connection
 Network Essentials

Error Control

TCP provides reliability using error control, which detects

corrupted, lost, out-of-order, and duplicated segments.

Error control in TCP is achieved through the use of the

checksum, acknowledgment, and time-out.
 Network Essentials

Note:

Data may arrive out of order and be

temporarily stored by the receiving TCP, but
TCP guarantees that no out-of-order
segment is delivered to the process.
 Network Essentials

Note:

In modern implementations, a
retransmission occurs if the
retransmission timer expires.
 Network Essentials

Note:

No retransmission timer is set for an

ACK segment.
 Network Essentials

Normal operation
 Network Essentials

Lost segment
 Network Essentials

Note:

The receiver TCP delivers only ordered

data to the process.
 Network Essentials

Fast retransmission
 Network Essentials

Lost acknowledgment
 Network Essentials

Flow Control & Congestion Control

Flow control regulates the amount of data a source can send

before receiving an acknowledgment from the destination.

For that TCP defines a window size depending on the capability

of receiving host.

Congestion control refers to the mechanisms and techniques to

keep the load below the capacity.

There are two algorithms for Congestion control in TCP:

slow start algorithm

congestion avoidance algorithm
 Network Essentials

Slow start, exponential increase algorithm

 Network Essentials

Note:

In the slow start algorithm, the size of

the congestion window increases
exponentially until it reaches a
threshold.
 Network Essentials

Congestion avoidance, additive increase algorithm

 Network Essentials

Note:

In the congestion avoidance algorithm

the size of the congestion window
increases additively until
congestion is detected.
 Network Essentials

State Transition

To keep track of all the different events happening during

connection establishment, connection termination, and data
transfer, the TCP software is implemented as a finite state
machine.
 Network Essentials

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit hand-

shaking dialogues for providing reliability, ordering, or data
integrity.

Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagram's may

arrive out of order, appear duplicated, or go missing without
notice.
 Network Essentials

Comparison of TCP and UDP

 Network Essentials

Addresses in TCP/IP

Three different levels of addresses are used in an internet:

Physical address (MAC Address)
Logical address (IP Address)
Port Address (Port Numbers)

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 Network Essentials

Addresses in TCP/IP

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 Network Essentials

Port Numbers

TCP and the upper layers don’t use MAC and IP addresses to
understand the sending host’s address as the Data Link and
Network layer protocols do. Instead, they use port numbers.

TCP and UDP must use port numbers to communicate with the
upper layers because they’re what keep track of different
applications' conversations crossing the network simultaneously.

Originating source port numbers are dynamically assigned by

the operating system of the source host and will equal some
number starting at 1024.

These port numbers identify the source and destination

application or process in the TCP segment.

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 Network Essentials

Port Numbers (Continued)

The port numbers are divided into three ranges:

Well Known Ports
Registered Ports
Dynamic or Private Ports

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 Network Essentials

Well Known Ports (0–1023)

The port numbers in the range from 0 to 1023 are the well-
known ports. They are used by system processes that provide
widely-used types of network services.

Registered Ports (1024–49151)

The ranges of port number from 1024 to 49151 are the
registered ports. They are assigned by IANA for specific service
upon application by a requesting entity.

Dynamic or Private Ports (49152–65535)

The range above the registered ports contains dynamic or
private ports that cannot be registered with IANA. It is used for
custom or temporary purposes and for automatic allocation by
operating system.

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 Network Essentials

Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

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 Network Essentials

Example 1

In Figure 2.18 a node with physical address 10 sends

a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two
nodes are connected by a link. At the data link level
this frame contains physical (link) addresses in the
header. These are the only addresses needed. The rest
of the header contains other information needed at
this level. The trailer usually contains extra bits
needed for error detection.

See Next Slide

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 Network Essentials

Figure 2.18 Physical addresses

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 Network Essentials

Example 2

Most local area networks use a 48-bit (6 bytes)

physical address written as 12 hexadecimal digits,
with every 2 bytes separated by a colon as shown
below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

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 Network Essentials

Example 3

In Figure 2.19 we want to send data from a node with

network address A and physical address 10, located on one
LAN, to a node with a network address P and physical
address 95, located on another LAN. Because the two devices
are located on different networks, we cannot use link
addresses only; the link addresses have only local
jurisdiction. What we need here are universal addresses that
can pass through the LAN boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.

See Next Slide

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 Network Essentials

Example 3 (Continued)

The packet at the network layer contains the logical

addresses, which remain the same from the original source to
the final destination (A and P, respectively, in the figure).
They will not change when we go from network to network.
However, the physical addresses will change as the packet
moves from one network to another. The boxes labeled routers
are internetworking devices, which we will discuss later.

See Next Slide

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 Network Essentials
Figure 2.19 IP addresses

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 Network Essentials

Example 5

Figure 2.20 shows an example of transport layer

communication. Data coming from the upper layers
have port addresses j and k ( j is the address of the
sending process, and k is the address of the receiving
process). Since the data size is larger than the network
layer can handle, the data are split into two packets,
each packet retaining the service-point addresses ( j
and k). Then in the network layer, network addresses
(A and P) are added to each packet.

See Next Slide

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 Network Essentials

Example 5 (Continued)

The packets can travel on different paths and arrive at

the destination either in order or out of order. The two
packets are delivered to the destination transport layer,
which is responsible for removing the network layer
headers and combining the two pieces of data for
delivery to the upper layers.

See Next Slide

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 Network Essentials

Figure 2.20 Port addresses

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 Network Essentials

Well Known Port Numbers

Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment

20 FTP Data Transfer
21 FTP Control Commands

22 Secure Shell (SSH) Secure Remote Login

23 TELNET Remote Login

25 SMTP Sending Mails
43 WHOIS Search WHOIS
Database
53 DNS Resolves Domain
Names
67 DHCP Server
68 DHCP Client
69 TFTP Insecure File Transfer
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 Network Essentials

Well Known Port Numbers (Continued)

Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment

80 HTTP Retrieving Web Pages

88 Kerberos Authentication
110 POP3 Receiving Mails
123 Network Time Protocol Synchronize Time

137 NetBIOS Name Service Resolves NetBIOS

Names
138 NetBIOS Datagram
Service
139 NetBIOS Session Service

143 Internet Message Access Retrieving Mails

Protocol
161 Simple Network Network Mgt.
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 Network Essentials

Well Known Port Numbers (Continued)

Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment

179 BGP (Border Gateway Routing Protocol for
Protocol) ISPs
389 Lightweight Directory Directory Services
Access Protocol

443 HTTPS HTTP Secure

445 Windows SMB File File Sharing in
Sharing Service Windows

500 Internet Security Used in IPSec VPNs

Association and Key
Management Protocol
(ISAKMP)

514 Syslog Sending Log Messages

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 Network Essentials

Well Known Port Numbers (Continued)

Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment

520 Routing Information Routing Protocol for
Protocol (RIP) Small Networks
546 DHCPv6 client For IPv6 Addressing

547 DHCPv6 server For IPv6 Addressing

860 iSCSI For Accessing Storage

over the networks

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 Network Essentials

Registered Ports
Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment
1293 IPSec (Internet Protocol Encrypting IP Packets
Security)
1503 Windows Live Messenger Chat Messenger

6891- Windows Live Messenger File Transfer

6900
6901 Windows Live Messenger Voice Calls

1645 RADIUS Authentication Default Port for Cisco

Protocol and Juniper Networks
RADIUS servers

1646 RADIUS Accounting Default for Cisco and

Protocol Juniper Networks
RADIUS servers

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 Network Essentials

Registered Ports (Continued)

Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment
1755 Microsoft Media Services Media Services

1812 RADIUS Authentication Microsoft

Protocol Implementation

1813 RADIUS Accounting Microsoft

Protocol Implementation

2049 Network File System Available in Linux

3389 Microsoft Terminal Server Remote Desktop
Protocol
3544 Teredo Tunnelling IPv4 To IPv6 Tunnelling

5050 Yahoo! Messenger Chat Messenger

5060 Session Initiation Protocol Used in Cisco VOIP
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(SIP)
 Network Essentials

Registered Ports (Continued)

Port No TCP UDP Protocol / Application Comment
5355 LLMNR (Link-Local Allows hosts to
Multicast Name perform name
Resolution) resolution for hosts on
the same local link
(only provided by
Windows Vista and
Server 2008)

7777 Windows Backdoor Trojan Horse

Program tini.exe
19294, Google Talk Voice and Chat Messenger
19295, Video connections
19302

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 Network Essentials

Socket

The combination of IP address and port number. e.g. 201.0.0.1:80

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 Network Essentials

Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast

Unicast: These are sent to a single destination host.

Multicast: These are packets sent from a single source host and
transmitted to many devices on different networks.

Broadcast (layer 2): These are sent to all hosts on a LAN.

Broadcasts (layer 3): These are sent to all hosts on the network.

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 Network Essentials

Broadcast Domain

A broadcast domain a logical division of a computer network, in

which all nodes can reach each other by broadcast at the data link
layer.

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 Network Essentials

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol )

In TCP/IP communications, a datagram (packet) on a local-area

network must contain both a destination MAC address and a
destination IP address.

There needs to be a way to automatically map IP to MAC

address.

ARP associates an IP address with its MAC address. On a typical

physical network, such as a LAN, each device on a link is
identified by a physical or MAC address that is usually imprinted
on the NIC.

The TCP/IP suite has a protocol, called Address Resolution

Protocol (ARP), which can automatically obtain MAC addresses
for local transmission.

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 Network Essentials

Address Resolution Protocol (Continued)

Used by a sending host when it knows the IP address of the

destination but needs the MAC address.

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 Network Essentials

ARP operation

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 Network Essentials

Address Resolution Protocol (Continued)

Each device on a network maintains

its own ARP table.

A device that requires an IP and

MAC address pair broadcasts an
ARP request.

If one of the local devices matches

the IP address of the request, it
sends back an ARP reply that
contains its IP-MAC pair.

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 Network Essentials

Address Resolution Protocol (Continued)

ARP is a broadcast protocol – every host on the network receives

the request.

Each host checks the request against it’s IP address the right
one responds.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

An ARP request is broadcast;

an ARP reply is unicast.

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 Network Essentials

Four cases using ARP

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 Network Essentials

RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

RARP finds the IP address for a machine that only knows its
MAC address.

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 Network Essentials

ARP and RARP

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 Network Essentials

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

ICMP is a network protocol used for reporting errors that might

have occurred while transferring data packets over networks.

ICMP is designed for network diagnosis and to find out as to what

went wrong in the data communication.

ICMP can be used to report:

errors in the underlying communications of network applications.
availability of remote hosts.
Best known example of ICMP in practice is the ping utility, that
uses ICMP protocol.

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 Network Essentials

ICMP In Action

When Host A sends a packet destined for Host B, the Lab_B router
will send an ICMP destination unreachable message back to the
sending device (Host A in this example).

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 Network Essentials

Application Layer Protocols

HTTP
FTP
TFTP
TELNET
SSH
DNS
SMTP
POP
IMAP

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 Network Essentials

HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol )

Web servers implement this protocol.

The underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web.

HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted,

and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in
response to various commands.

For example, when you enter a URL in your browser, this

actually sends an HTTP command to the Web server directing it
to fetch and transmit the requested Web page.

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 Network Essentials

FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP protocol is used for downloading and uploading files over

the Internet.

FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web

pages from a server to a user's browser.

FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server

using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g. uploading a
document file to a server).

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 Network Essentials

TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

It can do nothing but send and receive files.

TFTP has no directory-browsing abilities.

There’s no authentication as with FTP, so it’s insecure.

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 Network Essentials

TELNET

It allows a user to remotely access the resources of another

system on the network.

Telnet is a text-mode type program.

Telnet is not secure.

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 Network Essentials

SSH (Secure Shell)

SSH is a network protocol that allows you to remotely access

the resources of another system on the network.

Allows data to be exchanged using a secure channel between

two networked devices.

SSH was designed as a replacement for Telnet which send

information, notably passwords, in plaintext, rendering them
susceptible to packet analysis.

The encryption used by SSH is intended to provide

confidentiality and integrity of data over an unsecured network,
such as the Internet.

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 Network Essentials

DNS (Domain Name Service)

A Domain Name Server (DNS) lookup is the conversion of a

domain name into its respective IP address.

Domain names are alphabetic, they're easier to remember.

The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses, Every

time you use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must
translate the name into the corresponding IP address.

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 Network Essentials

DNS (Continued)

For example, the domain name www.example.com might

translate to 198.105.232.4.

If one DNS server doesn't know how to translate a particular

domain name, it asks another one, and so on, until the correct
IP address is returned.

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 Network Essentials

Domain name space

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 Network Essentials

Domain names and labels

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 Network Essentials

FQDN

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 Network Essentials

Hierarchy of name servers

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 Network Essentials

DNS In The Internet

The domain name space (tree) is divided into two different

sections:
Generic domains
Country domains

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 Network Essentials
DNS used in the Internet

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 Network Essentials
Generic domains

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 Network Essentials

Generic Domain Labels

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 Network Essentials

Generic Domain Labels (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Country Domains

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 Network Essentials

Example 3
In Linux and Windows, the nslookup utility can be used to
retrieve address/name mapping. The following shows how we
can retrieve an address when the domain name is given.

$ nslookup india.com
Name: india.com
Address: 153.18.8.1

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 Network Essentials

Note:

DNS can use the services of UDP or

TCP using the well-known port 53.

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 Network Essentials

The Hosts File

Every operating system has a hosts file.

The hosts file stores information on where to find or locate a

particular computer on the network.

It basically maps hostnames or domain names to IP addresses.

One can think of it as the local system version of the Domain

Name System (DNS).

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 Network Essentials

The Hosts File (Continued)

Depending upon your operating system, the hosts file can be

found at different locations:

Microsoft Windows \windows\system32\drivers\etc

Unix & Linux \etc

The hosts file can be tweaked to carry out a number of

interesting things:

Block certain websites.

Redirecting the user to an embarrassing website each time he
enters the address of a regular website.

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 Network Essentials

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

SMTP is used for sending email messages.

Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP
to send messages from one server to another; the messages
can then be retrieved with an e-mail client using either POP or
IMAP.

In addition, SMTP is generally used to send messages from a

mail client to a mail server. This is why you need to specify both
the POP or IMAP server and the SMTP server when you
configure your e-mail application.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

Some examples of GUI-based user

agents are Outlook Express, and
Thunderbird.

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 Network Essentials

Email address

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 Network Essentials

SMTP range

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 Network Essentials

POP (Post Office Protocol Version 3)

POP3 protocol is used to retrieve e-mail from a mail server.

Most e-mail applications (sometimes called an e-mail client)

use the POP3 protocol, although some can use the newer IMAP
(Internet Message Access Protocol).

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 Network Essentials

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

A protocol for retrieving e-mail messages.

IMAP was developed at Stanford University in 1986.

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 Network Essentials

LAN Technologies

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 Network Essentials

LAN Technologies

Ethernet
Token Ring
FDDI

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet

Ethernet is a contention media access method that allows all

hosts on a network to share the same bandwidth of a link.

Ethernet is popular because it’s scalable, meaning that it’s

comparatively easy to integrate new technologies, such as Fast
Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet, into an existing network
infrastructure.

Ethernet uses both Data Link and Physical layer specifications.

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet layers

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet frame

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet Frame Format

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 Network Essentials

Collision

In a half duplex Ethernet network, a collision is the result of two

devices on the same Ethernet network attempting to transmit
data at exactly the same time.

The network detects the "collision" of the two transmitted

packets and discards them both.

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 Network Essentials

Collision Domain

A collision domain is a physical network segment where data

packets can collide with one another when being sent on a
shared medium, in particular, when using the Ethernet
networking protocol.

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet Operation

A B C D

Collision
A B C D

JAM JAM JAM JAM JAM JAM

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet Communication

Ethernet networking uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with

Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).

CSMA/CD is a protocol that helps devices share the bandwidth

evenly without having two devices transmit at the same time on
the network medium.

CSMA/CD was created to overcome the problem of those

collisions that occur when packets are transmitted simultaneously
from different devices.

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 Network Essentials

How does the CSMA/CD Protocols works?

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet Communication Steps

1. The device will first listen to the media to determine is

someone transmitting.

1. If no device is transmitting, the it can start transmitting.

1. While transmitting, the device will continue listening for

other devices trying to transmit.

1. If it detects another device transmitting, it will signal a

COLLISION.

If a collision occurs both devices will stop transmitting,

wait a random amount of time and start back a step 1

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 Network Essentials

CSMA/CD

The previous steps define the protocol used by Ethernet called

CSMA/CD.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect

Carrier Sense – The device must check the media to see if its
free.
Multiple Access – More than one device is attached to the
network.
Collision detect – The ability to detect and respond to collisions.

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 Network Essentials

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 Network Essentials

Ethernet : CSMA/CD (Continued)

CSMA/CD Process

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 Network Essentials

Effects of Collisions

The following are the effects of having a CSMA/CD network

sustaining heavy collisions:
Delay
Low throughput
Congestion

The best remedy for collisions is to upgrade to a full duplex

switched environment.

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 Network Essentials

High Speed Ethernet Options

Ethernet (10 MBPS)

Fast Ethernet (100 MBPS)
Gigabit Ethernet (1000 MBPS)

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 Network Essentials

What is Fast Ether Channel?

Grouping of multiple Fast Ethernet interfaces

into one logical transmission path

800 Mb

• Scalable bandwidth up to 800+ Mbps

800 Mb • Using industry-standard Fast
Ethernet
• Load balancing across parallel links
600 Mb
• Extendable to Gigabit Ethernet

400 Mb

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 Network Essentials

What is Gigabit Ethernet?

• 1000-Mbps data rate

• 802.3/Ethernet frames 80%
• Full duplex or half duplex Backbone

• Fiber or copper media

• 100% compatible with existing: 20%

– Network protocols
20%
– Network operating systems
– Network applications
80%
– Network management Workgroup

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 Network Essentials

What is PoE (Power Over Ethernet) ?

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 Network Essentials

Token Ring

LAN Technology developed by IBM.

Token Ring uses a ring topology.

However, the devices are connected in a star configuration with a

MAU (Media Access Unit), not a hub, being in the center.

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 Network Essentials

FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)

FDDI uses fiber optic cables.

Because of the cost, FDDI is usually used to connect LANs

together and not devices.

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 Network Essentials

FDDI (Continued)

FDDI is sometimes called Dual-Counter Rotating Rings.

There are two pieces of fiber that carry data in opposite directions.

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 Network Essentials

FDDI (Continued)

One ring is called the Primary and the other is Secondary.

Most data gets transmitted on the primary ring.

The secondary ring is usually reserved for system maintenance

and if there is a failure of the primary ring.

If one ring breaks, any device can switch data from one ring to
the other.

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 Network Essentials

Networking Devices

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 Network Essentials

Network Devices

LANs or WANs do not normally operate in isolation. They are

connected to one another or to the Internet. To connect LANs or
WANs, we use network connecting devices. Network devices
can operate in different layers of the Internet model.

Any network requires hardware components that make up the

network so that the nodes within it can communicate with each
other and exchange information.

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 Network Essentials

Network Devices (Continued)

The hardware components used in a network include the following devices:

Repeaters
Hubs
Bridges
Switches
Routers
CSU/DSU

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 Network Essentials

Network Device Function at Layers

7 Application
6 Presentation

5 Session
4 Transport
3 Network

2 Data Link

NIC Card
1 Physical Hub

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 Network Essentials

Network Device Function at Layers (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Layer 1 Network Devices

The contents of the frame have no meaning at Layer 1.

Layer 1 devices cannot process any of the data in the frame.

Since a layer 1 device cannot read either the MAC (layer 2)

address or the network (layer 3) address they cannot make any
decisions about where frames should be forwarded (or sent).

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 Network Essentials

Repeater

Repeaters amplify and regenerate the signal from one node to

another in a network.

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 Network Essentials

Repeater

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 Network Essentials

Note:

A repeater connects segments of a LAN.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

A repeater forwards every bit;

it has no filtering capability.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.

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 Network Essentials

Function of a repeater

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 Network Essentials

Hub
A hub is a device that receives a signal on one port and
retransmits it on one or more other ports.

Hubs can be used to extend the distance that a signal travels.

In the process of retransmitting the signal, the signal is

reconditioned.

Hubs used at the center of a star topology.

Network Setup Using a Hub

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 Network Essentials

Hub In Action

Hub

Signal at its limit Signal strength

due to attenuation restored

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 Network Essentials

Hub In Action (Continued)

Hub

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 Network Essentials

Hub (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Hub In Star Topology

Hub

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Network Sniffing In Hub Networks

Assume you want to intercept the frames carrying passwords on

the network below. A user is entering their password at Node A on
the network. Where should you connect to the network?

Hub

Node A

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Ethernet Collision Domains

2. Just before the frame arrives at 1. Node A begins transmitting a

node B, node B begins transmitting a frame.
frame.

Collision

Voltage Suge
3. The collision results in a voltage
surge as the two transmission
interfere with one another. The
voltage surge must arrive before node
A finishes transmitting its frame.

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Bridge

Bridges are devices to connect network segments to each other.

The following figure depicts the use of bridges in management of

network traffic.

Network Setup Using a Bridge

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Bridge

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 Network Essentials

Note:

A bridge has a table used for filtering

decisions.

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Note:

A bridge does not change the physical

(MAC) addresses in a frame.

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Learning bridge

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Switches
Switches are intelligent network devices that provide universal
connectivity.

Switch can create multiple, simultaneous virtual connections

between nodes.

This allows each node to have a dedicated connection to the

network instead of a shared connection.

Can operate at layer 2, 3, or 4 of OSI model.

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Switches
Switches are multiport bridges.

Each port on switch is a separate collision domain.

Each connected device effectively receives own dedicated

channel.

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Switches (Continued)

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Hub In Star Topology

Collision

Repeater

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Switch In Star Topology

Switch

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A switch on a small network

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Switched Ethernet Network

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Components of Switch

Ports
Ports on a single switch can have different speeds or use different
media.

Frame buffers
Frames may be stored temporarily for various reasons in memory called
frame buffers.

Backplane bus
The circuitry that connects line cards and ports.

Switching Fabric
Transfers data from port to port.

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Switch Operation

Backplane

Ports

Stored in Frame Buffer

Two frames arrive simultaneously on different ports

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Functions of Switch

Address Learning
Switches examine the source MAC address of each frame and build a
MAC address table (CAM) so they can forward frames correctly.

Frame Forwarding / Filtering

When a frame arrives, the switch looks up its destination MAC address
in the CAM table to determine what to do with it.

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Address Learning

MAC Address Table

(CAM)
Address Port
Ports 1 2 3 4 AB 1
AF 4

Source: AB Destination: FC

Source: AF Destination: AB

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Frame Forwarding Decision

Broadcast
Forwarded out every port except the one it arrived on.
Acts like a layer 1 repeater.

Unicast
If the destination address is in the CAM then.
If the address is on a different port than the one the frame arrived on, the
frame is forwarded out the correct port.
If the destination address is not in the CAM then the frame is treated like
a broadcast.

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Frame Forwarding Decision (Continued)

Broadcast Yes Forward

Forward to
Frame? Frame to
all ports
Destination
No Port
No
No
Address Destination
Look up Destination and Source
Found? Yes
MAC Address Port Same?

Yes

Filter Frame
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Switch Forwarding Frames

MAC Address Table

(CAM)
Address Port
Ports 1 2 3 4 AB 1
AF 4
AC 2
Source: AC Destination: FC

Source: AF Destination: AB

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Server In Shared LAN

Most of the traffic in client/server

networks is directed at servers or
to Internet connections.

Server

Repeater

In a shared media LAN

only one client can access
the server at a time.

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Server In Switched LAN

Replacing the repeater with a

switch doesn’t necessarily help
by itself since most of the traffic
is still going over the link to the
server
Server

Switch

However by replacing the

link to the server with a
higher speed architecture,
LAN throughput increases.
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Full – Duplex Ethernet

Switches allow connections to be full-duplex.

Each individual port can be configured independently.

Full-duplex operation allows communication in both directions

simultaneously.

CSMA/CD is no longer relevant in full-duplex operation.

A full-duplex Fast Ethernet connection has a total potential

throughput of 200 Mbps.

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Full – Duplex Ethernet (Continued)

Full-Duplex Ethernet can be used in three situations:

With a connection from a switch to a host.

With a connection from a switch to a switch.

With a connection from a host to a host using a crossover cable.

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Full – Duplex Ethernet (Continued)

Lastly, remember these three important points:

There are no collisions in full-duplex mode.

A dedicated switch port is required for each full-duplex node.

The host network card and the switch port must be capable of operating
in full-duplex mode.

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Routers
Routers are layer 3 network devices that provide connectivity
between WANs and LANs, between networks with different
topologies, or between networks using different network
standards.

The following figure depicts a network setup with routers:

Network Setup Using a Router

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Routers (Continued)

A router is a layer 3 device that provides these functions:

Packet Switching
Best Path Determination
Packet Filtering
Internetwork Communications

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Note:

A router is a three-layer
(physical, data link, and network)
device.

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Note:

A repeater or a bridge connects segments of

a LAN & A router connects independent
LANs or WANs to create an internetwork
(internet).

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Note:

A router changes the physical addresses

in a packet.

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CSU / DSU
The Channel Service Unit / Digital Service Unit (CSU/DSU) is a
hardware device that connects a leased line to a user’s hardware
device.

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CSU / DSU (Continued)

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Integrated CSU / DSU In Cisco Routers

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Identifying Collision Domains and Broadcast Domains

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IP Addressing:
Classful Addressing

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity)

Every system connected to a network has a unique IP address

associated with itself.

An IP address acts as the unique identity of a computer at which it

can be contacted.

If I want to connect to your computer, then I need to know your

computer’s IP address.

All data sent or received by a system will be addressed from or to

its IP address.

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)

An IP address is to your computer what your mobile number is to

you in the real world – An identity at which you can be contacted.

An hackers first step is to find out the IP address of the target

system.

An IP address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally

defines the connection of a host or a router to the Internet.

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)

Two devices on the Internet can never have the same address.

They are unique in the sense that each address defines one, and
only one, connection to the Internet.

IP by itself is something like the postal system. It allows you to

address a package and drop it in the system, but there's no direct
link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP, on the other hand,
establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can
send messages back and forth for a period of time.

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)

This address allows nodes to connect and communicate

over a network, as shown in the following figure:

Nodes on a Network with their Respective IP Addresses

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)

Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages,

distributes, and ensures that every node on the Internet has a
unique IP address.

With the phenomenal growth of the Internet, it has been virtually

impossible for IANA to manage IP address allocation. As a
result, the IP address allocation has been divided into sub
registries, known as Regional Internet Registries (RIR), for
various geographical regions. RIRs include:
Asia-Pacific Network Information Center (APNIC)
American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN)
Latin American and Caribbean IP Network Information Center
(LACNIC)
Reseaux IP Europeans (RIPE)

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)

Depending on the region, an Internet Service Provider (ISP) must

obtain the required IP address block from the registry that
controls IP address allocation in its region.

An IP address is divided into four groups, which are separated by

dots ("."). These groups are commonly known as octets.

Each octet constitutes 8 bits, where each bit can either have a
binary value of 1 or 0, as shown in the following figure.

32-bit Structure of an IP Address

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Introducing IP Address (Online Identity) (Continued)

To make the IP address easier to use, the address is usually

written as four decimal numbers separated by periods.

This way of writing the address is called the dotted decimal

format.

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IPv4 Address

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Note:

An IP address is a 32-bit address.

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Note:

The IP addresses are unique.

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Classes of IPv4 Address

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Classes of IPv4 Address (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Classes of IPv4 Address (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Classes of IPv4 Address (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Note:

The address space of IPv4 is

232 or 4,294,967,296.

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Dotted-decimal notation

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Example 1
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to
dotted-decimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 11100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11111001 10011011 11111011 00001111
Solution
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal
number (see Appendix B) and add dots for separation:
a. 129.11.11.239 b. 193.131.27.255
c. 231.219.139.111 d. 249.155.251.15

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Example 2

Change the following IP addresses from dotted-decimal

notation to binary notation.
a. 111.56.45.78 b. 221.34.7.82
c. 241.8.56.12 d. 75.45.34.78

Solution
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent:
a. 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b. 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
c. 11110001 00001000 00111000 00001100
d. 01001011 00101101 00100010 01001110

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Example 3

Find the error, if any, in the following IP addresses:

a. 111.56.045.78 b. 221.34.7.8.20
c. 75.45.301.14 d. 11100010.23.14.67

Solution
a. There are no leading zeroes in dotted-decimal notation (045).
b. We may not have more than four numbers in an IP address.
c. In dotted-decimal notation, each number is less than or equal
to 255; 301 is outside this range.
d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is
not allowed.
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Example 4
Change the following IP addresses from binary notation to
hexadecimal notation.
a. 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
Solution
We replace each group of 4 bits with its hexadecimal
equivalent (see Appendix B). Note that hexadecimal notation
normally has no added spaces or dots; however, 0X (or 0x) is
added at the beginning or the subscript 16 at the end to show
that the number is in hexadecimal.
a. 0X810B0BEF or 810B0BEF16
b. 0XC1831BFF or C1831BFF16
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Classful IP Addressing

IP addresses, when started a few decades ago, used the concept

of classes. This architecture is called Classful addressing.

In the mid-1990s, a new architecture, called classless

addressing, was introduced and will eventually supersede the
original architecture.

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Occupation of the address space

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Addresses per class

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Figure 4.3 Finding the address class in binary notation

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 Network Essentials

Figure 4.4 Finding the address class in binary notation (Continued)

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 Network Essentials

Example 5

How can we prove that we have 2,147,483,648 addresses in

class A?

Solution
In class A, only 1 bit defines the class. The remaining 31 bits are
available for the address. With 31 bits, we can have 231
or 2,147,483,648 addresses.

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Example 6

Find the class of each address:

a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 11111111
c. 10100111 11011011 10001011 01101111
d. 11110011 10011011 11111011 00001111

Solution
See the procedure in Figure 4.4.
a. The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b. The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C
address.
c. The first bit is 0; the second bit is 1. This is a class B address.
d. The first 4 bits are 1s. This is a class E address..
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Finding the class in decimal notation

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 Network Essentials

Example 7

Find the class of each address:

a. 227.12.14.87 b.193.14.56.22 c.14.23.120.8
d. 252.5.15.111 e.134.11.78.56

Solution
a. The first byte is 227 (between 224 and 239); the class is D.
b. The first byte is 193 (between 192 and 223); the class is C.
c. The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d. The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
e. The first byte is 134 (between 128 and 191); the class is B.

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Example 8

In Example 5 we showed that class A has 231 (2,147,483,648)

addresses. How can we prove this same fact using dotted-
decimal notation?
Solution
The addresses in class A range from 0.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255. We need to show that the difference between
these two numbers is 2,147,483,648. This is a good exercise
because it shows us how to define the range of addresses
between two addresses. We notice that we are dealing with
base 256 numbers here. Each byte in the notation has a
weight. The weights are as follows (see Appendix B):

See Next Slide

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Example 8 (continued)

2563, 2562, 2561, 2560

Now to find the integer value of each number, we multiply each
byte by its weight:
Last address: 127 × 2563 + 255 × 2562 +
255 × 2561 + 255 × 2560 = 2,147,483,647
First address: = 0

If we subtract the first from the last and add 1 to the result
(remember we always add 1 to get the range), we get
2,147,483,648 or 231.

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 Network Essentials

Figure 4.6 Netid and hostid

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 Network Essentials

Note:

Millions of class A addresses are

wasted.

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Figure 4.7 Blocks in class A

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Figure 4.8 Blocks in class B

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Note:

Many class B addresses are wasted.

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Figure 4.9 Blocks in class C

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 Network Essentials

Note:

The number of addresses in class C is

smaller than the needs of most
organizations.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

Class D addresses are used for

multicasting; there is only one block in
this class.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

Class E addresses are reserved for

future purposes; most of the block is
wasted.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

In classful addressing, the network

address (the first address in the block)
is the one that is assigned to the
organization. The range of addresses
can automatically be inferred from the
network address.

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Example 9

Given the network address 17.0.0.0, find the class, the block,
and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is A because the first byte is between 0 and 127. The
block has a netid of 17. The addresses range from 17.0.0.0 to
17.255.255.255.

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Example 10

Given the network address 132.21.0.0, find the class, the block,
and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is B because the first byte is between 128 and 191.
The block has a netid of 132.21. The addresses range from
132.21.0.0 to 132.21.255.255.

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Example 11

Given the network address 220.34.76.0, find the class, the

block, and the range of the addresses.

Solution
The class is C because the first byte is between 192 and 223.
The block has a netid of 220.34.76. The addresses range from
220.34.76.0 to 220.34.76.255.

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Default masks

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Note:

The network address is the beginning

address of each block. It can be found
by applying the default mask to any of
the addresses in the block (including
itself). It retains the netid of the block
and sets the hostid to zero.

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Example 12

Given the address 23.56.7.91, find the beginning address

(network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.0.0.0, which means that only the first
byte is preserved and the other 3 bytes are set to 0s. The
network address is 23.0.0.0.

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Example 13

Given the address 132.6.17.85, find the beginning address

(network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.255.0.0, which means that the first 2
bytes are preserved and the other 2 bytes are set to 0s. The
network address is 132.6.0.0.

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Example 14

Given the address 201.180.56.5, find the beginning address

(network address).

Solution
The default mask is 255.255.255.0, which means that the first 3
bytes are preserved and the last byte is set to 0. The network
address is 201.180.56.0.

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 Network Essentials

Note:

Note that we must not apply the default

mask of one class to an address
belonging to another class.

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Special addresses

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Reserved IP Addresses

Certain host addresses are

reserved and cannot be
assigned to devices on a
network.
An IP address that has binary
0s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the network
address.
An IP address that has binary
1s in all host bit positions is
reserved for the network
address.

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 Network Essentials

Figure 4.13 Network address

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Figure 4.14 Example of direct broadcast address

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Figure 4.15 Example of limited broadcast address

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Figure 4.16 Examples of “this host on this network”

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Figure 4.17 Example of “specific host on this network”

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Figure 4.18 Example of loopback address

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Public Vs Private IP Addresses

No two machines that connect to a public network can have the

same IP address because public IP addresses are global and
standardized.

However, private networks that are not connected to the Internet

may use any IP addresses, as long as each host within the private
network is unique.

Connecting a network using private addresses to the Internet

requires translation of the private addresses to public addresses
using Network Address Translation (NAT).

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Private IP Address Range

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What is Subnet?
A sub network or a subnet is a logical division of a large network
into smaller networks, as shown in the following figure:

Subnets on a Network

Creation of subnets enables better management of the network

and optimum utilization of network’s capabilities. These are
attributed to the following reasons:
Reduced network traffic
Enhanced network management
Improved network connectivity over a large geographical area

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Addresses in a network with and without Subnetting

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Hierarchy concept in a telephone number

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Default mask and subnet mask

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 Network Essentials

Example 15

What is the sub network address if the destination address is

200.45.34.56 and the subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?

Solution
We apply the AND operation on the address and the subnet
mask.

Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100010 00111000

Subnet Mask ➡ 11111111 11111111 11110000 00000000
Subnetwork Address ➡ 11001000 00101101 00100000 00000000.

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 Network Essentials

Figure 4.25 Comparison of a default mask and a subnet mask

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 Network Essentials

Note:
In subnetting, we need the first address
of the subnet and the subnet mask to
define the range of addresses.

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 Network Essentials

TCP/IP Network Utilities

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TCP/IP Network Utilities

TCP/IP comes with complete set of utilities that can help to track
down most TCP/IP-related problems.

For example: Ping, Netstat, Tracert

Nearly all TCP/IP utilities can be accessed from command prompt

on any type of server or client running TCP/IP.

Command Syntax and options may differ depending on OS.

385
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Ping

Ping is a computer network administration utility used to test the

reachability of a host on an Internet Protocol (IP) network.

Ping operates by sending Internet Control Message Protocol

(ICMP) echo request packets to the target host and waiting for an
ICMP echo response. In the process it measures the time from
transmission to reception (round-trip time) and records any packet
loss.

386
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Netstat

Displays TCP/IP statistics and details about TCP/IP components

and connections on a host:

Port on which a particular TCP/IP service is running

Network connections currently established
Number of packets handled by network interface since activation
Number of data errors

387
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Traceroute (Tracert)

When data packets travel from source to destination system, then

they don’t always take the same path.

Data packets sent between the two systems may take different
paths.

Traceroute is a tool that allows you to trace the path between two
systems.

It was designed for network troubleshooting purposes.

388
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Traceroute (Tracert) (Continued)

The Time to Live (TTL) value of a data packet represents its

maximum possible age.

Originally TTL values were introduced to ensure that data packets

don’t end up in infinite loop.

It defines the maximum number of routers through which the data

packet can travel before it is declared dead and dropped.

Each router reduces the TTL value of the packet by 1 hence; it has
now become a Hop Counter.

389
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Traceroute (Tracert) (Continued)

Uses ICMP to trace path from one node to another

Identifies all intermediate hops

Useful for determining router and connectivity problems.

Trace route may stop before completing

Device problem on path

Device does not accept ICMP transmissions
Often indicates firewall

390
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WHOIS

The whois database is a worldwide database maintained by

various domain registration companies across the globe containing
listings of the domains registered at their company or country.

The whois query searches this database to gather useful

information on both domain names and IP addresses.

WHOIS Query Websites:

www.allwhois.com
www.networksolutions.com
www.internic.com
www.net4domains.com
www.samspade.org

391
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