Unit 1: Intro to robotics

1. ROBOT: A re-programmable, multifunctional, automatic industrial machine

designed to replace human in hazardous work. (Mechanical device that performs
human tasks, either automatically or by remote control)
WHY ITS NEEDED?
•Speed
• Can work in hazardous/dangerous temperature
• Can do repetitive tasks
• Can do work with accuracy
THREE LAWS OF ROBOTICS:

Zeroth Law : A robot may not injure humanity, or, through inaction, allow
humanity to come to harm
First Law : A robot may not injure a human being, or, through inaction, allow a
human being to come to harm, unless this would violate a higher order law
Second Law: A robot must obey orders given it by human beings, except where
such orders would conflict with a higher order law
Third Law : A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection
does not conflict with a higher order law.
TYPES OF ROBOTS:
1. Stationary robots: perform repeating tasks without
ever moving an inch, explore areas or imitate a
human being.
2. Autonomous robots: self supporting or in other
words self contained. In a way they rely on their own
‘brains’.
3. Virtual robots: just programs, building blocks of software inside a computer.
4. Remote controlled robots: difficult and usually dangerous tasks without
being at the spot.
5. Mobile robots: rolling, walking

Robot control loop:

Robot Components:
1. Manipulator or Rover: Main body of robot (Links, Joints, other structural element
of the robot)
2. End Effecter: The part that is connected to the last joint hand) of a manipulator.
3. Actuators: Muscles of the manipulators (servomotor, stepper motor, pneumatic
and hydraulic cylinder).
4. Sensors: To collect information about the internal state of the robot or to
communicate with the outside environment.
5. Controller: Like cerebellum. It controls and coordinates the motion of the
actuators.
6. Processor: The brain of the robot. It calculates the motions and the velocity of the
robot’s joints, etc.
7. Software: Operating system, robotic software, and the collection of routines.

SENSORS:

END EFFECTOR: an end effector is the device at the end of a robotic

arm, designed to interact with the environment. May consist of a gripper
or a tool. The gripper can be of two fingers, three fingers or even five
fingers.

ACTUATORS: A device that converts energy (like electricity, hydraulic

pressure, or air pressure) into physical motion, essentially acting as the
"muscle" of a robot, allowing it to move its joints, limbs, or other parts to
perform actions; it's the component that generates the force needed for a
robot to move or manipulate objects.
(locomotion, manipulation)
Locomotion:

Manipulation:

2. AIML IN ROBOTICS:
What is AI?
It is the simulation of human intelligence in machines enabling them to perform
cognitive tasks. These tasks include learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception,
language understanding, and decision-making. AI systems can be rule-based
(symbolic AI) or data-driven (machine learning and deep learning), allowing them to
improve performance over time. AI is used in various fields, such as healthcare, finance,
social media, automation, and robotics.

Types: Strong Artificial Intelligence

1. Computers thinking at a level that meets or surpasses people
2. Abstract reasoning & thinking
3. Not used right now.
Weak Pattern-Based Artificial Intelligence
1. Machines solve problems by detecting useful patterns (pattern-based AI
2. Has been used to automate many processes. (dominant mode of AI today)
3. Driving, language translation
 MAJOR AI TECHNIQUES

RULE/LOGIC BASED: Uses predefined DATA DRIVEN (PATTERN-BASED): Learns

rules and logic to make decisions. patterns from large datasets and improves
over time.
How It Works: Follows “if-then” rules
programmed by experts. How It Works: Uses algorithms like neural
Strengths: networks, decision trees, and deep learning
models.
• Transparent decision-making Strengths:
process.
• Works well for structured problems • Can handle complex, unstructured
with clear rules. data (images, speech, text).
• Continuously improves with more
Limitations: data.

• Struggles with complex, Limitations:

unstructured data.
• Requires manual updates for new • Requires large amounts of data for
rules. training.
• Less transparent (“black-box” nature).
Examples: Expert systems, chatbots with
predefined responses, medical diagnosis Examples: Image recognition, self-driving
systems. cars, AI chatbots like ChatGPT.

MACHINE LEARNING: Branch of AI that enables systems to learn and improve from
experience without explicit programming. It develops algorithms that analyse data,
identify patterns, and make decisions. The goal is for computers to learn automatically
and adapt without human intervention.
Uses and Abuses:
• Predict the outcomes of elections
• Identify and filter spam messages from e-mail
• Foresee criminal activity
• Automate traffic signals according to road conditions
• Produce financial estimates of storms and natural disasters
• Examine customer churn
• Create auto-piloting planes and auto-driving cars
• Stock market prediction
• Target advertising to specific types of consumers
Recognizing patterns: Pattern recognition is the automated recognition of patterns and
regularities in data. It has applications in statistical data analysis, signal processing,
image analysis, information retrieval, data compression, machine learning.
How do machines learn?
Machines learn through machine learning (ML), it enables systems to improve their
performance based on experience rather than explicit programming. The learning process
generally follows these steps:

1. Data Collection – Machines require large datasets to recognize patterns and make
predictions.

2. Data Processing – The collected data is cleaned, structured, and prepared for
analysis.

3. Model Training – An algorithm is trained on the data, learning patterns and

relationships (fitting a ml model to the dataset). Adjusting the model's parameters
so that it can identify patterns and relationships within the data.

4. Evaluation – The trained model is tested on new data to assess its accuracy and
performance.

5. Optimization – The model is fine-tuned to improve accuracy and reduce errors.

6. Prediction & Deployment – The final model is used to make predictions or

automate tasks in real-world applications.

Machines learn using different approaches, including supervised learning (regression,

classification), unsupervised learning (clustering, anomaly detecn), and reinforcement
learning (learning through rewards and penalties).
TYEPS OF ALGOS IN ML:

INTELLIGENT ROBOTS: Intelligent robots are autonomous machines equipped with

artificial intelligence (AI) that enable them to perceive their environment, process
information, and make decisions to perform tasks without constant human intervention.
They integrate machine learning, computer vision, natural language processing, and sensor
technologies to adapt, learn from experiences, and improve performance over time. EX:
TESLA, DRONE, ALEXA

Scope of ML in Robotics:

AI enhances vision for object detection, grasping for optimal handling, motion control for
dynamic interaction and obstacle avoidance, and data analysis for proactive decision-
making.

COMPUTER VISION V/S ROBOT/MACHINE VISION

While computer vision focuses purely on image processing through algorithms, robot
vision or machine vision involves both software and hardware (like cameras and
sensors) that allow robots to perceive and interact with their environment.
Machine vision is responsible for advancements in robot guidance and inspection
systems, enabling automation.
The key difference is that robot vision also considers kinematics, meaning how a
robot understands its position and movements in a 3D space, allowing it to
physically interact with its surroundings.

IMITATION LEARNING:

• A machine learning technique where an AI or robot learns to perform tasks by observing

and mimicking human or expert demonstrations, rather than learning through trial
and error. (used in self-driving cars, robotics, gaming ai etc)
• Bayesian or probabilistic models are a common feature of this.

SELF SUPERVISED LEARNING:

• It is a type of machine learning where the model generates its own labels from raw data
instead of relying on manually labelled data.
• It serves as a bridge between supervised and unsupervised learning, allowing AI to learn
representations from vast amounts of unlabelled data.
• [priori (PRE-EXISTING) training and data captured close range to interpret long-range
ambiguous sensor data] EXAMPLES – WATCH BOT, FSVMs, road probabilistic
distribution model (RPDM)

MULTI-AGENT LEARNING:

Multi-Agent Learning (MAL) is a branch of machine learning where multiple AI agents learn and
interact within a shared environment. These agents can either collaborate, compete, or
coexist to achieve individual or collective goals. (coordination and negotiation)

KINEMATICS: Branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points

(alternatively “particles”), bodies (objects), and systems of bodies without consideration of
the masses of those objects nor the forces that may have caused the motion; often
referred to as “geometry of motion”.
BAYESIAN MODELS IN ML: Statistical models based on Bayes' theorem, which updates
probabilities as more evidence becomes available. They are widely used in machine learning,
data science, and AI for uncertainty estimation, decision-making, and probabilistic
reasoning.

INVERSE OPTIMAL CONTROL OR INVERSE REINFORCEMENT LEARNING:

Inverse Optimal Control (IOC), also called Inverse Reinforcement Learning (IRL), is the process
of recovering an unknown reward function in a Markov Decision Process (MDP) by observing an
expert's optimal behaviour (policy).

Markov Decision Process (MDP) – A framework used in reinforcement learning where an agent
takes actions in a given state to maximize rewards over time.

3. ROBOT CONFIGURATIONS:

a) Cartesian/Rectangular Gantry(3P) (XYZ configuration): 3 linear/prismatic joints,

works in rectangular prism workplace, linear motion along three principal axis.
Applications: Carrying high payloads, pick and place, 3D printing

STRUCTURE AND WORKSPACE:

b) Cylindrical (R2P): Cylindrical coordinate Robots have 2 prismatic joints

perpendicular to each other and one revolute joint mounted on rotary axis.
Applications: simple assembly tasks, painting, material handling tasks.
Advantages (Precision, efficiency, versatility, easy to use)
Disadvantages: (limited flexibility, takes up space, high initial cost)
STRUCTURE AND WORKSPACE:

c) Spherical joint (2RP)/Polar Configuration: Operates in spherical work volume, its

larger than the work volume of cylindrical and cartesian. Has 2 rotatory and 1 prismatic
joint.
Applications: surgeries, welding, entertainment
STRUCTURE AND WORKSPACE:

d) Articulated/anthropomorphic(3RP)/Revolute: An articulated robot’s joints

are all revolute, like a human’s arm. Its work envelope is also spherical.
Applications: Cutting steel, flat glass handling, spot welding
STRUCTURE AND WORKSPACE:

e) Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) (2R1P): They have

two revolute joints that are parallel and allow the Robot to move in a horizontal
plane, plus an additional prismatic joint that moves vertically. Its work
envelope is cylindrical in shape.
Applications: Assembly, packaging, machine loading

STRUCTURE AND WORK ENVELOPE:

REFERENCE FRAMES:

1. World Reference Frame:

o A universal coordinate system (x, y, z) for robot motion.
o All joints move simultaneously to achieve movement along major axes.
2. Joint Reference Frame:
o Defines motion for each individual joint separately.
o Only one joint moves at a time while others remain stationary.
3. Tool Reference Frame:
o A coordinate system (x', y', z') attached to the robot's hand/tool.
o All joints move together to control the tool's motion relative to this frame.

WRIST: DOF – 3 (PITCH- up down, YAW- left right, ROLL-rotation around arm)

CONTROL METHODS: Control could mean two things. One is motion control strategy, i.e.,
whether a robot is servo controlled or not, and the other one is how the motion path is achieved,
i.e., point-to-point or continuous.

1) SERVO (closed loop + feedback) / NON-SERVO (open loop):

 2) POINT TO POINT AND CONTINOUS:

COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION:

- Coordinate systems are used to describe the locations of points in space.

- Multiple coordinate systems make graphics algorithms easier to implement.
- Transformations convert points between coordinate systems.

2D Affine Transformations:

Any affine transformation can be composed as a sequence of simple

transformations:
• Translation
• Scaling
• Rotation
• Shear
• Reflection.
1. 2D TRANSLATION

3D TRANSLATION

2. 2D AND 3D SCALING.

3. 2D ROTATION (ABOUT ORIGIN)

3D ROTATION (X ROLL, Y ROLL, Z ROLL) ABOUT ORIGIN

Combined:

Rotation about a point:

2D SHEAR:

Along X axis:

Along Y :
2D REFLECT:

Along X:

Along Y:

UNIT 02: SENSORS AND TRANDUCERS

1) A sensor is a device that detects and measures a physical property from its
environment and converts it into a signal that can be read by an observer or an
electronic system.

2) A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another. It takes an input
signal in one physical form and transforms it into an output signal of a different form,
typically electrical.
 3) An actuator is a device that converts energy (usually electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic)
into mechanical motion. It is used to move or control a mechanism or system.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS:
1) BASED ON MEASURED QUANTITIES

2) BASED ON THEIR OUTPUTS

3) BASED ON THEIR SUPPLY

SOME TERMS:

Non-Linearity Error Refers to the deviation of the actual output from an ideal straight-
line response over the measurement range. It indicates how much the sensor's output deviates
from a perfectly linear relationship between input and output.

Hysteresis Error Occurs when a sensor or transducer gives different output values for the
same input, depending on whether the input is increasing or decreasing. This means the
output follows a different path when measured during an increasing input versus a
decreasing input, creating a loop-like effect.
SENSORS IN ROBOTS:
There are generally two categories of sensors used in robotics; these are for internal
purposes, and those for external purposes.
INTERNAL: Used to monitor and control the various joints of the robot; they form a feedback
control loop with the robot controller.
Examples of internal sensors include potentiometers and optical encoders, while
tachometers of various types can be deployed to control the speed of the robot arm.
EXTERNAL: Sensors that are placed outside the robot and help it interact with its
surroundings, equipment, or objects in a workspace. They are essential for coordinating
robotic operations in industrial environments.
Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is a remote sensing technology that uses laser
pulses to measure distances and create 3D models.
Thresholding is the binary conversion technique in which each pixel is converted into a
binary value, either black or white.
Region growing is a collection of segmentation techniques in which the pixels are
grouped in regions called grid elements based on attribute similarities.
Edge detection is considered as the intensity change that occurs in the pixels at the
boundary or edges of a part.
NOTE:
 UNIT: 03 (KINEMATICS)
1.

2.
3.
Degrees of freedom (DoF) is the number of independent movements a
robot can make. It's also used to describe the motion capabilities of robots,
including humanoid robots.

Forward kinematics refers to the process of determining the position and orientation of the
end-effector (tool or hand) of a robot given the values of its joint parameters (angles or
displacements).