1.

Square wave generator using op-amp

A square wave generator is an electronic circuit, which generates a square wave. The operational
amplifier-based square waveform generator is a simple circuit that is widely used in function
generators. The circuit for the Square wave generator is designed using 741 op amp.

The Square Wave Generator Using Op amp means the astable multivibrator circuit using op-
amp, which generates the square wave of required frequency. The Fig. 2.83 shows the square wave
generator using op amp.

It looks like a comparator with hysteresis (schmitt trigger), except that the input voltage is replaced
by a capacitor. The circuit has a time dependent elements such as resistance and capacitor to set
the frequency of oscillation.

As shown in the Fig. 2.83 the comparator and positive feedback resistors R 1 and R2 form an
inverting schmitt trigger.
When Vo is at +Vsat, the feedback voltage is called the upper threshold voltage VUT and is given
as

When Vo is at -Vsat, the feedback voltage is called the lower-threshold voltage VLT and is given as

When power is turn ON, Vo automatically swings either to +Vsat or to -Vsat since these are the only
stable states allowed by the schmitt trigger. Assume it swings to +Vsat. With Vo = +Vsat we have –
Vp = VUT and capacitor starts charging towards +Vsat through the feedback path provided by the
resistor Rf to the inverting (-) input. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.84 (a). As long as the capacitor
voltage VC is less than VUT, the output voltage remains at +Vsat.

As soon as VC charges to a value slightly greater than VUT, the (-) input goes positive with respect
to the (+) input. This switches the output voltage from +Vsat to -Vsat and we have Vp = VLT , which
is negative with respect to ground. As Vo switches to -Vsat, capacitor starts discharging via Rf, as
shown in the Fig. 2.84 (b).

The current I – discharges capacitor to 0 V and recharges capacitor to VLT. When VC becomes
slightly more negative than the feedback voltage VLT, output voltage Vo switches back to +Vsat. As
a result, the condition in Fig. 2.84(a) is reestablished except that capacitor now has a initial charge
equal to VLT. The capacitor will discharge from VLT to 0V and then recharge to VUT, and the process
is repeating. Once the initial cycle is completed, the waveform become periodic, as shown in the
Fig. 2.84(c).
 2. Triangular wave generator using op-amp
We have seen that, the output of integrator is a Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp
if its input is a square wave. This means that a Triangular Wave Generator Using Op amp
can be formed by simply connecting an integrator to the square wave generator as shown
in the Fig. 2.85.

Basically, triangular wave is generated by alternatively charging and discharging a

capacitor with a constant current. This is achieved by connecting integrator circuit at the
output of square wave generator. Assume that V’ is high at +Vsat. This forces a constant
current (+Vsat/R3) through C (left to right) to drive Vo negative linearly. When V’ is low at
-Vsat, it forces a constant current (-Vsat/R3) through C (right to left) to drive Vo positive,
linearly. The frequency of the triangular wave is same as that of square wave. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2.86. Although the amplitude of the square wave is constant (± Vsat), the
amplitude of the triangular wave decreases with an increase in its frequency, and vice versa.
This is because the reactance of capacitor decreases at high frequencies and increases at
low frequencies.
It consists of a square wave generator (A) and an integrator (B). The output of square wave
generator A is a square wave of amplitude ± Vsat and is applied to the inverting (-) input
terminal of the integrator B. The output of integrator is a triangular wave and it is feedback
as input to the comparator A through a voltage divider R2 R3.

To understand circuit operation, assume that the output of square wave generator A is at +
Vsat . This forces a constant current (+ Vsat/R1) through C to give a negative going ramp
at the output of the integrator, as shown in the Fig. Therefore, one end of voltage divider is
at a voltage +Vsat and the other at the negative going ramp. When the negative going ramp
reaches a certain value -Vramp, the effective voltage at point p becomes slightly below 0V.

As a result, the output of square wave generator A switches from positive saturation to
negative saturation (-Vsat). This forces a reverse constant current (right to left) through C
to give a positive going ramp at the output of the integrator, as shown in the Fig. 2.89.
When positive going ramp reaches + Vramp, the effective voltage at point p becomes
slightly above 0V. As a result, the output of square wave generator A switches from
negative saturation to positive saturation (+Vsat). The sequence then repeats to give
triangular wave at the output of integrator B.
 3. Sawtooth wave generator using op-amp
The sawtooth wave is a kind of linear, non-sinusoidal waveform. It is so named based on
its resemblance to the teeth of a saw. The shape of this waveform is triangular in which the
fall time and rise time are different. It can also be considered the extreme case of an
asymmetric triangular wave. The graphical representation of a sawtooth waveform is given
below:

Fig.1- Sawtooth waveform

A sawtooth wave ramps upward and then sharply drops whereas in an inverse (or reverse)
sawtooth waveform the wave suddenly ramps downwards and then rises sharply.

Fig.2- Sawtooth waveform generator

A sawtooth waveform is used in pulse width modulation circuits and time-base generators.
A potentiometer is used when the wiper moves toward negative voltage(-V); then the rise
time becomes more than the fall time. When the wiper moves towards positive
voltage(+V), then the rise time becomes less than the fall time.

When the comparator output goes negative saturation, a negative voltage is added to the
inverting terminal, thereby the wiper moves to a negative supply. This causes a decrease
 in the potential difference across R1 and hence current through the capacitor and resistor
decreases.

Then the slope decreases and rise time also decrease. When the comparator output is under
positive saturation, the potential difference across the R1 increases and current through the
capacitor resistor also increases. This is due to the presence of a negative voltage at the
inverting terminal. Then the slope increases and fall time decreases. And the output is
obtained as a sawtooth waveform.

Applications of Sawtooth Waveform

1. A sawtooth wave's spectrum contains both even and odd harmonics of the fundamental
frequency. Because it contains all the integer harmonics, it is one of the best waveforms to use for
subtractive synthesis of musical sounds, particularly bowed string instruments like violins and
cellos, since the slip-stick behavior of the bow drives the strings with a sawtooth-like motion.

2. The sawtooth wave is the form of the vertical and horizontal deflection signals used to generate
a raster on CRT-based television or monitor screens.

3. Oscilloscopes also use a sawtooth wave for their horizontal deflection, though they typically use
electrostatic deflection.

4. Sawtooth waves are used in signal processing applications, such as filtering and modulation, in
various electronic systems.