Chapter 4: One-Dimensional Potentials

The Potential Barrier

The potential barrier is a region in which particles (as alpha particles, photoelectrons,
etc.) are decelerated or stopped by a repulsive force.

 0 x  -a region I

V( x ) =  V0 - a  x  a region II
 0 x  a region III


According to classical theory, a particle can pass the barrier if its energy is much than the
height of the potential barrier. However, in quantum theory, there is a finite probability
that a particle with less energy will pass through the barrier (tunnel effect). A particle that
behaves as a matter wave has a non-zero probability of penetrating the barrier and
continuing its travel as a wave on the other side.

Examples:
• A potential barrier surrounds the atomic nucleus.
• A barrier exists at the interface between semiconductors and metals and between
differently doped semiconductors. These barriers are important in the design of
electronic devices.

1
The case E  V0 (scattering problems):

Potential barrier represents a repulsive interaction potential. A particle of energy E  V0

interacts with a repulsive potential in a given region interval, and it is free outside this
interval. For example, electron-electron scattering (Coulomb interaction between
electrons is repulsive).

According to classical mechanics, the particles of the total energy E that approach the
barrier from the left at constant momentum (velocity) p1 = 2mE will show down to a
momentum during they enter the region − a  x  a , and they then pass beyond the
barrier with the momentum p3 = 2mE . The particles have enough energy and they will
emerge on the right side (total transmission). According to quantum mechanics, there will
be some refection from the barrier.

In this case, the particle interacts with the potential in the interval − a  x  a . In the
external regions the particle is free.

Let us write the Schrodinger equation in these three regions.

2
d 2 u I (x)
− + 0u I (x) = Eu I (x) ; x  -a
2m dx 2
2
d 2 u II (x)
− +V0 u II (x) = Eu II (x) ; -a  x  a
2m dx 2
2
d 2 u III (x)
− + 0u III (x) = Eu III (x) ; xa
2m dx 2

The accepted solutions become

d 2 u I (x) 2mE
+ 2 u I (x) = 0  u I (x) = eikx + Re-ikx ; x  -a
dx 2
d 2 u II (x) 2m(E-V0 )
2
+ 2
u II (x) = 0  u II (x) = Aeiqx + Be -iqx ; -a  x  a
dx
2
d u III (x) 2mE
+ 2 u III (x) = 0  u III (x) = Teikx + Ge-ikx ; xa
dx 2

2mE 2m(E-V0 )
where k 2 = 2
and q 2 = 2
. Since the term Ge −ikx represents a wave moving
from the right ( x =  ) to the left in x  a , there is no such a reflected wave in x  a and

2
the constant G therefore must vanish. Thus the eigenfunction for region III ( x  a )
becomes u III (x) = Teikx + Ge-ikx .

At the point x = − a , the continuity property of the wave functions requires

u I (x)|x =-a = u I (x)|x =-a  e-ika + Reika = Ae-iqa + Beiqa

du I (x) du (x)
|x =− a = II |x =− a  ik (e-ika − Reika ) = iq( Ae-iqa − Beiqa )
dx dx

At the point x = a , the continuity property of the wave functions requires

u II (x)|x =a = u III (x)|x =a  Aeiqa + Be-iqa = Teika
du II (x) du (x)
|x = a = III |x = a  iq( Aeiqa − Be-iqa ) = ikTeika
dx dx

These expression are the same that was found in the potential well problem with
2m(E-V0 ) 2m(E+V0 )
q2 = 2
→ 2
. Therefore we find the following expressions for R and T

2kq
T = e-2ika
2kq cos 2qa − i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa
(q 2 − k 2 ) sin 2qa
R = ie-2ika
2kq cos 2qa − i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa

We finally obtain the transition probability as

1
T =
2

(q − k 2 ) 2
2
1+ sin 2qa
(2kq) 2
1
= 2
V0
1+ sin 2 (2qa)
4 E ( E − V0 )

3
Special cases:

2 2
a) If E V0 , T 1 and R 0 . This implies that at very high energies and weak
potential barrier, the particles would not feel the effect of the barrier and there is no
reflection (there is totally transmission).

b) We also have total transmission when sin 2qa = 0  R = 0 no reflection . This

requires 2qa = n , n = 1, 2,3,...

2qa = n
2m( E − V0 ) 2m( E − V0 ) 2 2
2a 2
= n  4a 2 2
= n 2 2  E = V0 + 2
n2
8ma
E = V0 + n E1 ,
2
n = 1, 2,3,...

E
c) In the limit → 1, sin2qa 2qa
V0
1 1 1
T = → =
2

V0 2
V0 2
V 4a 2 m( E − V0 ) /
2 2 2
1+ sin 2 (2qa) 1 + (2qa) 2 1 + 0
4 E ( E − V0 ) 4 E ( E − V0 ) 4 E ( E − V0 )
2 1
T
2 m V0 a 2
1+ 2

4
 The case E  V0 :

Classically, we would expect total reflection. Every particle that arrives at the barrier
( x  − a ) will reflected back, no particle penetrate the barrier. Quantum mechanical
predictions differ sharply from their classical counterparts. There is a certain probability
that the particle will be transmitted through the barrier into the region x  a . The effect
of transitioning through a classical forbidden region is called tunneling.

Examples:

i) Emission of α particles from radioactive nuclei.

α–particles are held within the nucleus by a potential barrier which consists of an
attractive part (due to nuclear forces), and a repulsive part (due to the electrostatic
repulsion between the α–particle and the residual nucleus). The α–particle can
tunnel out of its potential well and escape from the nucleus.

ii) Fusion process

It would be possible to induce nuclear reactions using low–energy protons (about
0.5 MeV) without sufficient energy to overcome the electrostatic repulsion. The
same process is involved in the nuclear reactions that supply the Sun’s energy. The
principal reaction here involves the eventual formation of helium by the fusion of
hydrogen nuclei (protons). In laboratory fusion experiments the same principle
allows nuclear fusion at reachable temperatures.

iii) Tunnel diode

Quantum tunneling occurs when an electric current passes through a junction made
by twisting two copper wires together. in a tunnel diode, the height of the potential
barrier between two semiconductors is controlled externally, and the physical size
of the junction is so small that the flow of electrons can be turned on or off very
rapidly, within a few picoseconds.

iv) Cold emission electrons

The scanning tunneling electron microscope was developed by Binnig and Rohrer,
who were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1986. This remarkable device works by the
tunneling of electrons from the surface of a sample to the tip of a very fine needle.
It is so sensitive that the detail of the surface can be resolved to distances much
less than an atomic radius.

5
Let us write the Schrodinger equation for the energies E  V0 in these three regions.

d 2 u I (x)
2
− + 0u I (x) = Eu I (x) ; x  -a : region I
2m dx 2
2
d 2 u II (x)
− +V0 u II (x) = Eu II (x) ; - a  x  a : region II
2m dx 2
2
d 2 u III (x)
− + 0u III (x) = Eu III (x) ; xa : region III
2m dx 2

The Schrodinger equations and its solution are obtained as

d 2 u I (x) 2mE
Re gion I : 2
+ 2 u I (x) = 0  u I (x) = eikx + Re -ikx
dx
d u II (x) 2m(V0 − E )
2
Re gion II : − u II (x) = 0  u II (x) = Ae - x + Be x
dx 2 2

d 2 u III (x) 2mE

Re gion III : 2
+ 2 u III (x) = 0  u III (x) = Teikx + Ge-ikx
dx

2m(V0 − E )
where  2 = 2
 0 is defined as a positive constant. At the point x = − a , the
continuity property of the wave functions requires

u I (x)|x =-a = u II (x)|x =-a  e-ika + Reika = Ae a + Be − a

du I (x) du (x)
|x =− a = II |x =− a  ik (e-ika − Reika ) =  (− Ae a + Be − a )
dx dx
and at the point x = a , the continuity property of the wave functions requires
u II (x)|x =a = u III (x)|x =a  Ae − a + Be a = Teika
du II (x) du (x)
|x = a = III |x = a   (− Ae − a + Be a ) = ikTeika
dx dx

From these four equations, we can find the transmission and reflections amplitudes. This
can be obtained from T and R results for E  V0 by using q → i = i 2m(V0 − E ) / .

2kq q =i 2ki

T = e-2ika ⎯⎯⎯ → e-2ika
2kq cos 2qa − i (q + k ) sin 2qa
2 2
2ki cos(2i a) − i ((i ) 2 + k 2 ) sin(2i a)
(q 2 − k 2 ) sin 2qa q =i ((i ) 2 − k 2 ) sin(2i a)
R = ie -2ika
⎯⎯⎯ → ie -2ika

2kq cos 2qa − i (q 2 + k 2 ) sin 2qa 2ki cos(2i a) − i((i ) 2 + k 2 ) sin(2i a)

6
Let us use

eiy − e−iy   ei y − e − i y e − y − e y
2 2
1
siny =  sin(iy ) = = = − sinh y  sinh y = −i sin(iy )
2i   2i 2i i
−y 

e −e  
y −i2 y
e −e i2 y
e −e
y −y
1
sinhy = sin(−iy ) = = = sinh y  sinh y = i sin(−iy )
2   2i 2i i
Similarly
eiy + e−iy   ei y + e − i y e − y + e y
2 2

cosy =  cos(iy) = = = cosh y  cosh y = cos(iy)

2 2 2

e y + e− y   e − i y + ei y e y + e − y
2 2

coshy = cos(−iy ) = = = cosh y  cosh y = cos(−iy)

2   2 2

A→iB
sin 2 A + cos 2 A = 1 ⎯⎯⎯ → sin 2 (iB) + cos 2 (iB) = 1
sin(iB) + cos(iB) = 1
2 2

i sinh(B) + cosh( B) = 1  cosh( B)  − sinh( B)  = 1

2 2 2 2

We then find

2 k 2 k
T = e-2ika = e-2ika
2k cos(2i a) − (− 2 + k 2 ) sin(2i a) 2k cosh(2 a) − i(k 2 −  2 ) sinh(2 a)
cosh(2 a ) i sinh(2 a )

(− − k ) i sin(2i a)
2 2
( 2 + k 2 ) sin(2 a)
R = ie-2ika = e-2ika
2ki cos(2i a) − i(− + k ) sin(2i a)
2 2
2ik cosh(2 a) + (k 2 −  2 ) sinh(2 a)
cosh(2 a ) i sinh(2 a )

Transition probability (the probability of penetrating the barrier) is found as

(2k ) 2 (2k ) 2
T = =
2

(k 2 −  2 ) 2 sinh 2 (2 a) + (2k ) 2 cosh 2 (2 a) (k 2 +  2 ) sinh 2 (2 a) + (2 k ) 2

(k 2 + 2 )2 − (2 k ) 2 1+ sinh 2 (2 a )

1 1
= =
(k +  )  2mE + 2m(V0 − E )  /
2 2 2 2 4
1+ sinh 2
(2 a ) 1+ sinh 2 (2 a)
(2k ) 2 4 2mE (V − E) / 4 0

1
=
V0 sinh 2 (2 a)
2
1+
4 E (V0 − E)

This means that there is transmission even though the energy lies below the potential
barrier. This is called tunneling of particles. Tunnel effect is quite common in atomic,
nuclear and solid state physics. For the energies E  V0 , no penetration of the barrier
would occur in classical physics.

7
Note that reflection probability is obtained as

(2k ) 2 (k 2 +  2 ) 2 sinh 2 (2 a)

R = 1− T = 1− 2 =
2 2

(k +  2 ) sinh 2 (2 a) + (2k ) 2 (k 2 +  2 ) 2 sinh 2 (2 a) + (2 k ) 2

1 1
= =
(2k ) 2
4 E (V0 − E)
1+ 2 1+ 2
(k +  ) sinh (2 a)
2 2 2
V0 sinh 2 (2 a)

or

2
( 2 + k 2 ) sinh(2 a)  ( 2 + k 2 ) 2 sinh 2 (2 a)
R = =
2

 2k cosh(2 a) + (k 2 −  2 ) sinh(2 a)  (2k ) cosh (2 a) + (k −  ) sinh (2 a)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

1+ sinh 2 (2 a ) ( 2 + k 2 ) − (2 k )2

(k 2 +  2 ) 2 sinh 2 (2 a) 1 1
= = =
(k 2 +  2 ) 2 sinh 2 (2 a) + (2k ) 2 (2k ) 2
4 E (V0 − E)
1+ 2 2 2 1+ 2
(k +  ) sinh (2 a)
2
V0 sinh 2 (2 a)

Classically we would expect | T |2 = 0 (the particle is not permitted to enter the forbidden
region). The quantum wave can penetrate the barrier and give a nonzero probability to
find a particle beyond the barrier.

For E  V0 , the wave function uII ( x) does not vanish inside the barrier, and thus there
appears to be some probability of finding a particle with negative kinetic energy
( E = K + V  K = E − V where E  V ). How can this make sense?

8
An experiment to study the particle inside the potential barrier must be able to localize it
with an accuracy x 2a . This measurement will transfer to the particle’s momentum
with an accuracy
xp   p
2a
Which corresponds to a transfer of energy
(p)2
2
1   2 2
E = =   E
2m 2m  2a  8ma 2 8ma 2
In order to observe the negative kinetic energy, this uncertainty must be less than E − V0 ,
so that
2

E 2 
8ma  
2 2 2
E E − V0  E  2 a 1
2m 8ma 2
2m( E − V0 ) 
 =
2
2


When κa  1 ,

2 m(V0 − E)
2
a2 1 E V0

e 2 a − e −2 a 1
sinh(2 a) =  e 2 a
2 2

1 κa 1 1
|T|2 = ⎯⎯⎯ →
(k )
2 2
(k + κ 2 ) 1 4 a
2
2
+κ 2

1+ sinh ( 2κ a ) 2
1+ e
( 2kκ ) ( 2kκ ) 4
2 2

( 4kκ ) e−4 a = 16 E 1 − E  e− (4 a / )
2
2 m (V0 − E )
  
(k 2
+κ )
2 2 V0  V0 

The fact that | T |2 does not vanish for E  V0 , but it is very small which is a purely
quantum mechanical result. | T |2 is extremely sensitive function of the width of barrier
and V0 − E . This result shows that the transmission coefficient is not zero, but has a finite
value. So, quantum mechanically, there is a finite tunneling beyond the barrier, x  0 .

 T 2 → 0
In the classical limit, →0 2
 R → 1

9
Example:

An electron with energy E = 6 eV is incident from left upon a rectengular barrier of

potential energy V0 = 10 eV , and it then penetrates beyond the barrier.

Using the transmission probability as

16E  E  −( 4 a /  ) 2 m ( V0 − E )
| T |2 = 1 − e
V0  V0 
find the width of the barrier so that the transmission probability will be 1  10 -3 .
(Hint: use c = 197.3 MeV  fm , m e c 2 = 0.511 MeV and 1fm = 10 −13 cm ).

16 E E − 4a 2 mc 2 (V0 − E )
T = (1 − )e c
2

V0 V0
16  6eV
2d
6eV − (197.3MeV . fm ) 20.511MeV (V 10 − 6)10−6 MeV
= (1 − )e  1.0  10−3
10eV 10eV −5 d fm−1
e −2.0510
3.84

−5 1.0 10−3
d fm −1
e −2.0510 =
3.84
−5
−2.0510 d fm −1 1.0 10−3
ln e = ln  −2.05 10−5 d fm −1 = −8.25  d = 4.02 10 −5 fm = 4.02 10 −10 m
3.84

10
Example:
A particle with energy E is incident from left upon a rectengular barrier of potential
energy V0 .
0 if x  0 : Region I

V(x) = V0 if 0  x  a : Region II
0 if x  a
 : Region III
Consider the special case when the particle energy is equal to the barrier height, E = V0 .
a. Write down the Schrodinger equations for all regions.
b. Solve the equations in part (a) defining wavenumbers and find the physically
acceptable solutions as
u I ( x ) = e ikx + Ae − ikx
u II ( x ) = Bx + C
u III ( x ) = De ikx
where k 2 = 2mE /  2 and A, B, C and D are constants.
c. State the continuity conditions that must be satisfy by the wave function at x = 0
2
and x = a . Show that the reflection coefficient for the barrier R = A is given by
−1
 4 
R = 1 + 2 2 
 k a 
2
d. What would be the transmission coefficient T = D for this barrier if the incident
particles were electrons of energy 0.5 eV incident on a barrier of width
2  10 −10 m ?
(Hint: use c = 197.3 MeV  fm , m e c 2 = 0.511 MeV and 1fm = 10 −15 m ).

a. The Schrodinger equations :

2
d 2u I ( x )
Region I: − = EuI ( x)
2m dx 2
2
d 2uII ( x)
Region II: − + V0uII ( x) = Eu II ( x)
2m dx 2
2
d 2uIII ( x)
Region III: − = EuIII ( x)
2m dx 2

b. The solutions of Schrodinger equations :

d 2 u I (x) 2mE
Region I : 2
+ 2 u I (x) = 0  u I (x) = eikx + Ae -ikx
dx
2
d u II (x) 2m
Region II : + 2 (E − V0 ) u II (x) = 0  u II (x) = Bx + C
dx 2
=0
2
d u III (x) 2mE
Region III: 2
+ 2 u III (x) = 0  u III (x) = Deikx + Ge-ikx
dx
11
 c. At the point x = 0 , the continuity property of the wave functions requires
u I (x)|x =0 = u II (x)|x =0  1 + A = C 
 B
du I (x) du II (x) C = 2−
|x = 0 = |x =0  ik (1 − A) = B  ik
dx dx 
and at the point x = a , the continuity property of the wave functions requires
u II (x)|x =a = u III (x)|x =a  Ba + C = Deika 


B
2− 2ik
ik
 B = −
du II (x) du (x)  ika − 2
|x =a = III |x =a  B = ikDeika 
dx dx

B 1  2ik  2 ika − 2 + 2 ka
ik (1 − A) = B  A = 1 − = 1−  − ika − 2  = 1 + ika − 2 = ika − 2  A = ka + 2i
ik ik
 ka   ka   ka   ka   (ka ) 
* 2
1
A = = = =
2
        
 ka + 2i   ka + 2i   ka − 2i   ka + 2i   (ka ) + 4  1 + 4
2

k 2a2
−1
 4 
R  A = 1 + 2 2 
2

 k a 

d.
B 1 −2ik 2
B = ikDeika  D = e − ika = e − ika = e − ika
ik ik ika − 2 2 − ika
*
 2   − ika 2   + ika 2   − ika 2  4
T = D = e − ika = e =
2
  e    e 
 2 − ika   2 − ika   2 + ika   2 − ika  4 + (ka ) 2
4 4 4 4
T=  = −6
=
4 + 2 a 2 4 + 2mc 2E a 2 4 + 2  (0.511MeV )  (0.5 10 4 + 0.525
2
2mE MeV )
2
(2 105 fm) 2
( c) (197.3Mev.fm)
T = 0.884

Note that

−1 −1
 4   4 
R = 1 + 2 2  = 1 + = 0.116  T + R = 0.884 + 0.116 = 1
 k a   0.525 

12
Application of Tunneling
In general, the barriers that occur in physical phenomena are not square. For an irregular
shaped barrier. The theory of Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) method provides one of
the most approximations methods.

The transmission probability is an extremely sensitive function of the width of the barrier
and of V0 − E . When  a is large (  a 1 or E V0 ), T is found as
2

 4k  −4 a 16 E
2
E − 4 ca 2 mc 2 (V0 − E )
T  2 = (1 − )e
2
e
 k +  
2
V0 V0
where  a = 2ma 2 (V0 − E ) / 2
. It will be
   4kκ 
ln|T| = ln
2  ( 4kκ )
2
e −4 a 
= −(2κ )(2a) + 2 ln  2 
 2
 k + κ( 2
2
) 



k +κ 2 
 ( )
The first term dominates the second one for any reasonable size of κa .

For a smooth potential barrier

If the transmission probability of each barrier is small, the overall probability is the
product of the individual ones. Equivalently, the overall transmission coefficient is a
product of the transition coefficients of the individual barriers

T  T1 T2 ...... TN
2 2 2 2

ln T  ln T1 + ln T2 + ...... + ln TN = 
2 2 2 2
ln Tpartial
partial barriers
barriers

 ( −2 
n
n
xn ) = −2 xn 
n
n

where xn is the width and  n

is the average value of  for that partial barrier.
2 2 2  
T 2  T T ...... T  ln T 2 = lim  −2 xn  n  = −2  dx 2m  V(x) − E  /
2
1 2 N
x → 0  n 

−2 dx 2m  V(x) − E  / 2
T 2 = Ce
where the integration is over the region in which the square root is real. Note that in the
classical limit, → 0  T → e−1/0 = e− = 0 so that no tunneling exists in classical
2

physics.

13
Example 1: Cold emission electrons ((Nobel Prize, 1986)

Electrons needs a minimum energy (called work function) to escape from an atom. There
are some methods to emit electrons from a metal:
• Photoelectric effect
• By heating the metal
• Cold mission

Electrons in a metal can be removed at a room temperature by application of an external

electric field ε . This phenomena is called as cold emission. The electric field will change
the work function as W → W − eε x . The change creates a barrier of finite width and
electron can tunnel through it.

The overall transmission coefficient becomes

−2 dx 2m  V(x) − E  / 2 −2  dx 2m  W − e  x  / 2
T 2 = Ce → Ce

W
where V(x = a) = 0  W− e  a  a = . Let us use the following integration for the above
e
expression
1 1 ( A + Bx)3/ 2 ( A + Bx)3/ 2
 dx A + Bx =
B  dxB ( A + Bx)1/ 2 =
B 3/ 2
=
3B / 2

a
1 (2 mW − 2m e  x)3/ 2
a a
1
I =  dx 2m  W − e  x  / 2 =  dx 2mW −2m e  x =
0 0 A B 3(−2m e  ) / 2 0

 
 
 3/ 2 
a
1 1 2 1 1
=  dx 2mW −2m e  x = (2 mW − 2m e  a ) − (2 mW − 0)  = − 3m e   −(2 mW) 
3/ 2 3/ 2

3( −2 m e  )
0 A B  W
e

 
 =0 
1 2 2 W  2 2
=   mW = mWa 2 / 2

3 e  3
a

We finally find

 a  −
4 2
mWa 2 / 2

T 2 = exp  −2  dx 2m  W − e  x  / 2  = e 3 “Fowler-Nordheim formula”

 0 
14
Cold emission has an important application in the scanning tunneling microscope that has
been used for a study of surfaces of metals and some semiconductors. A conducting
probe with a very sharp tip is brought close to a metal. Electrons tunnel through the
empty space to the tip. Tunneling current is so sensitive to the metal (prob) distance
(barrier width) that even individual atoms can be mapped.

Example 2: Emission of α -particle from radioactive nucleus

The idea of tunneling was first used to explain α–decay in radioactive nuclei (in heavy
nuclei, α -particles may be formed with enough energy to escape). They are held within
the nucleus by a potential barrier which consists of an attractive part (due to nuclear
forces), and a repulsive part (due to the electrostatic repulsion between the α–particle and
the residual nucleus). Notice that the α–particle can tunnel out of its potential well and
escape from the nucleus.

Classically, the -particle cannot

enter the region r  R . Quantum
mechanically, there is a tunneling
through such a barrier

−V0 for 0  r  R

V(r) =  Z Z e2
k
1 2
for r  R
 r

The transmission probability (the probability of penetrating the barrier) is given by

 b 2m  Z1Z 2e 2
2 
P  T  e −G = exp −2  dr V (r ) − E  
2
E = V (r = b ) = k
 R  b

 2m 
1/2
b Z1Z 2e 2 2mZ1Z 2e 2  −1  R 1/2  R 1/2  R 1/2 
G = 2 2   dr k −E =2 k b cos   −   1 −  
  b  b   b  
2
R r 
where Z  = 2 and Z D = Z daughter  Z . At low energies, b  R .
 R  R 2
Cos -1 ( x) = − x + ....  Cos -1  − and R
  →0
2 b 2 b b

mα Ze 2 π R R  R  
2
mα Ze 2 π R
G=2 b − − −   =2 b  −2 
πε 0 2
2 b b b  πε 0 2
 2 b
 

15
 1 2Ze2 1 2Ze 2
Eα = mα vα2 =  b= 2
2 πε 0 2 b πε 0 mα vα2
mα Ze2 2Ze2 π mα Ze2 R Ze2 mα Ze2
G=2 2 −4 b = −4 R
πε 0 2
πε 0 mα vα2 2 πε 0 2 b πε 0 v πε 0 2

Thus the probability of penetrating the barrieras an function of Eα becomes

   
 2   
2
2Ze2 mα Ze 2
 − 2e m Z mα Ze
P  e-G 
= exp − +8 R  = exp +8 R
 ε0 v 4πε 0 2   ε0 2 Eα 4πε 0 2 
   
 2E α / m   C2 C1 
 Z 
= exp  C1 − C2 
 E α 
where C1 and C2 are constants. We then find
Z
lnP = C1 − C 2
Eα
−G
The probability of escape at each collisions is e . Average time between collision with
v
the wall is 2R where v 0 is its velocity The frequency of the collision becomes 0 . Thus
v0 2R
the probability of emission per unit time is  v 0 e −G and hence the life time (mean life) of
 2R 
the parent nucleus is about
 2R  G
τ =   e
 v0 
The final formula for mean life becomes
1   3.97 Z 
 6.47  1021 E α A−1/3  exp  − + 3.09 Z 1/2 A1/6 
τ  Eα 
Where A is the mass number and Z is the atomic number of doughter nucleus. In this
expression, the units of Eα is MeV and τ is second.

The emission of alpha-particles from 23892 U→ 23490Th + 42 He is 4.2 MeV. The transmission
probability (the probability of penetrating the barrier) is obtained as

P  T = e−90  10−39
2

which is so small and corresponding to

1  v0 
λ= =  P=1.7  1021  10-39 s −1 =1.7  10-18 s −1
τ  2R 
 = 1/1.7 10-18 s = 4.11017 s  1.3 1010 y

The experimental half-life is 0.45 1010 y that is a remarkable agreement.

16
Example 3. Fusion occurs by tunneling nuclei through the Coulomb barrier

As an example, the fusion reaction of two deuterons ( 12 H ) is consider as

2
1 H + 12 H → 13 H + p + 4.0MeV (D-D reaction)
which relates to the tunneling process shown in the figure.

The Coulomb repulsive force between two charged nuclei must be overcome before they
can fuse. The electrical repulsion produces a barrier to this process called a Coulomb
barrier. The Coulomb barrier classically prevents low-energy particles to approach each
other. When the energy is not high, the probability of tunneling of the nuclei through the
Coulomb barrier is extremely small according to WKB. So only high energy nuclei can
fuse.

The fundamental problem is to give two nuclei enough kinetic energy to overcome this
repulsive force. For this, a sufficiently high temperature (perhaps 107 K) is required. Such
high temperatures are not easy to obtain in laboratory or a power planet.

The necessary energy to initiate fusion is the energy equivalent to the Coulomb barrier.
We can estimate the Coulomb repulsion barrier by calculating the electrostatic repulsion
of two light nuclei when they are just touching. If Z1q1 and Z2q2 are the charges of two
nuclei with radii r1 and r2, the Coulomb repulsion barrier becomes

1 ( Z1q1 )( Z2 q 2 ) ZZ
VC  = 1.44MeV . fm 1 2
4π ε 0 r1 + r2 r1 + r2

e2 1
where the value of the fine structure constant  = = gives
4π ε 0 c 137
e2
= 1.44 MeV . fm and the radius is given by r = r0 A1/3 = 1.2 A1/3 fm .
4π ε 0

17
This reaction ( 12 H + 12 H → 13 H + p + 4.0MeV ) can be performed in the laboratory by
2
accelerating a beam of deuterons 1
H onto a deuteron target. The radius of 21 H is
about r = 1.2 A1/3 fm = 1.2  ( 2 )
1/3
 1.5 fm and the electrostatic energy of the two
charges separated by r1 + r2 becomes

Z1Z2 1 1
VC  1.44 = 1.44 = 0.48 MeV  0.5 MeV
r1 + r2 (1.5 + 1.5) fm
As a result, a deuteron with 0.5 MeV of kinetic energy can over to Coulomb repulsion
and initiate a reaction. The temperature for this energy becomes

( )
E = k BT = 0.5 MeV  T = 0.5  106 / 0.862  10−4 eV/ K = 0.6  1010 K

where Boltzmann constant is k B = 1.38  10−23 J / K = 0.862  10−4 eV/ K .

Even at the core of the sun, the temperature is about 107 Kelvin (the energy of this
temperature is about is kT → 1keV ), which is about a thousand times less than the
electrical potential energy ( VC MeV  T = 0.6 1010 K ). However, quantum
mechanical tunneling through Coulomb barrier occurs for T 106 − 107 K . Therefore
nuclear fusion reactions can only occur inside the sun, or in any other normal star,
through the process of quantum-mechanical tunneling. To get the probability of a
reasonable value one has to use high energy nuclei with the energy of the order of 107 K
that is less than the barrier height.

18