ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

LESSON 2: ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
The present state of the environment needs to be addressed by every human
being inhabiting the Earth. Being the highest form of animal, endowed with the
ability to discern what is right or wrong, humans are expected to assume the
responsibility to take care of the planet and not to destroy it.
It is a must for everyone to have basic knowledge about ecology so as to
ensure that every living being will work hand in hand to help protect and preserve
this planet we call HOME.
Discussion
Ecology is the study of the interactions of organisms with their physical
environment and with each other. The following introductory vocabulary for the
topic is significant to familiarize with.
 Species - all the organisms (plants, animals or microbe) of a single kind. The
single kind is determined by similarity of appearance or by the fact that
members can mate and produce offspring.
 Population – a group of individuals of one species living in one area who have
the ability of interbreeding and interacting with each other.
 Community – consist of all the organisms living in one area.
 Ecosystem – includes all the organisms in a given area as well as the abiotic
(non-living) with which they interact.
 Biosphere – the global ecosystem.

Four Laws of Ecology

In order to understand the ecological impactof our actions, it is useful to look
at what Barry Commoner and others have referred to as the four informal laws of
ecology:
 Everything is connected to everything else,
 Everything must go somewhere,
 Nature knows best
 Nothing comes from nothing

5 is determined by similarity
of appearance or by the fact
that members do or can mate
The first of these laws, everything is connected to everything else,
indicates how ecosystems are complex and interconnected. Everything in nature
affect each other. Living things need the different non-living things in order to
sustain life.
For example, plants need carbon dioxide in order to produce food in the
process of photosynthesis and in return, they release oxygen for animals to use.
The activities of man affect the quality of air causing the concentration of gases like
CO2 to either increase or decrease. Increase in CO2, contributes to the global
warming due to greenhouse effect. Increase atmospheric temperature cause water
scarcity in some localities that will in turn cause the death of vegetations.
It is therefore a must for man to think and evaluate carefully how his
activities will affect nature because whatever outcome his actions will result and will
certainly affect his very existence.
Two Major Components of Ecosystem
There are two major components in the ecosystem, the biotic and abiotic factors.
 Biotic factors are made up of biological components consisting of living and
dead plants, animals and microorganisms.
 Abiotic factors consist of nonliving chemical and physical components such
as water, air, nutrients in the soil or water, and solar energy. It can be
categorized as conditions or resources.

COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND POPULATION INTERACTIONS

Communities are made of populations that interact with the environment and
with each other. Communities are characterized by how diverse they are and how
dense they are. Species diversity has two components:
 Species richness – the number of different species in the community.
Tropical areas have greater species richness as the environment is conducive
for a large number of species
 Species evenness - Relative abundance of individuals of each of those
species. If the number of individuals within a species is fairly constant across
communities, it is said to have a high evenness and if the number of
individuals varies from species to species, it is said to have low evenness.
High evenness leads to greater specific diversity.
For example:
 In a forest, there may have a large number of different species (high species
richness) but have only a few members of each species (low species
evenness)
 In a forest, there may be only a few plant species (low species richness) but a
large number of each species (high species evenness)

Interactions within a community are very complex but can be divided into five
categories: competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism and
commensalism. These categories are based on whether each species causes
benefit or harm to the other species in a given relationships in terms of total effects
over time.
For you to have an idea about these interactions, go to this link
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zIGVIXHcfcA and then answer the following
activity.
ACTIVITY 1. Read through each scenario and determine whether it is a case of
parasitism, predation, competition, mutualism, commensalism. Explain the
reasoning behind each choice.
1. Goby fish and shrimp: The nearly blind shrimp and the fish spend most of
their time together. The shrimp maintains a burrow in the sand in which both
the fish and shrimp live. When a predator comes near, the fish touches the
shrimp with its tail as a warning. Then, both fish and shrimp retreat to the
burrow until the predator is gone. The shrimp gets a warning of approaching
danger while the fish gets a safe retreat and a place to lay its eggs.
Interaction: Mutualism
Explanation: Both species benefit— the shrimp gets protection from
predators thanks to the fish’s warning, and the fish gets shelter and
a place to lay eggs. This is a classic example of mutualism.

2. Tapeworm and dog: The tapeworm attaches to the intestinal wall of the dog
and takes nutrients consumed by the dog.
Interaction: Parasitism
Explanation: The tapeworm benefits by stealing nutrients from the
dog, which is harmed in the process. This is parasitism because one
benefits while the other is harmed.

3. Ant and acacia tree: The ant burrows into a thorn of the acacia tree to live
and eat sugar secreted by the tree. The ants benefit the tree by attacking
predators.
Interaction: Mutualism
Explanation: The ant gets food and shelter, while the tree gains
protection from predators. Both benefit from the relationship,
making it mutualism.

4. Komodo dragon and water buffalo: The komodo dragon bites a water buffalo
to inject it with venom. About 1 week later, the water buffalo dies of
poisoning and is eaten by the komodo dragon.
Interaction: Predation
Explanation: The Komodo dragon kills and eats the water buffalo.
This is predation because one organism hunts and consumes the
other.

5. Tick and cow: The tick burrows into the cow's skin to suck blood.
Interaction: Parasitism
Explanation: The tick feeds on the cow’s blood, benefiting while the
cow is harmed. This is a parasitic relationship.

BIOMES
 Biomes are very large regions of the Earth whose distribution depends on the
amount of precipitation and temperature in an area. Each biome is characterized
by dominant vegetation and animal life. There are many biomes, including
freshwater, marine, terrestrial and aquatic. Please visit this link for you to gather
information about the different types of biomes.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6X9fTPSbQ0U
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
Most communities are dynamic, not stable. The size of the population
increases and decreases around the carrying capacity. Migration of new species into
a habitat can alter the entire food chain. Major disturbances, whether natural or
man-made, like volcanic eruptions, strip mining, clear cutting a forest, and forest
fires, can suddenly and drastically destroy a community or an entire ecosystem.
What follows this destruction is the process of sequential rebuilding of the
ecosystem called ecological succession.

If the rebuilding begins in a lifeless area where even soil has been removed,
the process is called Primary Ecological Succession. The essential and dominant
characteristic of primary succession is soil building. After an ecosystem is
destroyed, the first organism to inhabit a barren area are pioneer organisms like
lichens and mosses. Soil develops gradually as rocks weather and organic matter
accumulates from the decomposed remains of the pioneer organisms. Once soil is
present, pioneer organisms are overrun by other larger organisms.

The process known as Secondary Ecological Succession occurs when an

existing community has been cleared by some disturbance that leaves the soil
intact. This is what happened in 1988 in Yellowstone National Park when fires
destroy all the old growth that was dominated by lodgepole pine but vegetation.
When the ecosystem reaches its final stage of balanced species development, it is
known as climax community.
ACTIVITY 2. Answer the following statements/questions comprehensively.
1. With the help of a globe or map, name specific countries where the following
biomes can be found. (2 points each)
a. Temperate grassland – United States (e.g., Kansas), Argentina (Pampas)
b. Desert – Egypt (Sahara Desert), Australia (Outback)
c. Tropical rainforest – Brazil (Amazon Rainforest), Indonesia
d. Temperate deciduous forest – Japan, Germany
e. Taiga – Russia, Canada
f. Tundra – Greenland, Norway (Svalbard), Northern Canada

2. Construct an existing food web that occurs in the rice field near your home.
Label all organisms involved in the chain. (5 points)

 Producers: Rice plants, algae

 Primary consumers: Grasshoppers, snails

 Secondary consumers: Frogs, dragonflies

 Tertiary consumers: Snakes, birds (herons)

 Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, earthworms

3. The physical changes associated with El Niño events can cause cascading
biological events, leading to dramatic fluctuations worldwide in populations of
plants and animals. Describe, in your own words, the ecological
consequences of an El Niño for a particular part of the world. (4 points)

El Niño disrupts normal weather patterns. For example, in Peru, warmer

ocean waters reduce the number of nutrients available in the sea. This
leads to a drop in anchovy fish populations, which affects seabirds and
fisheries that rely on them. The entire food chain is impacted, including
people who depend on fishing for their livelihood.
 ENERGY FLOW AND ROLES IN THE ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
Every living organism plays a specific role in the ecosystem. Plants, animals,
and decomposers interact in a complex web of life. Understanding these roles helps
us recognize how energy flows through ecosystems and how matter is cycled.

Discussion
An ecosystem depends on the continuous flow of energy. This energy
originates from the sun and moves through organisms in a food chain:
Producers – also called autotrophs (e.g., plants), convert sunlight into food
through photosynthesis.
Consumers – organisms that feed on other organisms. They are classified
as:

Primary consumers – herbivores

Secondary consumers – carnivores that eat herbivores

Tertiary consumers – top predators

Decomposers – fungi, bacteria, and insects that break down dead organisms
and recycle nutrients back into the environment.

These interactions create a network called the food chain, and when multiple
chains interconnect, they form a food web.

Ecological Pyramid
An ecological pyramid visually represents energy flow. Each level (trophic
level) shows how energy decreases as it moves from producers to higher-level
consumers. Typically, only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to
the next—the rest is lost as heat.
Watch this short video to learn more: https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=nC1ZcUo7XoA

Activities

Activity 3: Build a Food Chain

Instructions: Choose a habitat (e.g., pond, forest, or rice field). Create a 4-link food
chain showing:
RICE FIELD HABITAT
🌾 Rice plant → 🐛 Grasshopper → 🐸 Frog → 🍄 Fungi (Decomposer)
Explanation of roles:
 Rice plant – Producer (uses sunlight to make food)
 Grasshopper – Primary consumer (eats the rice plant)
  Frog – Secondary consumer (eats the grasshopper)
 Fungi – Decomposer (breaks down dead frog and returns nutrients to the soil)

Activity 4: Construct an Energy Pyramid

Instructions: Use your food chain to create a pyramid diagram. Label each trophic
level and briefly describe how much energy each level gets compared to the one
below.

🔺 Energy Pyramid – Rice Field Habitat

Level 4: Decomposer – Fungi 🍄
 Energy: ~0.1%
 Description: Gets energy from breaking down dead organisms. Only a tiny
fraction of original energy reaches here.
Level 3: Secondary Consumer – Frog 🐸
 Energy: ~1%
 Description: Eats the grasshopper. Loses most energy through movement,
heat, and life processes.
Level 2: Primary Consumer – Grasshopper 🐛
 Energy: ~10%
 Description: Eats the rice plant. Gets a small portion of the plant’s stored
energy.
Level 1: Producer – Rice Plant 🌾
 Energy: 100%
 Description: Uses sunlight to produce energy via photosynthesis. Base of
the food chain.

Activity 5: Trophic Level Quiz

Instructions: Take this short quiz on trophic levels and food chains:

1.What is the main source of energy for producers?

The primary source of energy for producers is sunlight. Through the
process of photosynthesis, producers such as plants convert solar energy
into chemical energy, which serves as the foundation for most food chains.

2.Give an example of a secondary consumer in a forest.

An example of a secondary consumer in a forest ecosystem is a fox. Foxes
typically consume primary consumers such as rabbits or small rodents,
placing them at the secondary consumer level.

3. Why do higher levels in the pyramid receive less energy?

Higher trophic levels receive less energy because energy is lost at
each transfer, primarily in the form of heat, waste, and metabolic
processes. Approximately only 10% of the energy from one level is
passed on to the next, resulting in significantly reduced energy
availability at the higher levels