IST50US

LESSON 1

Mrs. N. Uushini-Kagola

A university Dedicated to its people’s future

Introduction to Computer
and operating Systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
❑ Overview of Hardware and Software
❑ Understand the different types of Operating Systems
❑ Understand the different types of Networks
❑ Define and identify categories of computer software
❑ Demonstrate Basic troubleshooting skills including network troubleshooting
 Introduction

▪ Computers are ubiquitous in modern society, impacting nearly every

aspect of our lives.

▪ They are used for communication, education, entertainment, business,

scientific research, and more.

▪ This lecture provides a foundational understanding of what a computer is,

its purpose, and its basic components.

 Definition of a Computer

▪ A computer is an electronic device that processes

data and performs tasks according to a set of
instructions called a program.
▪ It can accept input, process it, and produce output in
a useful format.
▪ Computers are versatile and can perform a wide
range of tasks, from simple calculations to complex
simulations.
Characteristics of a Computer
▪ Store a large amount of data and information for a long
period of time.
▪ Process data and information in high accuracy level
▪ Speed in processing data information
▪ Sharing of information / network.

Understanding the difference between Data, Information

and Knowledge:
▪ Processing data in order to produces information, and
processing information produces knowledge.
Types of Computers
Computers come in various forms, each designed for specific purposes:
1. Personal Computers (PCs):
o Designed for individual use.
o Examples: Desktops, laptops.
2. Workstations:
o High-performance computers used for specialized tasks (e.g., graphic
design, engineering).
3. Servers:
o Computers that provide services to other devices on a network (e.g.,
web servers, file servers).
4. Mainframes:
o Large, powerful computers used by organizations for critical applications
(e.g., banking, government).
5. Supercomputers:
o Extremely powerful computers used for complex calculations (e.g.,
weather forecasting, scientific research).
6. Embedded Computers:
o Specialized computers built into other devices (e.g., cars, appliances,
smartphones).
Main components of a computer

A computer system consists of:

HARDWARE SOFTWARE
Hardware
❑ Hardware refers to the physical, tangible parts of a computer system. These
components work together to execute tasks.
Examples:
o Central Processing Unit (CPU): The "brain" of the computer that executes
instructions.

o Memory (Main Memory or Primary Memory & Secondary Memory or

Auxiliary Memory)

o Storage Devices: Long-term storage for data and programs (e.g., HDD,
SSD).

o Input Devices: Tools for entering data (e.g., keyboard, mouse).

o Output Devices: Tools for displaying or presenting results (e.g., monitor,

printer).

o Motherboard: The main circuit board that connects all components.

o System Unit:The system unit is a case that contains the electronic

components of the computer that are used to process data.
 Hardware Organization

Motherboard:
o The main circuit board that connects all hardware components.
o Houses the CPU, RAM, and other critical components.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
❑ CPU is often referred to as the brain of the
computer because it performs most of the
processing inside the computer.
❑ The CPU interprets and executes
instructions, performs calculations, and
manages the flow of data through the
computer system.
Key aspect of the CPU
• Control Unit (CU): The control unit manages the execution of instructions by
interpreting instructions, fetching data from memory, and directing the operation
of other components within the CPU.

• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): The ALU performs arithmetic operations (such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division) and logical operations
(such as AND, OR, and NOT) on data.
• Registers: Registers are small, high-speed storage locations within the CPU
used to hold data temporarily during processing. They include the instruction
register (IR), program counter (PC), and various general-purpose registers.
• Clock Speed: The clock speed of a CPU, measured in gigahertz (GHz),
determines how many instructions the CPU can execute per second. Higher
clock speeds generally result in faster processing performance, although other
factors such as architecture and efficiency also play a role.
• Cache Memory: CPUs often have built-in cache memory, which is a small,
high-speed memory used to store frequently accessed data and instructions.
Cache memory helps improve performance by reducing the time it takes for the
CPU to access frequently used data.
Input Devices

❑ Is any hardware component that allows a user to enter

data and instructions into a computer
❑ Translate data from form that humans understand to
one that the computer can work with.
❑ Most common are keyboard and mouse
Output Devices

❑ An output device is any piece of hardware that

receives data from the computer. Usually, this data is
used to display information to the user in some form.
Memory (Primary Memory)

❑ Is a temporary holding place for data and

instructions.

Two general parts:

1. RAM
2. ROM
RAM (Main Memory)

❑ RAM stands for Random Access Memory:

o Temporary storage for data and

instructions currently in use.
o Volatile (data is lost when the
computer is turned off).
o More RAM allows for faster
multitasking.
Key characteristics and uses of RAM
❑ Volatile Nature: RAM is volatile memory, meaning that its contents are lost
when the power to the computer or device is turned off. This is in contrast to
non-volatile memory like ROM (Read-Only Memory), which retains its data
even when the power is off.

❑ Fast Access: RAM provides fast access to stored data and instructions. It is
much faster for the CPU to read from and write to RAM compared to
accessing data from storage devices like hard drives or solid-state drives
(SSDs).

❑ Temporary Storage: RAM serves as temporary storage for data and

program instructions that are actively being used by the CPU. This includes
the operating system, application software, and data being processed by
programs.

❑ Dynamic Memory: RAM is often referred to as dynamic memory because it

can be both read from and written to by the CPU as needed during program
execution. Data stored in RAM can be quickly accessed and manipulated.

❑ Capacity and Speed: The capacity and speed of RAM can significantly
impact the performance of a computer system. Higher-capacity and faster
RAM modules allow for more data to be stored and accessed quickly,
resulting in smoother multitasking and faster program execution.
ROM: Read Only Memory

❑ ROM stands for Read-Only Memory:

▪ It is a type of non-volatile memory that is
used primarily in computers and other
electronic devices to store firmware or
permanent software instructions. Unlike
RAM (Random Access Memory), ROM
retains its contents even when the power
is turned off.
Key characteristics and uses of ROM
❑ Non-Volatile: ROM retains its data even when the power is
turned off, making it suitable for storing essential system
instructions that must remain intact at all times.

❑ Read-Only: The term "read-only" indicates that the data

stored in ROM cannot be easily modified or altered. It is
typically programmed during the manufacturing process and
cannot be changed by the user under normal circumstances.

❑ Firmware Storage: ROM is commonly used to store

firmware, which is a type of software that provides low-level
control for the hardware components of a device. Examples
include the BIOS (Basic Input/output System) in computers
and the firmware in embedded systems like microcontrollers.

❑ Boot Instructions: In many systems, ROM contains the

initial boot instructions that the computer executes when
powered on. These instructions are crucial for starting up the
system and loading the operating system into memory.
Secondary storage devices
❑ Known as secondary storage or auxiliary
storage, are hardware components used to store
data permanently in a computer system. Unlike
primary storage devices (e.g., RAM) which are
volatile and lose their data when the power is
turned off, secondary storage devices retain data
even when the power is off.
❑ These devices are essential for long-term storage
of programs and data in computing systems.
Examples of secondary storage devices:
❑ Hard Disk Drive (HDD): HDDs are one of the most
common types of secondary storage devices. They use
magnetic storage to store data on rotating disks called
platters. A read/write head accesses and modifies data
on the spinning platters. HDDs offer relatively large
storage capacities and are commonly used in desktop
computers, laptops, and servers.

❑ Solid State Drive (SSD): SSDs are storage devices that

use flash memory to store data. Unlike HDDs, SSDs
have no moving parts, which makes them faster, more
durable, and less prone to mechanical failure. SSDs are
commonly used in modern computers and laptops due
to their superior performance and reliability.

❑ External Hard Drive: External hard drives are portable

storage devices that connect to a computer via USB,
Thunderbolt, or other interfaces. They provide additional
storage capacity and can be used for data backup, file
storage, and transfer.
Examples of secondary storage devices Cont.…:

❑ USB Flash Drive: USB flash drives, also known as thumb drives or
memory sticks, are small, portable storage devices that use flash
memory to store data. They are convenient for transferring files
between computers and for storing small amounts of data.

❑ Memory Cards: Memory cards, such as Secure Digital (SD) cards and
CompactFlash (CF) cards, are commonly used in digital cameras,
smartphones, and other portable devices to store photos, videos, and
other data. They are also used as secondary storage devices in some
computing systems.
Examples of secondary storage devices Cont.…:

❑ Optical Discs: Optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs,

and Blu-ray discs, are secondary storage devices
that use optical technology to store data. They
are commonly used for distributing software,
music, movies, and other digital content.

❑ Network Attached Storage (NAS): NAS devices

are specialized storage devices that connect to a
network and provide storage capacity and file
sharing services to multiple users and devices.
NAS devices often contain multiple hard drives
configured in RAID arrays for data redundancy
and performance.
Software
▪ Software refers to the programs, applications, and
operating systems that run on the hardware. It provides
instructions for the hardware to perform tasks OR set of
instructions, programs, or data used to operate
computers and execute specific tasks.

▪ There are several types of software, each serving

different purposes and functions.
Here are some common types of software:
o System Software
o Application Software
Types of Software:
1. System Software:
o Manages hardware and provides a platform
for running application software.
❖ Examples:
▪ Operating Systems (OS): Windows,
macOS, Linux, Android.
▪ Device Drivers: Software that allows
the OS to communicate with hardware.
Types of Software: cont..
2. Application Software:
o Programs designed for specific tasks or user needs.
❖ Examples:
▪ Productivity Software: Microsoft Office, Google
Docs.
▪ Web Browsers: Chrome, Firefox.
▪ Games, Media Players, etc.
3. Utility Software:
o Tools that help manage, maintain, and optimize the
computer.
❖ Examples: Antivirus software, disk cleanup tools, file
compression tools.
Operating Systems (OS)
The OS is a critical piece of system software that acts as an
intermediary between hardware and application software.
▪ Functions of an OS:
o Manages hardware resources (CPU, memory, storage).
o Provides a user interface (GUI or command-line).
o Runs applications and ensures they have access to
necessary resources.
o Handles file management and security.

▪ Examples of Operating Systems:

o Windows: Widely used in PCs.
o macOS: Used in Apple computers.
o Linux: Open-source and highly customizable.
▪ Android/iOS: Mobile operating systems.
Computer Networks
Networks are essential for communication and
resource sharing in today’s interconnected world.
▪ A network is a collection of interconnected
devices (computers, servers, printers, etc.) that
communicate with each other to share data and
resources.

This topic will explore the different types of

networks, their characteristics, and their uses.
Classification of Networks
Networks can be classified based on their
size, geographical coverage, and purpose.

The main types of networks include:

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
5. Campus Area Network (CAN)
6. Storage Area Network (SAN)
7. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
Types of Computer Networks
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
▪ Definition: A network used for communication between
devices in close proximity to a person, typically within a range
of a few meters.
▪ Examples:
o Connecting a smartphone to a Bluetooth headset.
o Syncing data between a laptop and a smartphone.

▪ Technologies Used: Bluetooth, Infrared, USB.

▪ Characteristics:
▪ Small coverage area.
▪ Low cost and easy to set up.
▪ Primarily used for personal devices.
 Types of Computer Networks
2. Local Area Network (LAN)

▪ Definition: A network that connects devices within a limited area,

such as a home, office, or school.

▪ Examples:

o A network in a school computer lab.

o A home Wi-Fi network.

▪ Technologies Used: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.

▪ Characteristics:

o High data transfer speeds.

o Limited geographical coverage (up to a few kilometers).

o Low cost and easy to maintain.

 Types of Computer Networks
3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
▪ Definition: A network that covers a large geographical area,
often connecting multiple LANs.
▪ Examples:
o The internet.
o A corporate network connecting offices in different cities.
▪ Technologies Used: Fiber optics, satellite, leased lines.
▪ Characteristics:
o Large geographical coverage (can span countries or
continents).
o Slower data transfer speeds compared to LANs.
o Higher cost and complexity.
 Types of Computer Networks
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
▪ Definition: A network that covers a city or a large campus.
▪ Examples:
o A network connecting all branches of a bank in a city.
o A city-wide public Wi-Fi network.
▪ Technologies Used: Fiber optics, microwave.
▪ Characteristics:
o Covers a larger area than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN.
o Moderate data transfer speeds.
o Used by organizations with multiple locations in a city.
 Types of Computer Networks
5. Campus Area Network (CAN)
▪ Definition: A network that connects multiple LANs within a
university, corporate campus, or military base.
▪ Examples:
o A university network connecting dormitories, libraries,
and classrooms.
o A corporate campus network.
▪ Technologies Used: Ethernet, Wi-Fi.
▪ Characteristics:
o Larger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN.
o High data transfer speeds.
o Used for resource sharing within a campus.
 Types of Computer Networks
6. Storage Area Network (SAN)
▪ Definition: A specialized network that provides access to
consolidated, block-level data storage.
▪ Examples:
o A network used by servers to access shared storage
devices.
▪ Technologies Used: Fiber Channel, iSCSI.
▪ Characteristics:
o High-speed network dedicated to storage.
o Used in data centers and enterprise environments.
o Improves storage efficiency and reliability.
 Types of Computer Networks
7. Virtual Private Network (VPN)
▪ Definition: A secure network that uses the internet to connect
remote users or sites to a private network.
▪ Examples:
o A remote employee accessing their company’s internal
network.
o Bypassing geo-restrictions on the internet.
▪ Technologies Used: Encryption, tunneling protocols.
▪ Characteristics:
o Provides secure and private communication over public
networks.
o Encrypts data to ensure privacy.
o Widely used for remote work and secure communication.
 Comparison of Networks Types
Network
Coverage Area Speed Cost Use Case
Type

PAN Few meters Low to Moderate Low Personal devices

Up to a few Homes, offices,

LAN High Low to Moderate
kilometers schools

Internet,
Countries/Contine
WAN Moderate to Low High corporate
nts
networks

City-wide
MAN City-wide Moderate Moderate to High
organizations

Universities,
CAN Campus-wide High Moderate corporate
campuses

Enterprise
SAN Data centers Very High High
storage
Secure remote
VPN Global Moderate Low to Moderate
access
 Importance of Networks
• Resource Sharing: Networks allow sharing of
hardware (e.g., printers) and software resources.

• Communication: Enable real-time

communication through email, video calls, and
messaging.

• Data Sharing: Facilitate the transfer of data

between devices.

• Centralized Management: Simplify management

of devices and resources.

• Scalability: Networks can be expanded to

accommodate more devices and users.
Basic Troubleshooting Skills Including Network
Troubleshooting
Introduction

Troubleshooting is the process of identifying,

diagnosing, and resolving problems or issues that
arise in systems, devices, or networks. It is a critical
skill for IT professionals, network administrators,
and even everyday users. This topic will cover
basic troubleshooting skills, with a focus on network
troubleshooting.
Basic Troubleshooting Principles

Before diving into network-specific troubleshooting, it’s

important to understand the foundational principles of
troubleshooting:
1. Identify the Problem
o Gather information about the issue.
o Ask questions like:
▪ What is not working?
▪ When did the problem start?
▪ Has anything changed recently (e.g., updates,
new devices)?
o Reproduce the issue to confirm it.
Basic Troubleshooting Principles
2. Establish a Theory of Probable Cause
o Based on the symptoms, hypothesize what could be
causing the issue.
o Consider common causes first (e.g., power issues,
connectivity problems).
3. Test the Theory
o Perform tests to confirm or rule out the hypothesis.
o For example, if you suspect a loose cable, check the
physical connection.
4. Create a Plan of Action
o Once the cause is identified, plan the steps to resolve the
issue.
o Consider the impact of the solution on the system or
network.
Basic Troubleshooting Principles

5. Implement the Solution

o Execute the plan carefully.
o Document the steps taken for future reference.
6. Verify Full System Functionality
o Ensure the issue is fully resolved.
o Test the system or network to confirm everything is
working as expected.
7. Document Findings and Lessons Learned
o Record the problem, cause, and solution.
o This helps in resolving similar issues in the future.
Network Troubleshooting Basics

Network troubleshooting involves identifying and resolving issues

that affect network performance, connectivity, or functionality.
Below are the key steps and tools used in network
troubleshooting:
• 2.1 Common Network Issues
• No Internet Connectivity
o Check physical connections (cables, routers, modems).
o Verify if the issue is with the ISP (Internet Service
Provider).
• Slow Network Performance
o Check for bandwidth-heavy applications.
o Look for network congestion or hardware limitations.
Network Troubleshooting Basics

• Intermittent Connectivity
o Check for loose cables or faulty hardware.
o Look for interference (e.g., wireless signals).
• DNS Issues
o Unable to resolve domain names to IP addresses.
o Check DNS settings or try using a different DNS
server (e.g., Google DNS: 8.8.8.8).
• IP Address Conflicts
o Two devices with the same IP address.
o Use DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) to
assign unique IPs.
Network Troubleshooting Tools

• Ping
o Tests connectivity between devices.
o Example: ping google.com or ping 192.168.1.1.
• Traceroute (tracert on Windows)
o Traces the path packets take to reach a
destination.
o Helps identify where the connection fails.
• ipconfig (Windows) / ifconfig (Linux/Mac)
o Displays IP address, subnet mask, and default
gateway.
o Example: ipconfig /all for detailed information.
Network Troubleshooting Tools

• nslookup
o Checks DNS resolution.
o Example: nslookup google.com.
• Netstat
o Displays active network connections and ports.
o Useful for identifying open ports or suspicious
activity.
• Network Analyzers (e.g., Wireshark)
o Captures and analyzes network traffic.
o Helps diagnose complex network issues.
Network Troubleshooting Steps

1. Check Physical Connections

o Ensure all cables are securely connected.
o Verify that network devices (routers, switches) are
powered on.
2. Restart Network Devices
o Power cycle the modem, router, or switch.
o Restart the computer or device experiencing the
issue.
3. Verify IP Configuration
o Ensure the device has a valid IP address.
o Use ipconfig or ifconfig to check.
Network Troubleshooting Steps
4. Test Connectivity
o Use ping to test connectivity to the default gateway and
external sites.
o Example: ping 8.8.8.8 (Google’s public DNS).
5. Check DNS Settings
o Ensure the correct DNS server is configured.
o Use nslookup to test DNS resolution.
6. Inspect Network Traffic
o Use tools like Wireshark to analyze traffic for anomalies.
7. Update Firmware and Drivers
o Ensure network devices and adapters have the latest
firmware or drivers.
8. Check for Interference (Wireless Networks)
o Move devices closer to the router.
o Change the wireless channel to reduce interference.
Best Practices for Troubleshooting
• Start Simple
o Begin with basic checks (e.g., power, cables) before moving
to complex solutions.
• Use a Systematic Approach
o Follow a step-by-step process to avoid missing potential
causes.
• Document Everything
o Keep a record of issues, tests, and solutions for future
reference.
• Stay Calm and Patient
o Troubleshooting can be frustrating, but a calm mindset helps
in identifying the root cause.
• Leverage Online Resources
o Use forums, knowledge bases, and official documentation for
guidance.
END OF LESSON 1