Computer Organization and Architecture

STRUCTURE OF COMPUTERS: Computer types, functional units, basic operational concepts,

Von-Neumann architecture, bus structures, software, performance, multiprocessors and
multicomputer
Book: Carl Hamacher, Zvonks Vranesic, SafeaZaky (2002), Computer Organization, 5th
edition, McGraw Hill: Unit-1 Pages: 1-23

Data representation, fixed and floating point and error detecting codes.
Book: M. Moris Mano (2006), Computer System Architecture, 3rd edition, Pearson/PHI,
India: Unit-3 Pages: 67-91

REGISTER TRANSFER AND MICRO-OPERATIONS: Register transfer language, register

transfer, bus and memory transfers, arithmetic micro-operations, logic micro-operations,
shift micro-operations, arithmetic logic shift unit.
Book: M. Moris Mano (2006), Computer System Architecture, 3rd edition, Pearson/PHI,
India: Unit-3 Pages: 93-118

Computer Architecture:
Computer Architecture deals with giving operational attributes of the computer or Processor
to be specific. It deals with details like physical memory, ISA (Instruction Set Architecture) of
the processor, the number of bits used to represent the data types, Input Output mechanism
and technique for addressing memories.
Computer Organization:
Computer Organization is realization of what is specified by the computer architecture .It
deals with how operational attributes are linked together to meet the requirements specified
by computer architecture. Some organizational attributes are hardware details, control
signals, peripherals.
EXAMPLE:
Say you are in a company that manufactures cars, design and all low-level details of the car
come under computer architecture (abstract, programmers view), while making it’s parts
piece by piece and connecting together the different components of that car by keeping the
basic design in mind comes under computer organization (physical and visible).

Computer Organization Computer Architecture

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Computer architecture (a
Often called microarchitecture (low level)
bit higher level)
Programmer view (i.e.
Transparent from programmer (ex. a programmer does
Programmer has to be
not worry much how addition is implemented in
aware of which instruction
hardware)
set used)
Logic (Instruction set,
Physical components (Circuit design, Adders, Signals,
Addressing modes, Data
Peripherals)
types, Cache optimization)
What to do ? (Instruction
How to do ? (implementation of the architecture)
set)

GENERATIONS OF A COMPUTER
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer is/was being
used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware and software, which
together make up an entire computer system.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation has been
discussed in detail along with their time period and characteristics. Here approximate dates
against each generations have been mentioned which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of computers

S.N. Generation & Description

First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1946-1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2
The period of second generation: 1959-1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3
The period of third generation: 1965-1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5
The period of fifth generation: 1980-onwards. ULSI microprocessor based

First generation

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The period of first generation was 1946-1959. The computers of first generation used
vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing
Unit). These tubes, like electric bulbs, produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent
fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very
large organizations. In this generation mainly batch processing operating system were used.
Punched cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape were used as input and output devices. The
computers in this generation used machine code as programming language.

The main features of first generation are:

 Vacuum tube technology
 Unreliable
 Supported machine language only
 Very costly
 Generated lot of heat
 Slow input and output devices
 Huge size
 Need of A.C.
 Non-portable
 Consumed lot of electricity
Some computers of this generation were:
 ENIAC
 EDVAC
 UNIVAC
 IBM-701
 IBM-650
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Second generation
The period of second generation was 1959-1965. In this generation transistors were used
that were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster
than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores
were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage
devices. In this generation assembly language and high-level programming languages like
FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming
operating system.

The main features of second generation are:

 Use of transistors
 Reliable in comparison to first generation computers
 Smaller size as compared to first generation computers
 Generated less heat as compared to first generation computers
 Consumed less electricity as compared to first generation computers
 Faster than first generation computers
 Still very costly
 A.C. needed
 Supported machine and assembly languages
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM 1620
 IBM 7094
 CDC 1604
 CDC 3600
 UNIVAC 1108
Third generation

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The period of third generation was 1965-1971. The computers of third generation used
integrated circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors
and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The IC was invented by Jack Kilby. This
development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient. In this generation
remote processing, time-sharing, multi-programming operating system were used. High-
level languages (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used
during this generation.

The main features of third generation are:

 IC used
 More reliable in comparison to previous two generations
 Smaller size
 Generated less heat
 Faster
 Lesser maintenance
 Still costly
 A.C needed
 Consumed lesser electricity
 Supported high-level language
Some computers of this generation were:
 IBM-360 series
 Honeywell-6000 series
 PDP(Personal Data Processor)
 IBM-370/168
 TDC-316

Fourth generation

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The period of fourth generation was 1971-1980. The computers of fourth generation used
Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and
other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have
microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth generation computers became more powerful,
compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC)
revolution. In this generation time sharing, real time, networks, distributed operating system
were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.

The main features of fourth generation are:

 VLSI technology used
 Very cheap
 Portable and reliable
 Use of PC's
 Very small size
 Pipeline processing
 No A.C. needed
 Concept of internet was introduced
 Great developments in the fields of networks
 Computers became easily available
Some computers of this generation were:
 DEC 10
 STAR 1000
 PDP 11
 CRAY-1(Super Computer)
 CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

Fifth generation
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The period of fifth generation is 1980-till date. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology
became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of
microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components. This generation is based on
parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging
branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think
like human beings. All the high-level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc., are used in this
generation.
AI includes:
 Robotics
 Neural Networks
 Game Playing
 Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
 Natural language understanding and generation.

The main features of fifth generation are:

 ULSI technology
 Development of true artificial intelligence
 Development of Natural language processing
 Advancement in Parallel Processing
 Advancement in Superconductor technology
 More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
 Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:
 Desktop
 Laptop
 NoteBook
 UltraBook

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 ChromeBook
COMPUTER TYPES
Classification based on Operating Principles
Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the following types:
-
1) Digital Computers
2) Analog Computers
3) Hybrid Computers

Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as

discrete or numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic expressions and
manipulations of data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution of simultaneous
equations etc).

Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously
changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or
hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital
computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change.

Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the controller
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and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally serves as a solver
of differential equations.

Classification digital Computer based on size and Capability

Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into
Micro Computers(Personal Computer)
A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The older pc started 8
bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64 bit processor with speed of 4.66 GB.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers
Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers cannot
be carried around.
The different portable computers are: -
1) Laptop
2) Notebooks
3) Palmtop (hand held)
4) Wearable computers
Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computers but the size is smaller. They are
expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.

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Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers are
comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are more costly
than laptop.

Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA). These
computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing word processing,
spreadsheets and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing and paging. These
computers are not as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: - 3com palmV.

Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn on the
body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For example pace
maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of insulin in the blood.

Workstations:- It is used in large, high-resolution graphics screen built in network support,

Engineering applications(CAD/CAM), software development desktop publishing
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Ex: Unix and windows NT.

b) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more
powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to serve multiple
users simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more expensive than microcomputers.
Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.

c) Mainframe (Enterprise) computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and

very high speed of processing (compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known as
mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for simultaneous use by a
number of users like ATM transactions. They are also used as central host computers in
distributed data processing system.
Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.

d) Supercomputer: - Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and

computing speeds which are many times faster than other computers. A supercomputer is
measured in terms of tens of millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation is made up
of numerous instructions. The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical
problems in scientific and engineering disciplines such as Weather analysis.
Examples: - IBM Deep Blue

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Classification based on number of microprocessors

Based on the number of microprocessors, computers can be classified into
a) Sequential computers and
b) Parallel computers
a) Sequential computers: - Any task complete in sequential computers is with one
microcomputer only. Most of the computers (today) we see are sequential computers where
in any task is completed sequentially instruction after instruction from the beginning to the
end.
b) Parallel computers: - The parallel computer is relatively fast. New types of computers
that use a large number of processors. The processors perform different tasks independently
and simultaneously thus improving the speed of execution of complex programs dramatically.
Parallel computers match the speed of supercomputers at a fraction of the cost.

Classification based on word-length

A binary digit is called “BIT”. A word is a group of bits which is fixed for a computer.
The number of bits in a word (or word length) determines the representation of all characters
in these many bits. Word length leis in the range from 16-bit to 64-bitsf or most computers of
today.

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Classification based on number of users

Based on number of users, computers are classified into: -
Single User: - Only one user can use the resource at any time.

Multi User: - A single computer shared by a number of users at any time.

Network: - A number of interconnected autonomous computers shared by a number

of users at any time.

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COMPUTER TYPES
A computer can be defined as a fast electronic calculating machine that accepts the
(data) digitized input information process it as per the list of internally stored instructions
and produces the resulting information. List of instructions are called programs & internal
storage is called computer memory.

The different types of computers are

1. Personal computers: - This is the most common type found in homes, schools,
Business offices etc., It is the most common type of desk top computers with
processing and storage units along with various input and output devices.
2. Note book computers: - These are compact and portable versions of PC
3. Work stations: - These have high resolution input/output (I/O) graphics capability,
but with same dimensions as that of desktop computer. These are used in engineering
applications of interactive design work.
4. Enterprise systems: - These are used for business data processing in medium to large
corporations that require much more computing power and storage capacity than
work stations. Internet associated with servers have become a dominant worldwide
source of all types of information.
5. Super computers: - These are used for large scale numerical calculations required in
the applications like weather forecasting etc.,

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BASIC TERMINOLOGY
•Input: Whatever is put into a computer system.
•Data: Refers to the symbols that represent facts, objects, or ideas.
•Information: The results of the computer storing data as bits and bytes; the words, umbers,
sounds, and graphics.
•Output: Consists of the processing results produced by a computer.
•Processing: Manipulation of the data in many ways.
•Memory: Area of the computer that temporarily holds data waiting to be processed, stored,
or output.
•Storage: Area of the computer that holds data on a permanent basis when it is not
immediately needed for processing.
•Assembly language program (ALP) –Programs are written using mnemonics
•Mnemonic –Instruction will be in the form of English like form
•Assembler –is a software which converts ALP to MLL (Machine Level Language)
•HLL (High Level Language) –Programs are written using English like statements
•Compiler -Convert HLL to MLL, does this job by reading source program at once
•Interpreter –Converts HLL to MLL, does this job statement by statement
•System software –Program routines which aid the user in the execution of programs eg:
Assemblers, Compilers
•Operating system –Collection of routines responsible for controlling and coordinating all
the activities in a computer system

# Computers has two kinds of components:

Hardware, consisting of its physical devices (CPU, memory, bus, storage devices, ...)
Software, consisting of the programs it has (Operating system, applications, utilities, ...)

FUNCTIONAL UNIT

A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts input, memory,

arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output and control unit.

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Functional units of computer

Input device accepts the coded information as source program i.e. high level
language. This is either stored in the memory or immediately used by the processor to
perform the desired operations. The program stored in the memory determines the
processing steps. Basically the computer converts one source program to an object program.
i.e. into machine language.

Finally the results are sent to the outside world through output device. All of these
actions are coordinated by the control unit.

Input unit: -
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The source program/high level language program/coded information/simply data is

fed to a computer through input devices keyboard is a most common type. Whenever a key is
pressed, one corresponding word or number is translated into its equivalent binary code
over a cable & fed either to memory or processor.

Joysticks, trackballs, mouse, scanners etc are other input devices.

Memory unit: -
Its function into store programs and data. It is basically to two types
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory

Word:
In computer architecture, a word is a unit of data of a defined bit length that can be addressed
and moved between storage and the computer processor. Usually, the defined bit length of a
word is equivalent to the width of the computer's data bus so that a word can be moved in a
single operation from storage to a processor register. For any computer architecture with an
eight-bit byte, the word will be some multiple of eight bits. In IBM's evolutionary
System/360 architecture, a word is 32 bits, or four contiguous eight-bit bytes. In Intel's PC
processor architecture, a word is 16 bits, or two contiguous eight-bit bytes. A word can
contain a computer instruction, a storage address, or application data that is to be
manipulated (for example, added to the data in another word space).

The number of bits in each word is known as word length. Word length refers to the
number of bits processed by the CPU in one go. With modern general purpose computers,
word size can be 16 bits to 64 bits.

The time required to access one word is called the memory access time. The small, fast,
RAM units are called caches. They are tightly coupled with the processor and are often
contained on the same IC chip to achieve high performance.

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1. Primary memory: - Is the one exclusively associated with the processor and operates at
the electronics speeds programs must be stored in this memory while they are being
executed. The memory contains a large number of semiconductors storage cells. Each
capable of storing one bit of information. These are processed in a group of fixed site called
word.
To provide easy access to a word in memory, a distinct address is associated with
each word location. Addresses are numbers that identify memory location.

Number of bits in each word is called word length of the computer. Programs must
reside in the memory during execution. Instructions and data can be written into the
memory or read out under the control of processor. Memory in which any location can be
reached in a short and fixed amount of time after specifying its address is called random-
access memory (RAM).

The time required to access one word in called memory access time. Memory which is
only readable by the user and contents of which can’t be altered is called read only memory
(ROM) it contains operating system.

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