Biology is the study of living organisms and how they interact with one another and how they

interact with
their environment. The two main branches of biology are:
1. Botany: the study of plants.
2. Zoology: the study of animals.
These two branches can then be subdivided into;
3. Microbiology: the study of microorganisms.
4. Anatomy: the study of the internal structure of living organisms.
5. Ecology: the study of interactions of organism with each other and their environment.
6. Biochemistry: the study of chemical reactions that occur in living organisms.
7. Entomology: the study of insects.
8. Genetics: the study of inheritance. Plus many others.
Characteristics of living organisms
Living organisms display the following characteristics that distinguish them from non-living things:
1. Reproduction: this is the process by which living organisms produce their young ones (offspring).
2. Growth and Development: growth is the permanent and irreversible increase in size of an organism.
Development is the process of change that occurs during an organism’s life, producing a more complex
and efficient organism.
3. Feeding/ Nutrition: this is the process by which living organisms obtain food.
4. Respiration: this is release of energy from food.
5. Excretion: this is the removal of toxic metabolic wastes from the body of an organism.
6. Sensitivity: this is the ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment. All living organisms
respond to stimuli but not in the same way. A stimulus is any change in the environment which causes a
response from any organism.
7. Locomotion: this is the movement of an entire organism from one place to another. Only animals are
capable of carrying out locomotion.

Comparison between plants and animals

Animals Plants
Are heterotrophic; they depend on plants and other Are autotrophic; they are able to make their own
animals for food. food.
Are able to move from place to place. Do not move from place to place because they are
rooted in the soil.
Lack chlorophyll. Have chlorophyll.
Response to stimuli is fast since they have receptors. Response to stimuli is slow as it involves growth.
Have specialised excretory organs. Have no specialised excretory organs.

Differences between living organisms and non-living organisms

Non-living things lack characteristics of life. Examples include rocks, water, cars and buildings.
Living organisms Non-living organisms
Feed Do not feed
Respire Do not respire
Reproduce Do not reproduce
Grow and develop Do not grow and develop
Are sensitive to stimulus Do not respond to stimulus
Excrete Do not excrete

Metabolism/metabolic reactions
Metabolism is a set of chemical reactions that take place within cells of living organisms. There are two types
of chemical reactions: anabolic and catabolic reactions.

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Anabolic reactions are chemical reactions where large complex molecules are synthesized from small and
simple molecules e.g. photosynthesis.
Catabolic reactions are chemical reactions where large complex molecules are broken down to simpler
molecules e.g. respiration.
All metabolic reactions are catalysed by enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that function as biological catalysts.

A microscope is an instrument used to magnify small objects. There are two types of microscopes; a light
microscope and an electron microscope. The light microscope shows a simple structure of a cell, while an
electron microscope shows a detailed structure of a cell
Diagram of a light microscope;

Functions of parts of the microscope:

Eye piece (ocular lens): It is used to see the objects under study, it magnifies further the magnification by the
objective lens and makes approximate focus.
Body tube (barrel): connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses, holds the eye piece and objective lenses in
position and it allows light rays to pass from the objective lens to the eyepiece.
Revolving nose piece: it allows the rotation of the lenses while viewing.
Objective lenses: It magnifies the object.
Diaphragm: helps in controlling the amount of light that is passing through the opening of the stage.
Coarse adjustment knob: moves the body tube upwards or downwards for focusing low power lens. It brings
the specimen into general focus.
Fine adjustment knob: moves the body tube upwards or downwards for focusing high power lens. Fine tunes
the specimen and increases the detail of the specimen.
Arm: supports the tube of the microscope and connects to the base of the microscope.
Stage: the platform that is used for placing the slides under observation. It has a hole at the centre (aperture)
that permits light to pass through.
Stage clips: found on the stage and holds the slides in proper place.
Condenser: focuses the light on the specimen under observation from the light source.
Mirror: reflects light rays from the source onto the stage.
Base: provides support for the microscope.

Using the microscope:

1. Place the microscope on the table with the back of the base at least 3 inches from the edge of the table.
2. Clean the objective and eye piece lenses.
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3. Put the lowest objective power lens into position by turning the nose piece.
4. Position the mirror so as to cause light to be reflected onto the stage.
5. Position the prepared slide on the stage. Make sure that the slide is centred over the hole in the middle of
the stage.
6. Secure the slide in place by placing stage clips on the edges of the slide.
7. Use the coarse adjustment knob to bring the lens as close as possible.
8. Start your examination on the specimen using lowest power objective lens.
9. Keep both eyes open while focusing with the coarse adjustment knob.
10. Sharpen the focus using the fine adjustment knob.

Observations made on specimen may be reported in the form of fully labelled drawings depending on the
nature of specimen. The following considerations should be made when drawing specimen and labelling
diagrams:
Drawing
The drawing must be big enough, meaning that it must be at least 6.0cm at its longest point.
The drawing must be clean (no dirty rubbings) and clear (no double and disconnected lines and no shading).
The drawing must be realistic (a true reflection of the specimen provided and not a replica of a text book
diagram).
Labelling
Label as many parts/ structures as possible. Pointer lines must touch the part or structures being labelled on
the diagram and must never cross each other or else the labels may be rejected. Arrowheads are not required
on pointer lines.
Measurements
Unless otherwise instructed, measurement of the specimen size must be taken along the longest part. For
circular specimens, the line passing through the centre must be used.
Measurements must be recorded to one decimal place if in centimetres or no decimal place if in millimetres
e.g. it is correct to record 2.0cm or 20mm but wrong to record 2cm or 20.0mm.

Magnification
Magnification is the number of times the image of the object is enlarged as compared to the specimen.
The formula must be correctly stated as:
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑔
Magnification =
𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
The substitution must be correctly done with identical units in the numerator and denominator.
The final answer for magnification must be written to one decimal place with a multiplication sign (X) or
the word ‘times’ either before or after the magnification and without units.

A cell is a basic functional and structural unit of a living organism.

Basic structure of an animal cell and plant cell

As seen under a light microscope.
Although cells vary in shape and size, they all have general characteristics. All cells have a nucleus, cell
membrane and cytoplasm. These make up the protoplasm. The protoplasm is the living part of the cell.

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Detailed structure of an animal cell
As seen under an electron microscope

Detailed structure of a plant cell

Cells contain organelles. Organelles are sub units of cells suspended in the cytoplasm. These include: nucleus,
mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi bodies, and chloroplast.
Functions of cell parts:
Cell wall: protects the cell against damage, prevents bursting of the cell when it gains a lot of water; offers
support and also gives shape to the plant cell.
Cell membrane (plasma membrane): is responsible for controlling/regulating substances that enter and leave
the cell. This is possible because it is partially/selectively permeable.
Cytoplasm: Organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm and it is a site for chemical reactions.
Nucleus: controls all cell activities e.g. respiration, protein synthesis and cell division. It also stores the genetic
material DNA.
Endoplasmic reticulum: there are two types of endoplasmic reticulum; smooth endoplasmic reticulum and
rough endoplasmic reticulum. The surface of the rough endoplasmic reticulum provides a site for the
attachment of ribosomes; the rough endoplasmic reticulum also transports synthesised proteins. The smooth
endoplasmic reticulum has no ribosomes on its surface, it transports lipids.
Ribosomes: some ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm while others are attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum. The function of ribosomes is to carry out protein synthesis.
Mitochondria: they carry out respiration. For this reason mitochondria are called power houses of the cell.
Golgi bodies: they transport proteins such as enzymes from the sites of synthesis to the sites of reaction within
the cell.
Chloroplast: carry out photosynthesis.
Vacuole (Sap Vacuole): stores cell sap (a solution of salts and sugars) and helps to maintain the shape of the
cell.

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Differences between plant cells and animal cells
1. Plant cells have a cell wall while animal cells have no cell wall.
2. Plant cells have a large permanent vacuole which is filled with cell sap while animal cells lack a vacuole;
if present the vacuole is usually small, temporary and contains food and water.
3. Plant cells have chloroplasts while animal cells lack chloroplasts.
4. Plant cells are more regular in shape due to the presence of a cell wall while animal cells have an irregular
shape.
5. Plant cells are bigger in size while animal cells are smaller in size.

Cell specialisation is a process by which a cell undergoes specific changes in structure and chemical
composition of the cytoplasm in order to perform a specific function. Examples of specialised cells include;
1. Muscle cell

The function of a muscle cell is to produce movement and to maintain posture. Muscle cells contract to produce
movement.
The adaptation of a muscle cell are:
1. It has a lot of mitochondria which release energy for contraction.
2. And the muscle cell contains actin and myosin filaments in the cytoplasm in the muscle cell, actin and
myosin carry out contraction.

2. Red Blood cell

The function of red blood is to transport oxygen to all parts of the body.
Adaptations of red blood cells are:
1. Biconcave disc shape: this increases the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
2. Presence of haemoglobin: haemoglobin has a high affinity (attraction) for oxygen, this makes it easy
to carry oxygen.
3. Absence of nucleus: the absence of nucleus provides more space for haemoglobin.

3. Ciliated cell

These cells are found in the inner lining of the respiratory tract, in the testes and the oviducts. In the respiratory
tract their function is to sweep out mucus containing dust particles and dirt. In the testes they move sperms
before they become motile (before they become capable of moving). In the oviduct their function is to move
the ovum towards the uterus.
The adaptation of ciliated cells is that they have cytoplasmic hairs called cilia.

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4. Nerve cell

The function of nerve cells is to conduct electrical (nerve impulses) to and from the brain and spinal cord.
Adaptations of nerve cells are:
1. Presence of dendrites which collect impulses.
2. Presence of axon which carries impulses from one end of a neurone to another.

5. White blood cells

The function of white blood cells is to defend the body against infections.
There are two types of white blood cells; phagocytes and lymphocytes.
Phagocytes
The function of phagocytes is to defend the body against infection by engulfing and digesting foreign bodies.

Adaptations of phagocytes are:

1. They have a large lobed nucleus which makes engulfing of foreign bodies easy.
2. They have no fixed shape so they are able to change shape which makes engulfing of foreign bodies possible.
3. Amoeboid movement which makes it possible for them to move towards foreign bodies.

Lymphocytes
The function of lymphocytes is to defend the body against infection by producing antibodies and antitoxins.

Lymphocytes have a large nucleus and thin cytoplasm.

6. Sperm cell

The function of a sperm cell is to fertilise an egg cell in order to bring about reproduction.
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The adaptation of a sperm cell are
1. It has a tail which enables it to swim.
2. It also has a lot of mitochondria which provide energy for movement.

7. Root hair cell

The function of root hair cells is to absorb water and mineral salts from the soil.
The adaptations of root hair cells are:
1. It has an elongated outgrowth which increases the surface area for faster diffusion during absorption
of water and mineral salts.
2. Root hair cells have a high concentration of mitochondria to provide energy for absorption of mineral
salts.

8. Xylem cells

The functions of xylem vessels are to provide mechanical support to the plant and to conduct water and mineral
salts from the root to the leaf.
Adaptations of xylem vessels are:
1. Their cell walls are filled with lignin, this helps to provide mechanical support and prevents
collapsing. Lignin also makes the cell wall impermeable, so it waterproofs.
2. Protoplasm is absent leaving a space in the middle of the cell, it is through this space that water and
mineral salts easily flow.

9. Palisade cells

The function of palisade cells is to carry out photosynthesis.

The adaptations of palisade cells are:
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 1. They have a high concentration of chloroplasts which are rich chlorophyll molecules for trapping light
energy for photosynthesis; this increases the surface area for photosynthesis.
2. They have a large vacuole – this restricts chloroplasts to a layer near the outside of the cell where
they can be reached by light more easily.
3. They have a thin cell wall for fast diffusion of gases and easy penetration of light.
4. They are longer vertically than horizontally; this allows chloroplasts to migrate upwards or
downwards as light intensity changes so that they are not damaged by excess light.

10. Guard cells

The function of guard cells is to control the size of the stoma.

The adaptation of guard cells are:
1. That they occur in pairs, this makes it possible for them to regulate the opening and closing of stomata.
2. Their cell walls are thicker around the stoma than anywhere else; this makes it possible for the stoma
to open when the guard cells absorb water.

11. Phloem cells

The function of phloem cells is to transport manufactured food throughout the plant.
The adaptation of phloem cells is that they have companion cells which provide them with energy and all other
requirements.

Tissues
A tissue is a group of cells with similar structures, working together to perform a particular function. Examples
of tissues include; blood, bones, nerves, muscles, phloem, xylem and palisade.
Organs
An organ is a structure made up of a group of tissues, working together to perform a specific function.
Examples of organs include; heart, lungs, kidneys, stomach, brain, liver, eyes, ears, roots, leaves and stems.
System
A system is a group of organs with related functions, working together to perform a particular function.
Examples of systems include; root system, shoot system, circulatory system, respiratory system, nervous

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system, endocrine system, digestive system, excretory system, reproductive system, skeletal system and
immune system.
Organism
An organism is formed by a group of organs and organ systems working together. Examples of organisms
include; a human being, a tree, an ant, an elephant, a dog, a monkey, a goat etc

Substances can cross the cell membrane using three main processes; diffusion, osmosis and active transport.

Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration
down a concentration gradient.
Diffusion occurs in liquids and gases.

Factors affecting the rate of diffusion

1. Concentration gradient: the higher the concentration gradient, the faster the rate of diffusion.
2. Surface area of diffusion surface: the larger the surface area of the diffusion surface, the faster the rate
of diffusion.
3. Thickness of diffusion surface: the thinner the diffusion surface, the faster the rate of diffusion.
4. Temperature: the higher the temperature, the faster the diffusion rate.
5. Size of diffusing particles: the smaller the diffusing particles the faster the rate of diffusion.

Importance of Diffusion in Plants:

1. Carbon dioxide needed by plants for photosynthesis moves from the atmosphere into the leaves by
diffusion.
2. Oxygen produced during photosynthesis moves out of the leaves to the atmosphere by diffusion.
3. Enables translocation (transportation of manufactured food throughout the plant).
4. Water vapour moves out of the air spaces of leaves to the atmosphere during transpiration by diffusion.

Importance of Diffusion in Animals:

1. Oxygen moves from the lungs into the blood and from the blood into the cells by diffusion.
2. Carbon dioxide moves from the cells to the blood and from the blood to the lungs by diffusion.
3. Absorption of digested food from the alimentary canal into the blood stream is by diffusion.
4. Metabolic waste products move from the cells to the blood by diffusion.

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane.
Effects of Osmosis in Living Organisms
Cells of living organisms are always exposed to solutions of different concentrations. There are three types of
solutions an organism may be exposed to; hypertonic solution, hypotonic solution and isotonic solution.

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
A hypertonic solution is a solution with a low concentration of water molecules than the cell. A hypertonic
solution can also be defined as a solution with a higher concentration of solute molecules than the cell.
Any cell placed in a hypertonic solution loses water by osmosis. This is simply because the cell contains more
water molecules than the solution surrounding the cell (hypertonic solution), so water diffuses out of the cell
towards the extracellular fluid.
Effect of hypertonic solution on an animal cell
When an animal cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis. As a result, it shrinks
(decreases in size) and the cell membrane wrinkles and eventually dies.
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*Crenation is the shrinking and wrinkling of an animal cell due to osmotic loss of water.
Effect of a hypertonic solution on a plant cell
When a plant cell is placed in a hypertonic solution, it loses water by osmosis. As a result, its protoplasm
shrinks and pulls away from the cell wall. This results in a state known as plasmolysis. Plasmolysis is the
pulling away of the protoplasm from the cell wall due to osmotic loss of water.

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
A hypotonic solution is a solution that has a higher concentration of water molecules than the cell. A hypotonic
solution can also be defined as a solution with a lower concentration of solute molecules than the cell (or as
a solution that is more dilute than the cell).
Any cell placed in a hypotonic solution will gain water by osmosis. This is because the solution (hypotonic)
contains more water than the cell’s cytoplasm, so water would diffuse into the cell from the extracellular fluid.
Effect of a hypotonic solution on an animal cell
When an animal cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it gains water by osmosis. As a result, it increases in
size and eventually bursts. This condition is called cell lysis. Cell lysis is the bursting of an animal cell due to
osmotic gain of water.

Effect of a hypotonic solution on a plant cell

When a plant cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, it will gain water by osmosis. As a result, the protoplasm
swells and starts pressing against the cell wall. This condition is called turgidity. Turgidity is a condition where
the protoplasm presses against the cell wall due to osmotic gain of water.

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ISOTONIC SOLUTION
An isotonic solution is one whose concentration is equal to the concentration inside the cell. A cell placed in
an isotonic solution will not undergo any change, it remains the same.

Importance of osmosis in animals:

1. Absorption of water by fresh water organisms such as amoeba.
2. Reabsorption of water in the kidney during urine formation.
3. Is applied in food preservation by humans whereby methods such as salting are used to dehydrate disease
– causing pathogens such as bacteria to death.

Importance of osmosis in plants:

1. Helps in absorption of water from the soil by plant roots.
2. Brings about transportation of water and substances dissolved in water within the plant from one cell to
another.
3. Leads to turgidity.
4. Helps in regulation of stomata size by guard cells.
5. It prevents wilting.

Active transport is the movement of molecules from a region of low concentration to a region of high
concentration against the concentration gradient. Active transport is the main process by which mineral salts
move into the plant roots.

An enzyme is a protein that functions as a biological catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a
chemical reaction without itself being changed by the reaction. Enzymes catalyse reactions both within the
cell and outside the cell. Enzymes that catalyse reactions within the cell are called intracellular enzymes.
Enzymes that catalyse reactions outside the cell are called extracellular enzymes.
Characteristics of enzymes:
1. All enzymes are proteins.
2. Enzymes are denatured (damaged) by high temperature.
3. Enzymes are affected by pH.
4. Enzymes are catalysts.
5. Enzymes catalyse both forward and reverse reactions.
6. Enzymes are specific in the type of reactions they catalyse
Enzyme Specificity
For an enzyme catalysed reaction there is an enzyme and a substrate. Enzymes have regions called active sites.
An active site of an enzyme is the region of an enzyme where a substrate fits during an enzyme catalysed
reaction. A substrate is a substance on which an enzyme acts.
The lock – and – key mechanism is one of the theories used to explain enzyme specificity. This theory states
that each substrate fits into the active site of a particular enzyme the same way a key fits into a specific lock.

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The rate of an enzyme controlled reaction depends on temperature, pH, enzyme and substrate concentration,
inhibitors and cofactors (coenzymes and activators).
Temperature
Enzymes work best at optimum temperature. Optimum temperature is the temperature at which an enzyme
works best.
At low temperatures (less than 5°C), the enzymes are inactive and therefore the reaction rate is slow. Enzyme
activity increases with an increase in temperature but only up to the optimum temperature (between 35°C -
40°C). Beyond optimum temperature, enzyme activity reduces because the enzyme becomes denatured.

pH
The pH value at which an enzyme works best is called the optimum pH.
Values lower than the optimum pH lower enzyme activity, at optimum pH enzymes are active, values higher
than the optimum pH lowers enzyme activity because enzymes are denatured by high pH values.

Enzyme concentration

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The rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction increases with increase in the concentration of the enzyme and
remains constant if there are no more substrate molecules for the enzyme to act on.

Substrate concentration
The rate of an enzyme catalysed reaction increases with increase in substrate concentration and remains
constant when all enzyme active sites are occupied by substrate molecules.

Inhibitors
An enzyme inhibitor is any substance that slows down or completely stops enzyme activity. Inhibitors interfere
with the active site by either blocking it or altering it, thus stopping the substrate from binding with the enzyme.
All metabolic poisons are examples of inhibitors.
Cofactors
An enzyme cofactor is any non – protein substance whose presence makes an enzyme active. They include
co-enzymes and activators. Co-enzymes are organic cofactors such as vitamins. Activators are inorganic
cofactors such as mineral salts.

1. In biological washing powders:

Washing powders contain enzymes such as protease, lipase and amylase. These enzymes digest and
remove dirty stains (proteins, fats and carbohydrates) of plant and animal materials from clothes.
2. In brewing:
The enzymes in yeast convert the sugar in barley seeds to alcohol and carbon dioxide during fermentation
(a form of respiration).
3. In baking:
The enzymes in yeast break down the sugars in wheat (flour) to carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide forms
bubbles which make the dough (a mixture of flour, water and yeast) to rise.
4. In dairy industry:
The enzyme rennin is used to coagulate (clot) milk during yoghurt and cheese production.
5. Tanning of leather:
Tanning is a process by which leather is made soft and pliable (bend easily without breaking or cracking).
The enzyme trypsin is used to digest proteins in the leather during tanning.
6. In extraction and processing of fruit juice:
The enzyme pectinase is used to extract fruit juice from fruits.
7. In pharmaceutical industry:
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 Enzymes are used in the pharmaceutical industry to manufacture antibiotics such as penicillin.

Nutrients are components in foods that an organism utilises to grow and survive.

Nutrients can be classified into 7 groups, these include; carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, mineral salts,
water and roughage.

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Sources of carbohydrates include; wheat,
cassava, potatoes, rice, honey, fruits and nshima. There are three (3) types of carbohydrates; monosaccharides,
disaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates and make up the building blocks of carbohydrates. All
monosaccharides are soluble in water, have a sweet taste and are reducing sugars. A reducing sugar is a sugar
that can reduce Cu2+ ions to Cu+ ions. Examples of monosaccharides include; glucose (found in honey),
fructose (found in fruits) and galactose (found in milk).

Disaccharides are sugars formed of two monosaccharides chemically combined by condensation. A

condensation reaction is a type of chemical reaction in which a water molecule is released. Examples of
disaccharides include; lactose (found in milk), maltose (found in germinating seeds) and sucrose (found in
sugar canes, beetroots and onions).
𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑓𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒 → 𝑠𝑢𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑔𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒 → 𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 → 𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑡𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Disaccharides have a sweet taste and are soluble in water. All disaccharides except sucrose are reducing sugars.
Sucrose is a non – reducing sugar.

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made of more than two monosaccharides chemically combined
by condensation. Examples include; starch, cellulose, glycogen and chitin. Starch is a storage form of glucose
by plants. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate found in cell walls of plant cells. Glycogen is the main storage
carbohydrate in animals. Chitin is a structural polysaccharide found in the exoskeleton of arthropods (insects
and animals such as shrimp and lobster) and in walls of fungi.
Polysaccharides are insoluble in water and are not sweet.
Uses of carbohydrates
1. Provide energy e.g. glucose.
2. Serve as energy storage compounds e.g. starch and glycogen.
3. Serve as structural compounds e.g. cellulose and chitin.

Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and in some cases, sulphur and phosphorus.
Amino acids are building blocks of proteins. Both plants (soya beans, groundnuts, beans and peas) and animals
(fish, meat, liver, milk, cheese, eggs and caterpillars) are sources of proteins. Proteins are insoluble in water
and are denatured by heat and pH.
Uses of proteins
1. Structural proteins are used in the formation of cell membranes, blood vessels, tendons, cartilage, muscles,
skin, hair and nails.
2. Used in the formation of enzymes, hormones, antibodies and haemoglobin.
3. They are used for growth of new tissue and repair of cell components.
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4. They are a source of energy.

Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The most common lipids are fats and oils. Oils are
liquid at room temperature while fats are solid at room temperature. Lipids are insoluble in water but soluble
in alcohol. Glycerol and fatty acids are building blocks of lipids.

Sources of lipids include; butter, margarine, animal fat, ground nuts and cooking oil.
Uses of lipids
1. Used in the formation of cell membranes.
2. Fats (adipose layer) under animal skin act as insulators; hence they prevent heat loss from the body.
3. They act as an energy source for the body.
4. They act as shock absorbers.

Vitamins are organic compounds required in small quantities. They are required for the regulation of metabolic
functions of the body. There are two types of vitamins; water soluble vitamins (those that dissolve in water –
vitamin B and C) and fat soluble vitamins (those that dissolve in fats – A, D, E and K). Water soluble vitamins
are not stored in the body, while fat soluble vitamins are stored in the liver.
Vitamin Food source Importance
A (Retinol) Fish, liver, carrots, eggs, green Used in formation of the eye pigment rhodopsin,
vegetables maintenance of healthy skin.
B1 (Thiamine) Grains, eggs, beans, potatoes, Forms part of coenzymes involved in carbon dioxide
meat, milk, fish removal.
B2 Milk, eggs, meat, beans, green Forms part of coenzymes required in tissue respiration,
(Riboflavin) vegetables needed for proper growth of hair, skin and nails.
B12 Red meat, dairy products, fish, Coenzymes in formation of red blood cells.
(Cobalamine) liver, eggs
C (Ascorbic Citrus fruits, vegetables, Formation of cement in teeth, offers resistance to
acid) tomatoes infections, formation of connective tissues of the body.
D (Calciferol) Milk, egg yolk. It is also formed Increases absorption of calcium, promotes bone
under the skin when exposed to formation, for strong and healthy teeth and bones.
the sun.
E Margarine, seeds, green Protects fatty acids and cell membranes.
vegetables.
K Green vegetables, liver, egg Important in blood clotting.
yolk, cabbage
*vitamin C is destroyed by heat.

Water is made up of hydrogen and oxygen. Water makes up about 60 – 70 % of body weight. Sources of water
include; vegetables, fruits and water.
Uses of water
1. It is a medium for transport of nutrients round the body.
2. It is a universal solvent in which substances dissolve for transport purposes.
3. It is a component of body fluids such as saliva and blood.
4. It prevents constipation.
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5. Cooling of the body through sweating when temperature rises.

Mineral salts are needed in the normal functioning of the body as they are needed for several metabolic
activities. Mineral salts are absorbed into the body in form of ions (charged particles formed when an atom
gains or loses an electron). They include; calcium, iron, iodine, phosphorus, fluoride and nitrogen.
Mineral Source Importance
Calcium Milk, cheese, eggs, meat, Development of teeth and bones, promotes blood clotting,
fruits, green vegetables helps in proper muscle contraction.
Phosphorus Fish, eggs, milk, cheese, meat, Formation of bones, synthesis of proteins, formation of ATP
green vegetables and nucleic acids
Fluoride Fluoride tooth paste and Makes the enamel (outer layer of teeth) resistant to decay.
fluoridated water.
Iron Egg yolk, liver, meat, Needed for form of haemoglobin (red blood pigment).
vegetables
Iodine Iodised salt, sea foods Important in the synthesis of the hormone thyroxin.
Nitrogen Eggs, fish, ,milk, meat Important in the synthesis of proteins

Roughage is mainly comprised of cellulose. Roughage is indigestible; it adds bulk to faeces and stimulates
peristalsis along the alimentary canal and there by prevents constipation.
The importance of roughage is to stimulate peristalsis, prevent constipation and to absorb water (absorption
of water makes faeces softer).

Food tests are carried out to determine what nutrients are contained in a particular food substance.
Chemical Procedure Explanation
test
Starch test If the sample is in solid/ powder form; A black colour confirms the presence of starch
place the sample on a tile, then add 2 drops while brown colour indicates absence of starch.
of Iodine solution.
If the sample is in solution; place 2cm3 of *if starch powder is used, it should be mixed
sample solution into a clean test tube. Add with warm water to make a suspension.
2 drops of iodine solution to the test tube
and shake.
Reducing Place 2cm3 of sample solution in the test Solution remains blue, reducing sugar is
sugar test tube. Add 2 cm3/ an equal volume of absent.
Benedict’s solution to the sample and Solution turns green/ yellow/orange/ brick red,
shake. Gently heat the mixture using a reducing sugar is present.
water bath or over a Bunsen flame.
Protein test Place 2cm3 of sample solution in a test If solution remains blue, proteins are absent.
tube. Add an equal volume of Biuret If solution turns purple or violet, protein is
solution. present.
Fat test Shake a sample solution with 2cm3 If solution remains clear, fats / oils absent.
ethanol in a test tube. Add a few drops of Emulsion formed or solution turns cloudy, fats/
distilled water to the test tube. oils present.

These are caused by lack of particular food nutrients or when food nutrients are inadequately supplied in the
diet. Deficiency diseases can be referred to as malnutrition. Malnutrition is a condition that results from eating

16
a diet in which nutrients are either not enough or are too much such that the diet causes health
problemsExamples of under nutrition include; goitre, rickets, night blindness, anaemia, scurvy, marasmus,
kwashiorkor, haemophilia, pellagra, beri beri.
Obesity is an example of over nutrition.
Deficiency disease Cause
Obesity Is caused by accumulation of fat beyond a certain limit.
Goitre Caused by lack of iodine in the diet.
Rickets Caused by lack of vitamin D in the diet.
Night blindness Caused by lack of vitamin A in the diet.
Anaemia Caused by lack of iron and vitamin B12 in the diet.
Scurvy Caused by lack of vitamin C in the diet.
Marasmus Caused by lack of carbohydrates and proteins in the diet.
Kwashiorkor Caused by lack of proteins in the diet.
Haemophilia Caused by lack of vitamin K.
Pellagra Caused by lack of vitamin B2.
Beri beri Caused by lack of vitamin B1.

A diet is the type, quality and quantity of food. A balanced diet is one that contains all the essential nutrients
in the correct proportions to maintain health / depending on the sex, age or activity. Dietary needs depend on
age, sex, state of health and occupation.
1. Age and nutritional needs:
A growing child needs a balanced diet, but they need more protein, carbohydrate, calcium, vitamin D, iron
and vitamin A than a grown up person. Proteins are needed for the formation of new cells and repair of worn
out tissues and cells. Carbohydrates are needed to provide energy to carry out metabolic processes as they are
actively growing. They need Calcium and vitamin D for growing bones. Iron for their red blood cells. They
need vitamin A for disease resistance.
Aged people require a balanced diet, but they need more vitamins and more proteins. They need Vitamins to
help boost immunity. They need Proteins to replace worn out tissues and cells.
2. Sex and nutritional needs:
Energy requirement in males is higher than in females. This is because the basal metabolic rate in males is
higher than in females. Basal metabolic rate is the rate at which the body uses energy when at complete rest.
Basal metabolic rate in males is higher because there is continuous sperm production in males, so they need
more energy.
3. Occupation and nutritional needs:
The kind of activity one engages in determines the nutrients required by the body. For instance; individuals
who engage in vigorous activities such as those in construction industry and manual workers need more
carbohydrates in their diet than those who work in offices. They need carbohydrates for energy, due to
increased physical activity. They need proteins for repair of worn out tissues.
4. Nutritional needs of a pregnant and lactating woman:
She needs proteins, calcium, iron, vitamin D, carbohydrates for the healthy development of the foetus. The
baby needs protein for making its tissues, calcium and vitamin D for bone development, iron is used to make
haemoglobin a component of red blood cells, carbohydrates for energy. She also needs roughage to prevent
constipation. She also needs water to prevent dehydration. A pregnant woman should avoid alcohol, smoking
and caffeine as they are linked to causing abortions and low birth weight.
Lactation is the production of breast milk for feeding the baby. A lactating woman needs to increase her intake
of proteins, vitamins and calcium to produce milk of adequate quality and quantity.
5. Nutritional needs of a sick person:
When a person falls ill, dietary needs rise as one is recovering. Dietary needs vary depending on the nature of
the disease. But all in all the diet should have enough proteins to repair damaged cells and to replace dead
17
cells. Enough carbohydrates and fats for energy and to help the sick person gain lost weight. Enough fluids to
replace water lost due to sickness. And enough vitamins to help boost the immune system.

Plants require several nutrients in order to grow properly. Plants synthesise carbohydrates by photosynthesis,
but they also need other nutrients like calcium, sulphur, proteins, and fats and so on. These nutrients are
absorbed from the soil by the roots in form of ions.
There are two groups of elements needed for plant growth; major (macro) nutrients and minor (micro)
nutrients. Major elements are required by plants in large quantities, they include; nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium. Minor nutrients are needed by plants in small quantities, they include; magnesium, sulphur,
calcium, boron, copper and iron.
Nutrient Function Deficiency
Nitrogen Synthesis of proteins, chlorophyll and enzymes. Stunted growth, weak stems and
yellowing of leaves.
Phosphorus Formation of nucleic acids and ATP. Purple leaves and poorly developed
roots.
Potassium Formation of flowers and fruits, synthesis of cell Poor flower and fruit formation.
membranes, enzyme activator, regulates osmotic
balance.
Magnesium Synthesis of chlorophyll. Chlorosis (yellowing of leaves.)
Sulphur Formation of proteins, and is needed in the Weak slender stems and chlorosis of
activation of certain enzymes. leaves.
Calcium Formation of cell walls of root and shoot tips. It Poor root and shoot development
is also a component of the middle lamella.
Boron Influences uptake of calcium ions and controls Inhibition of shoot growth and root
utilisation of carbohydrates. elongation.
Copper Enzyme synthesis, needed in photosynthesis and Reduced rates of respiration and
respiration. photosynthesis.
Iron Synthesis of chlorophyll. Chlorosis of leaves

Nutrition is the process by which an organism obtains food for use in the body.
There are two major types of nutrition: autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition. Autotrophic nutrition
is the type of nutrition in which organisms synthesise their own food. Heterotrophic nutrition is the type of
nutrition in which organisms consume already made food.
Plants are able to synthesise their own food by a process known as photosynthesis. For this reason they are
called autotrophs. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants make glucose from carbon dioxide and water
in the presence of light energy. Photosynthesis takes place in leaves (chloroplasts).

The leaf stalk (petiole) acts as a channel for water and mineral salts from the stem to the leaf and for
manufactured food from the leaf to the stem. The lamina is the flat part of the leaf, it provides a surface area

18
through which light and carbon dioxide can be absorbed. Veins deliver water and mineral salts to the leaf from
the stem and carry the products of photosynthesis from the leaf to the stem.

The upper epidermis allows light to pass through and acts as a barrier to disease organisms (fungi and bacteria);
protecting the inner layers of the leaf. The lower epidermis also acts as a protective layer, it contains epidermal
cells such as guard cells and subsidiary cells, it also houses the stomata (stoma – singular); hence it is the site
for gaseous exchange.
The cuticle is made of wax. It waterproofs the leaf; it helps prevent evaporation of water from the leaf. The
cuticle is transparent for easy penetration of light.
The palisade mesophyll contains palisade cells while the spongy mesophyll contains spongy cells. The palisade
cells in the palisade mesophyll layer contain many chloroplasts, they are tightly packed, are located near the
top of the leaf and are arranged vertically. Palisade cells are the main region of photosynthesis because they
contain many chloroplasts. Spongy cells contain chloroplasts but not as many as palisade cells, they are
spherical and fit loosely together, leaving airspaces between them; these air spaces facilitate gaseous exchange
during photosynthesis.
Vascular bundles consist of xylem and phloem vessels. Xylem vessels provide mechanical support and
transport water and mineral salts to the leaf. Phloem vessels carry manufactured food away from the leaf.
Guard cells surround stoma; they control opening and closing of stomata. Guard cells contain the least number
of chloroplasts. Stomata carry out gaseous exchange. Guard cells are surrounded by subsidiary cells (accessory
cells). Subsidiary cells offer support to guard cells and act as a buffer to other epidermal cells, protecting them
from expansion of the guard cells.

Adaptation of the leaf for photosynthesis:

1. The lamina is thin and flat; this provides a large surface area for easy penetration of light and for easy
diffusion of gases.
2. Stomata in the lower surface of the leaf allow the exchange of gases (entry of carbon dioxide and exit of
oxygen).
3. Presence of chloroplasts to trap enough light energy for photosynthesis.
4. The leaf stalk holds the leaf, exposing it to as much sunlight as possible.
5. The leaf has a network of veins which supply water and mineral salts to the leaf.
6. Air spaces in the spongy mesophyll allow carbon dioxide to diffuse rapidly to the palisade cells.
7. The cuticle prevents excessive water loss.
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Factors necessary for the process of photosynthesis to take place include; light energy, carbon dioxide, water
and chlorophyll. Light energy is captured by chlorophyll from the sun, carbon dioxide is absorbed by the
leaves from the atmosphere by diffusing through stomata, water is obtained from the soil by the roots and
transported through the xylem vessels to the leaves and chlorophyll is readily available in the chloroplasts.

Experiments to investigate factors necessary for photosynthesis:

1. Experiment to show that chlorophyll is necessary for photosynthesis
 Destarch a well-watered potted plant which has variegated leaves (a leaf that has chlorophyll only in
patches) by placing it in the dark for at least 24 hours.
 Place the potted plant in sunlight for 4 – 6 hours.
 Remove the leaf and test the leaf for starch

The result is that only parts of the leaf that were previously green turn blue with iodine.

The conclusion is that chlorophyll traps light energy required for photosynthesis. Areas that had
chlorophyll had starch confirming photosynthesis occurred. Areas that lacked chlorophyll did not trap
light energy and photosynthesis did not take place hence absence of starch.
2. Experiment to show that light is necessary for photosynthesis
 Destarch a well-watered potted plant in the dark for 24 hours.
 Cut a simple piece of aluminium foil to make a stencil and attach it to a destarched leaf. Aluminium
foil acts as a light proof material. Covering the leaves with aluminium foil will prevent light from
reaching the leaf.
 Place the plant in sunlight for 4 – 6 hours. This is to allow photosynthesis to take place.
 Remove the leaf and test it for starch.
The result is that only areas that received light will go blue with iodine.

20
 The conclusion is that light is needed during photolysis. Light energy is used to split water molecules into
oxygen and hydrogen ions. The exposed part of the leaf carried out photosynthesis while the covered part
did not hence the absence of starch in the part that was covered.
3. Experiment to show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis
 Water two destarched potted plants and enclose their shoots in polythene bags (transparent plastic
bags).
 In one potted plant place a dish of soda lime or sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide to absorb
carbon dioxide from the air. In the other potted plant place a dish of sodium hydrogen carbonate to
produce carbon dioxide.
 Place both potted plants in sunlight for 4 – 6 hours, so that photosynthesis can take place.
 Test a leaf for starch from each potted plant.
The result is that the leaf that had no carbon dioxide does not turn blue while the one from the polythene
bag containing carbon dioxide turns blue.

In conclusion, carbon dioxide is needed in the dark reaction stage to combine with hydrogen and form
glucose. The leaf exposed to carbon dioxide carried out photosynthesis and hence had starch.
*a leaf smeared with Vaseline will not carry out photosynthesis as stomata are blocked and carbon
dioxide does not diffuse in.

Photosynthesis occurs in two stages; light reaction stage and dark reaction stage.
Light reaction stage:
The light reaction stage is dependent upon light. Light energy is trapped by chlorophyll in the chloroplast and
converted to chemical energy. The chemical energy is used to split the water molecules into hydrogen and
oxygen by a process called photolysis. Some of the oxygen is used for respiration and the rest is given off to
the atmosphere. Hydrogen is carried forward to the dark reaction stage.

Dark reaction stage:

The dark reaction stage does not involve light but rather it involves the use of enzymes and is temperature
dependant. Hydrogen combines with carbon dioxide to form glucose.
Oxygen and glucose are the products of photosynthesis. Some oxygen is used for respiration while some of it
is released to the atmosphere. The glucose is distributed by the phloem to the rest of the plant by translocation.
Before glucose is distributed, it is first converted into sucrose. Glucose is converted to sucrose before
transportation because it is metabolically active (soluble and quite reactive.
Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis:
Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis include; light intensity, availability of water, concentration of
carbon dioxide and temperature.

21
1. Light intensity:
The greater the light intensity, the higher the rate of photosynthesis and vice versa. This increase is only up to
a certain maximum point when other factors become limiting. A limiting factor is something present in the
environment that restricts life processes.

2. Availability of water:
The more water molecules are available, the more hydrogen ions are produced and the faster the rate of
photosynthesis and vice versa.
3. Concentration of carbon dioxide:
Increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of photosynthesis until other factors become
limiting.

4. Temperature:
The rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in temperature until the optimum temperature is reached.
The optimum temperature is reached between 35 – 40 °C, beyond this temperature the rate decreases. This is
because the enzymes become denatured.

Fate of glucose in plants:

1. The glucose is broken down during respiration to release energy
2. Some of the glucose is converted to starch and stored in storage organs such as roots, stems, leaves and
fruits.
3. Some of the glucose may be used for synthesis of cell walls, lipids and proteins.

22
Importance of photosynthesis:
1. It provides food for all life forms, directly or indirectly.
2. It maintains a balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by using carbon dioxide from
animals and producing oxygen for animals.
Application of photosynthesis in green houses:
A green house is an enclosure with walls of transparent glass or plastic where plants are grown. Green houses
are designed to control the balance of temperature, moisture and light to suit the growth requirements for
plants. These factors make a greenhouse more productive than an open of land. The knowledge on limiting
factors may be used in supplying light, carbon dioxide and temperature by artificial methods in a green house.
Plant storage organs:
The food manufactured by plants is converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are usually stored in seeds
e.g. in sunflower and groundnuts. Starch is stored in modified organs such as:
1. Root tubers: this is a fibrous root swollen with stored food e.g. sweet potatoes.
2. Stem tubers: this is an underground stem swollen with stored food e.g. Irish potatoes.
3. Bulbs: these are underground fleshy leaves e.g. onion.
4. Rhizomes: this is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger.
5. Corms: this is a swollen underground vertical stem e.g. crocus.
6. Seeds: this is a sexually produced structure containing a plant embryo and its food store protected by a
testa.

This is the type of nutrition in which organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter. Organisms that
feed this way are called saprophytes. Saprophytes obtain their food from the substrate on which they are
growing.
Saprophytes reproduce asexually and sexually.
Asexual reproduction in some saprophytes
Asexual reproduction occurs when conditions are favourable. In asexual reproduction, the cells of the
sporangium divide to form new spores. The spores are dispersed by air currents and can start to grow when
they land on a suitable substrate (food in a warm and dark place is the most suitable substrate). The spores
grow new hyphae which develop into a mycelium.
Sexual reproduction in some saprophytes
Sexual reproduction occurs when conditions are unfavourable for asexual reproduction. For example, when
it is cold or the food source is depleted. During sexual reproduction, two stolons of sexually different strains
grow towards each other until the tips of the stolons unite. The nuclei join and develop a zygospore, the
zygospore then enlarges and then germinates when conditions are favourable giving rise to a new mycelium.

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Saprophytes play a major role of decomposing. Examples of saprophytes include; fungi (moulds and
mushrooms) some bacteria and yeast. Examples of moulds include Rhizopus and mucor.
Structure of mucor and Rhizopus

The bodies of mucor and Rhizopus are made of threads called hyphae. Tips of hypha secrete enzymes which
digest the food on the substrate on which the saprophyte is growing. Hyphae are hollow tubes containing
cytoplasm; they may also contain a vacuole. The cytoplasm contains organelles and is also a storage structure
for lipids. The outer wall of hypha is made of cellulose or chitin or both.
A mass of hyphae are called mycelium. Horizontal hyphae are called stolons. Root like hyphae are called
rhizoids. Rhizoids penetrate into the organic matter, they also offer support to the organism and secrete
enzymes at the tips. The enzymes digest organic matter and absorb the digested nutrients.
Hyphae that bear spore cases (sporangia) are called sporangiophores. Each spore case contains numerous
spores. Spores are microscopic structures produced asexually which are capable of germinating under
favourable conditions.

Digestion in saprophytes
In saprophytes digestion is extracellular as it occurs outside the cells. The hyphae penetrating the substrate
secrete extracellular digestive enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. The enzyme
protease breaks down proteins to amino acids, amylase breaks down carbohydrates to glucose and lipase
breaks down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol. The digested nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and
glycerol) are then absorbed by hyphae and are used for growth and repair.

Importance of saprophytic nutrition:

1. Saprophytes decompose dead organic matter, thereby preventing accumulation of dead bodies.
2. Saprophytes play a role in recycling nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen.
3. Some saprophytes such as mushrooms are used as food.
4. Some saprophytes such as yeast are used in brewing and baking.
5. Some saprophytes are used in (dairy industry) production of cheese and yoghurt.
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6. Moulds such as penicillin are used in the production of antibiotics.

Other forms of nutrition include symbiosis, amensalism and commensalism.

Amensalism is any association between organisms of different species in which one organism is inhibited or
destroyed while the other organism remains unaffected.
Commensalism is an association between two organisms in which one organism benefits while the other
organism neither benefits nor is harmed.
Symbiosis is a close association between two or more organisms that live together and benefit from the
association. Examples of symbiosis include parasitism and mutualism.
Parasitism is a feeding relationship in which an organism completely depends on the other. Parasites are of
two types; ectoparasites and endoparasites. Ectoparasites live and feed on the outer surface of the host e.g. a
tick. Endoparasites stay and feed from inside the body of the host e.g. worms
Mutualism is a relationship between two organisms of different species where both organisms benefit.

Heterotrophic nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organisms consume already made food. Heterotrophic
nutrition is mainly found in animals. Examples of heterotrophic nutrition include; holozoic nutrition,
phagocytosis, parasitism and saprophytism.
Holozoic nutrition is the type of nutrition which involves ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion. Phagocytosis is a mode of feeding in single celled organisms.

Dentition refers to the type, number and arrangement of teeth in the mouth of an animal. Teeth are bone-like
structures found in the mouth. There are four types of teeth; incisors, canines, premolars and molars.

External structure of teeth:

Incisors are chisel shaped (sharp-edged). They are used for cutting and biting off pieces of food.
Canines are pointed and sharp. They are used for tearing flesh, for killing prey and for carrying young ones in
carnivorous animals.
Premolars are broad and ridged. They are used for grinding and crushing food.
Molars are like premolars but are bigger. They are used for crushing and grinding food. The projections on
top of premolars or molars are called ridges or cusps.

25
Internal structure of a tooth

Each tooth has a part that grows above the gum called the crown, the part found in the gum called the neck
and the part below the gum called the root. The gum is the tissue that overlays (covers) the jawbone. Incisors
and canines usually have one root while premolars and molars have two or three roots.

Enamel: it protects the inner tissues of the tooth against wear and tear; it is also used as the biting and grinding
surface.
Dentine: provides support to the enamel.
Pulp cavity: contains blood vessels and nerves. The nerves make the tooth sensitive to stimuli such as
temperature, pH and pressure. The blood vessels supply the tooth with food and oxygen and remove metabolic
wastes.
Cement: it enables the tooth to grip to the socket in the root.
Jaw bone: has sockets in which the roots of teeth are embedded.
Gums: the gum is the flesh which holds the teeth firmly together.

DENTAL FORMULA
Dental formula shows the number and type of teeth in half of the upper and lower jaw of a mammal. For
example;

Dentition in relation to diet

Dentition in carnivores:
Carnivores are animals that feed on flesh or other animals e.g. lion, cat; dog etc. Incisors are relatively small.
Canines are very long and pointed to enable them to tear flesh and suffocate prey. They have large premolars
(last upper premolar) and molars (first lower molar) called carnassial teeth. Carnassial teeth have sharp
cutting edges; they are used to slice meat.

Dentition in omnivores:

26
Omnivores are animals that feed both on flesh and vegetation e.g. human being. The dentition of omnivores
is not specialised for any kind of diet.

Dentition in herbivores:
Herbivores are animals that feed on vegetation e.g. sheep, goat. Incisors and canines are absent in the upper
jaw, they are replaced with a horny pad known as a diastema. The diastema manipulates food by separating
the freshly eaten food from the one that is already being chewed. Incisors are sharp for tearing plants. The
molars area strong and flat, designed to grind food.

Dental diseases
Dental diseases are caused by bacteria. The common dental diseases are; tooth decay and gum disease.
Gum (periodontal) disease
Gum disease is caused by improper cleaning of teeth and gums and lack of vitamin C. Plaque is the main cause
of gum disease; if bacterial plaque is not removed regularly, it spreads down the tooth into the narrow gap
between the gum and enamel. Here it causes inflammation which leads to redness and bleeding of gums when
brushing teeth. If the spread of bacteria progresses, the fibres holding the tooth in the jaw are destroyed so the
tooth becomes loose and falls out or has to be pulled out.

Tooth decay (dental carries)

Tooth decay is caused by too much of sweet foods, lack of calcium and poor mouth hygiene. Bacteria on the
tooth surface feed on sugar left on the teeth, as the bacteria respire they produce an acid (lactic acid) which
dissolves (demineralise the tooth) calcium salts in the tooth enamel. The enamel is gradually dissolved and
eventually exposes the dentine. The dentine is softer than the enamel so it is rapidly dissolved exposing the
pulp cavity and forming a cavity.

Dental care
Dental care involves brushing teeth regularly, visiting the dentist regularly and eating a diet that promotes
good health of teeth. Dental care is important because it prevents dental diseases and bad breathe.

Prevention of dental diseases:

1. Using fluoride toothpaste regularly.
2. Brushing teeth regularly to remove plaque.
3. Avoid sugary food so bacteria cannot produce acid as they feed on carbohydrates left on the teeth.
4. Use dental floss or toothpicks to remove food particles from teeth.
5. Regular medical check-up by dentist to make sure dental disease are detected early enough.
6. Taking foods rich in calcium, phosphorus and vitamin C and D.

27
Holozoic nutrition is the type of nutrition in which organisms ingest, digest, absorb, assimilate and egest.
Ingestion is the intake of food into the body through the mouth. Digestion is the breakdown of large complex
food molecules into simple soluble ones. Absorption is the uptake of soluble food into the blood stream.
Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of food into the metabolic activities of cells. Egestion is the
removal of indigestible food materials from the body of an organism.
All these processes involved in holozoic nutrition are carried out in different parts of the alimentary canal.

THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL

The alimentary canal is a tube running from the mouth to the anus. The inside of the alimentary canal is lined
with layers of cells forming the epithelium. There are cells in the epithelium that produce mucus. Mucus
lubricates the lining of the alimentary canal and protects it from wear and tear. Mucus also protects the lining
from attack by digestive enzymes which are released into the alimentary canal.

Functions of main parts of the alimentary canal:

Mouth:
The mouth is responsible for ingestion of food, mechanical digestion by teeth (this increases the surface area
for the action of enzymes and makes food easy to swallow) and chemical digestion of carbohydrates by

28
salivary amylase and formation of bolus for swallowing. As the food is chewed (mastication) it is mixed with
saliva which softens the food, dissolves the food (water in saliva softens and dissolves food), lubricates the
food (mucus in saliva lubricates the food) and starts up carbohydrate digestion. A bolus is a ball of food.
Epiglottis:
The epiglottis closes the tracheal opening when swallowing so it prevents food from entering the trachea (wind
pipe) and causing one to choke.
Oesophagus (gullet):
The oesophagus transfers food from the mouth to the stomach by peristalsis. Peristalsis is the alternate
contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles in a wave like manner to move food along the
alimentary canal.
Stomach:
The stomach temporarily stores food, produces gastric juice, mixes up (churning) the food forming a chyme
and digests proteins. Gastric juice contains pepsin, hydrochloric acid and renin. Pepsin (protease) is for
chemical digestion of protein. Hydrochloric acid kills bacteria and provides an acidic environment for the
enzyme pepsin. Renin coagulates milk.
Pancreas:
The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains
enzymes (lipase, protease and amylase) and sodium hydrogen carbonate. Enzymes digest food (lipids, proteins
and carbohydrates) while sodium hydrogen carbonate neutralises the acidic chyme from the stomach and
provides an optimum alkaline pH for enzymes of the duodenum.
Liver:
The liver makes bile. Bile contains bile salts, bile pigments and sodium hydrogen carbonate. Bile salts emulsify
fats. Emulsification is the breaking down of large fat droplets into tiny ones with a large surface area to make
digestion by enzymes more efficient. Bile pigments have no digestive function but add colour to faeces
Gall bladder:
The gall bladder temporarily stores bile made by the liver and secretes it into the duodenum via the bile duct.
Small intestine:
The small intestine carries out digestion and absorption. It is made up of three parts; the duodenum, the jejunum
and the ileum, in that order. Digestive juices (bile and pancreatic juice) are emptied into the duodenum by the
gall bladder and pancreas respectively.
Large intestine:
The large intestine is made up of the colon and the rectum. The colon absorbs water form undigested food.
The rectum temporarily stores faeces. The anus empties the rectum.

Digestion is the breakdown of large complex food molecules into simple soluble ones. There are two types of
digestion; mechanical (physical) digestion and chemical digestion. Mechanical digestion is the physical
breakdown of food e.g. chewing, emulsification. Chemical digestion is the breakdown of food into simpler
molecules by enzymes.
Digestion occurs in three regions of the alimentary canal; in the mouth, in the stomach and in the small
intestines.

Digestion of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are digested by salivary amylase in the mouth and by pancreatic amylase in the small intestine.
Amylase works best in a neutral or slightly pH. Digestion by salivary amylase is partial as the food is in the
mouth for a very short period of time. Pancreatic amylase completes carbohydrate digestion in the small
intestine, converting the carbohydrates to glucose.

Digestion of Proteins
Proteins are digested in the stomach and in the small intestine. In the stomach pepsin breaks down proteins to
peptides. In the small intestine peptides are digested by protease enzymes converting them to amino acids.

29
Digestion of Fats
Digestion of fats takes place in the small intestines. Once the food reaches the duodenum, the bile is secreted
by the gall bladder; the bile salts emulsify the fats. The emulsified fats are then worked on by lipase converting
the fats to fatty acids and glycerol.

Summary of digestion;
Food type Site of digestion Enzyme responsible Final product
Carbohydrate Mouth and small intestine Amylase (salivary and Glucose
pancreatic)
Protein Stomach and small Protease (pepsin and Amino acids
intestine trypsin)
Fats Small intestine Lipase Fatty acids and glycerol

Absorption is the uptake of digested food nutrients into the bloodstream. Absorption of digestive end products
(glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol) occurs in the ileum (small intestine). Some vitamins and all
mineral salts are absorbed in the ileum through diffusion and active transport. The ileum is efficient for
carrying out absorption for the following reasons:
 It is very long thereby providing a large surface area for absorption.
 It has many villi (finger like projections); this further increases the surface area for absorption.
 Villi have a thin epithelium for efficient diffusion of food.
 Each villus has a dense network of blood capillaries for absorption and transportation of amino acids and
glucose.
 Each villus has a lacteal which absorbs and transports fatty acids and glycerol.
Longitudinal section through a villus;

The epithelium has goblet cells which make mucus. Glucose and amino acids are absorbed across the
epithelium of the villi by active transport and diffusion. They then pass via the capillary network to the hepatic
portal vein to the liver. From the liver, they are distributed to other body parts or converted to suitable storage
forms.
The veins unite to form one large vein, the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein carries all blood from
the intestines to the liver. From the liver, the nutrients that are required immediately by different tissues are
transported out of the liver and distributed to other body parts while the excess are converted to suitable storage
forms.
Fats and glycerol recombine to form fats in the intestinal epithelium, these then pass into the lacteals of villi.
The fluid in the lacteals flows into the lymphatic system, which forms a network all over the body and
eventually empties its contents into the bloodstream.

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Assimilation is the usage and incorporation of food into the metabolic activities of cells.
1. Glucose
Glucose is mainly used for respiration. If it is in excess, the excess is converted to glycogen by the liver and
stored in the liver and muscle cells. Further excess is converted to fat and stored as the adipose tissue under
the skin and are also stored around delicate organs such as the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, brain and intestines.
2. Amino acids
Amino acids are used in the synthesis of proteins. They are also used in the growth and repair of worn out
tissues and cells. Excess amino acids are deaminated by the liver. Deamination is the removal of the amino
group (-NH2) of an amino acid converting it to urea. The remaining part of the amino acid is then converted
to a carbohydrate.
3. Fats
Fats are used in the synthesis of cell membranes. Fats stored under the skin as adipose tissue insulate the skin
against heat loss. Some fats are stored around delicate organs and protect against mechanical damage. Fats are
also used as an energy source when carbohydrates in the body are low.

The liver is the largest internal organ in the human body. The liver has the following functions:
1. Regulation of blood sugar level; the liver converts excess glucose to glycogen and vice versa.
2. Deamination of excess amino acids.
3. Bile production.
4. Detoxification; the liver breaks down toxic materials to less toxic substances.
5. Stores fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E & K).
6. Stores iron.
7. Excretion of bile pigments.
8. Destruction of old red blood cells.
9. Synthesis of plasma proteins.
10. Source of heat.

Common ailments of the liver:

1. Liver Cirrhosis: hardening of liver tissue resulting from excessive alcohol intake.
2. Hepatitis: inflammation of the liver resulting from infection of hepatitis virus.

These diseases can affect the proper functioning of the liver.

Common ailments of the alimentary canal

1. Diarrhoea: this is the passing of watery stool, resulting in dehydration and loss of mineral salts from the
body. It is caused by bacterial or viral infection, for example from consumption of contaminated food and
water.
2. Constipation: difficult in defecation as a result of insufficient water and roughage in the diet.
3. Stomach ulcers: may result from overproduction of pepsin and hydrochloric acid which may destroy the
lining of the stomach.
4. Piles (haemorrhoids): this is a condition where the veins in the rectum become swollen and eventually
burst causing pain and blood stained stool. It may be caused by frequent constipation.

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Gaseous exchange is the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) across a respiratory surface. A
respiratory surface is the part of an organism through which oxygen enters the body. Gaseous exchange occurs
by diffusion.
Breathing is the muscular movement which keeps the respiratory surface supplied with oxygen. Breathing
involves two stages; inspiration (inhalation) and expiration (exhalation).
Characteristics of respiratory surfaces:
1. Large surface area: to maximise the exchange of gases (to allow a lot of oxygen to diffuse and carbon
dioxide to diffuse out at the same time).
2. Moist surface: to make it easy for gases to dissolve before they can diffuse across the surface.
3. Thin surface (one cell thick): to minimise the distance of diffusion so that there is faster diffusion of
gases.
4. Close to a transport system: to transport gases to and from respiratory surface, this will maintain a
constant diffusion gradient for the gases.
5. Should have a good oxygen supply: breathing ensures there is a constant supply of oxygen.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN INSECTS

In insects gaseous exchange is carried out through the tracheal system, it occurs across the walls of tracheoles.
Tracheal system of an insect;

The tracheal system consists of a network of tubes (trachea). Trachea open to the outside through pores called
spiracles located on the sides of the abdomen and thorax. Trachea then divide into smaller tubes called
tracheoles. Tracheoles go into the muscles and tissues of insects.
Oxygen from the atmosphere directly diffuses into the insect through the spiracles, into the trachea and
eventually into the tracheoles. Oxygen then diffuses across the tracheole membrane into the tissues of the
insect and carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Small insects normally do not make breathing movements, however, large and active insects such as bees and
grasshoppers make breathing movements by pushing their abdomens in and out. During inspiration, the
abdomen expands so as to draw air in; air goes in through the spiracles. During expiration, the abdomen
contracts so as to squeeze air out; air goes out through the spiracles.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN FISH

Gaseous exchange in fish occurs across the surface of gills (gill filaments). Fish use oxygen dissolved in water.
Structure of a gill;

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Gills are located in the gill chamber (opercular cavity), covered by a flap of skin called the operculum (gill
cover). The operculum protects the gill and controls movement of water. Gill bar supports the gill filaments
and gill rakers. Gill rakers remove solid particles from the water before it passes over the gills. Each gill
filament has structures known as lamellae where gaseous exchange takes place. Lamella contains blood
capillaries.
Water flows in through the mouth, over the gills and out through the operculum. Gaseous exchange takes place
as water moves over the gills. Oxygen from the water diffuses into the blood capillaries of the filaments while
carbon dioxide diffuses out into the water.
During inspiration, the floor of the mouth is lowered, the mouth is opened as a result the space inside the
mouth is increased and water flows into the mouth of the fish. The operculum remains closed.

During expiration, the floor of the mouth is raised, the mouth is closed as a result the space inside the mouth
is reduced, the operculum opens and water is forced out passed the gills.

In human beings gaseous exchange takes place in the alveoli. Alveoli are air sacs found in the lungs. The
respiratory system takes air to the lungs.
The human respiratory system;

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Air travels from the nose or mouth to the lungs by air passages; pharynx – larynx – trachea – bronchus –
bronchiole – alveoli. It is always better to breathe through your nose because the structure of the nose allows
the air to be warm, moist and filtered before it gets to the lungs. Hairs in the nose trap dirt and dust. Blood
vessels below the nasal epithelium warm the air. Cilia cells in the epithelium trap dirt and dust particles.
Part of the lining of respiratory passages;

Air is brought to the lungs through breathing. Breathing involves inspiration and expiration.

Inspiration
During inspiration, the muscles of the diaphragm contract pulling the diaphragm downwards, external
intercostal muscles contract while internal intercostal muscles relax pulling the ribcage upwards and outwards.
These movements increase the volume of the lungs, this reduces the air pressure in the lungs (as compared to
atmospheric pressure), and as a result air flows into the lungs.

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Expiration
During expiration, the muscles of the diaphragm relax pulling the diaphragm upwards; internal intercostal
muscles contract while external intercostal muscles relax dropping the ribcage downwards and inwards. These
movements decrease the volume of the lungs; this increases the air pressure in the lungs (as compared to
atmospheric pressure), and as a result air is squeezed out of the lungs.

Gaseous exchange in the alveolus

The air we breathe in eventually ends up in the alveoli of the lungs. Gaseous exchange takes place in the
alveoli (they are respiratory surfaces). They have thin walls with a moist surface; they are also covered by a
network of blood capillaries.

The lining of the alveoli is covered by a film of moisture. The concentration of oxygen in the blood is lower
than in the alveolus, so the oxygen in the alveolus dissolves in the film of moisture and diffuses through the
epithelium, the capillary wall and into the blood; the carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveolus
and is expelled.
Composition of inspired and expired air:
Gases Inspired air Expired air
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon dioxide 0.03% 4%
Nitrogen 78% 78%
Water vapour Variable Saturated
Other gases Traces Traces
35
Effects of pollutants on health of human beings
Pollution is the addition of harmful substances to the environment. Pollutant is a substance that pollutes the
environment. Causes of pollution include: cigarette smoke, dust and so on.
Cigarette smoke is one of the air pollutants that affect the health of human beings. It contains 3 major toxic
substances; nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide. Nicotine is addictive. Carbon monoxide reduces the capacity
of blood to transport oxygen; leading to breathlessness, headache and suffocation in human beings, it also
increases the amount of cholesterol in the blood vessels.
Tar is responsible for causing respiratory diseases such as; bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.
Bronchitis: this is the inflammation of the air passages. Tar immobilizes cilia, causing mucus to accumulate
in the air passages. As a result, the germs in the mucus infect the lining of the air passages reducing the amount
of oxygen reaching the lungs.
Emphysema: this is the weakening and bursting of the alveoli. Tar weakens and irritates the alveoli. The
irritation causes coughing which makes the alveoli burst. Emphysema reduces the surface area available for
gaseous exchange.
Lung cancer: this is uncontrolled or abnormal division of cells in the lungs. Tar is a cancer causing agent.
Other respiratory diseases include: tuberculosis, asthma and influenza.

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Plants require gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) for photosynthesis and respiration. Gaseous exchange in
plants occurs in the stomata, the spongy layer facilitates quick diffusion of gases. During the day
photosynthesis and respiration are taking place, in the night only respiration is taking place.
When photosynthesis is actively taking place during the day, a plant takes in carbon dioxide and releases
oxygen. At the same time respiration is also taking place. The carbon dioxide produced during respiration is
used for photosynthesis, if it’s not enough; more carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere. The oxygen
produced during photosynthesis is used for respiration and the excess diffuses out through the stomata.
At night when respiration is the only process taking place the plant leaf takes in oxygen from the atmosphere
through the stomata. The oxygen is then used for respiration. The carbon dioxide produced during respiration
is then released into the atmosphere through the stomata.

Respiration is the breakdown of glucose to release energy. Respiration occurs in mitochondria. This type of
respiration is called internal respiration or tissue respiration. There are two types of tissue respiration: aerobic
respiration and anaerobic respiration.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
This is the release of energy from glucose in the presence of oxygen. It occurs in cells of both animals and
plants. This type of respiration produces a lot of energy; 1 glucose molecule produces 32 molecules of ATP;
this is because glucose is completely broken down.

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
This is the release of energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration does not produce a
lot of energy; 1 glucose molecule only produces 2 molecules of ATP; this is because glucose is not completely
broken down. Products in anaerobic respiration differ in different organisms.
1. Alcoholic fermentation:
Fermentation is the conversion of glucose to alcohol and carbon dioxide.

This type of respiration occurs in plants and yeast. Alcoholic fermentation is important in brewing and baking.

36
In yeast, anaerobic respiration occurs by alcoholic fermentation producing energy, alcohol and carbon dioxide.
The reaction is catalysed by the enzyme zymase which is naturally found in yeast. A low amount of energy is
produced because glucose is not completely broken down.

2. Anaerobic respiration in animals:

In animals, lactic acid is produced during anaerobic respiration.

Anaerobic respiration takes place in muscles of animals during vigorous exercise. This is because the extra
energy required by an animal during exercise cannot be generated by aerobic respiration since there is a limited
supply of oxygen by the blood. As a result, lactic acid (C3H6O3) is formed. Accumulation of lactic acid lowers
blood pH, makes a person feel tired, causes muscular fatigue leading to cramps (so muscles cannot contract
anymore and it also causes fainting.
As muscles respire anaerobically an oxygen debt is created. An oxygen debt is the total amount of oxygen
needed to break down lactic acid produced during anaerobic respiration. Rapid breathing after exercise helps
to repay the oxygen debt. The breathing rate will not retain to normal until all the lactic acid has been used up.

The energy released from respiration is not used immediately but it is used to synthesize ATP (Adenosine
Triphosphate). ATP is an energy rich molecule; hence it provides an instant source of energy to the cells.

Formation of ATP
ATP is formed by combining ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) with inorganic Phosphate (Pi). When energy is
needed, ATP breaks down to ADP and inorganic phosphate, releasing energy in the process.

Not all the energy released by respiration is stored as ATP, some of it escapes as heat. In fact, most animals
use the heat from respiration to keep their bodies warm.
Importance of ATP
1. Stores energy; not all the energy produced during respiration is needed by the cells; ATP stores energy
and releases or makes the energy available when it is needed.
2. ATP avoids wasting of energy; by storing energy in ATP molecules, the cell can use small quantities of
energy as required.

Differences between aerobic and anaerobic respiration:

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration
Uses oxygen Does not use oxygen
A lot of energy is produced Less energy is produced
Alcohol is not produced Alcohol is produced
Lactic acid is not produced Lactic acid is produced in animals
Carbon dioxide produced in both plants and Carbon dioxide is produced in plants only
animals
Water is produced Water is not produced
Glucose is completely oxidised Glucose is partially oxidised

Similarities between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration:

1. Energy is released by breakdown of glucose
37
2. ATP is made
3. Some energy is lost as heat

Importance of respiration:
1. Release of energy; the energy released during respiration is used for cell division, muscular contractions,
growth, repair of worn out cells, transportation of substances, protein synthesis, maintenance of a constant
body temperature and so on.
2. Production of carbon dioxide; the carbon dioxide produced is used as a raw material during
photosynthesis.
3. Removal of oxygen from the air; aerobic respiration uses up oxygen in the air, this reduces the
concentration of oxygen in the air, this helps prevent rusting and in a way burning.

Industrial application of respiration:

1. Brewing: when brewing, germinating seeds containing maltose are used. Yeast respires anaerobically.
The enzyme zymase in yeast acts on the sugars converting the sugars to alcohol and carbon dioxide. The
alcohol is removed from the mixture by distillation.
2. Baking: when baking bread, flour is mixed with water to make dough. Yeast is added to the dough, zymase
from yeast breaks down glucose as it respires, converting it to carbon dioxide and alcohol. As the carbon
dioxide leaves the mixture, it makes the dough rise making the bread soft.
3. Dairy: lactose in milk is converted to lactic acid when bacteria respire anaerobically. The sour milk is
separated into curds (the solid substance which forms when milk turns sour) and whey (the watery part of
sour milk). The curds are exposed to bacterial action to make cheese. Whey is treated to make butter.
4. Sewage treatment: anaerobic bacteria convert faeces and urine in the sewage to harmless substances.
Aerobic bacteria then respire and convert the harmless substances to carbon dioxide and nitrogen salts.

Health is a state of physical and mental well-being. Good health is a state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being. Good health is not just the absence of disease; it depends on well-balanced diet, proper
exercise and healthy mental activities

DISEASES
A disease is any physical or mental disorder that interferes with normal functioning of the body and has a
characteristic set of signs and symptoms. A sign is any indication of disease which can be observed or
measured e.g. rash, a high temperature and loss of weight. A symptom is any indication of a disease that can
only be felt and described by a patient e.g. headache and other kinds of pain, nausea and dizziness.
Diseases can be categorised as: infectious disease (transmittable diseases) and non - infectious (non –
transmittable diseases).

INFECTIOUS DISEASE (PATHOGENIC DISEASES)

Infectious diseases are diseases that can be transmitted from one person to another. Infectious diseases are also
called pathogenic diseases because they are caused by micro – organisms called pathogens. Pathogens are
disease causing organisms. Pathogens include: viruses, bacteria, fungi, worms and protozoa. Methods by
which infectious diseases are spread include:
1. Through vectors: A vector is an organism that transmits a pathogen from one organism to another.
Vectors can either carry pathogens on their body surfaces (e.g. houseflies) or inside their bodies (e.g.
mosquitoes). Most vectors are insects.
2. Inhalation of infected air droplets: A number of respiratory diseases are spread when a healthy person
inhales infected droplets released into the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Examples of
such diseases include tuberculosis, pneumonia, influenza, measles and diphtheria.
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3. Taking contaminated food or water: Transmission by this method occurs for diseases such as cholera,
typhoid, dysentery, intestinal worm infections and hepatitis.
4. Contact with infected water: Transmission by this method occurs for diseases such as bilharzia and hook
worms.
5. Contact with infected organisms: Transmission by this method occurs for diseases such as ringworms
and athlete’s foot.
6. Sexual intercourse: Gonorrhoea, syphilis and AIDS are sexually transmitted during unprotected sexual
intercourse.
Incubation period is the length of time from entry of the pathogen to the appearance of symptoms of the
disease. Incubation period varies from one type of pathogen to another; it may be a few hours or several days.
Pathogens harm us in different ways. Some may attack and destroy cells, while others release toxins in our
blood stream.
The following table summarises the causative agents, signs, symptoms, methods of transmission and methods
of control of selected pathogenic diseases;

Disease Causative Signs and Methods of transmission Treatment and

agent symptoms methods of control
Bilharzia It is caused Anaemia, fatigue, Exposure to larvae in water. Sanitary disposal of
(schistosomiasis) by a worm pain in lower When a person contacts water urine and faeces;
schistosoma abdomen, blood in infected with larvae (either by boiling or treatment
urine and faeces. bathing or drinking) they of water before use;
penetrate the skin and are carried treatment with drugs.
in the blood stream.
Malaria Caused by a Headache; fever; Bite by an infected female Treatment with anti-
protozoan anaemia; pain in anopheles mosquito. The female malarial drugs;
called muscles and joints; anopheles mosquito becomes controlling or killing
plasmodium. shivering and infected when it feeds on human of, mosquitoes;
sweating. blood containing the preventing mosquito
plasmodium, which develops and bites.
migrates to the salivary glands of
the mosquito and enter the human
body when the mosquito bites
and injects saliva into the human
before sucking blood.
Cholera It is caused Vomiting and The cholera bacteria are passed in Proper sewage
by a diarrhoea (rice stools, or vomit of patients with disposal; washing
bacterium water like stool); the disease. Transmission is hands after using the
called vibrio dehydration; normally through ingestion of toilet; boiling or
cholerae. abdominal pain. contaminated food and water; chlorination of
through vectors such as drinking water;
houseflies. warming and
covering of food;
quarantine of
patients; educating
people about the
dangers of the
disease; treatment
with antibiotics and
rehydration of salts
and water.

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HIV and AIDS
AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). HIV
replicates (multiplies) in the white blood cells, weakening the immune system leading to AIDS.

Methods of HIV transmission

1. Through sexual intercourse (unprotected sex) with an infected person.
2. Mother to child transmission – during child birth and breast feeding. The virus can be transmitted through
exchange of fluids during child birth and in the process of breast feeding.
3. Contact with infected blood – through a blood transfusion from an infected donor.
4. Sharing unsterilized instruments (piercing utensils and syringes) with infected people.
5. Health workers who are not properly protected may come into contact with blood and other body fluids
that can infect them with the virus.

Treatment/prevention and control

1. Abstinence
2. Screening of blood before blood transfusion.
3. Prevention of mother to child transmission using drugs like ARV (Antiretroviral) drug.
4. Use of condom by infected people to prevent reinfection.

Safe sexual practices

These include:
1. Abstinence from sex.
2. Proper use of condoms
3. Visit voluntary counselling and testing centres in order to know ones status so that one can stay healthy or
if sick, seek medical treatment.

Causes of stigma to people living with HIV and AIDS

Stigma is the unfair disapproval of something. Stigma causes shame to individuals who are HIV positive.
Causes of stigma include:
1. Fear of death and fear of infection.
2. Myths.
3. Lack of support from friends and family members; some HIV positive people suffer rejection by friends
and family both at work, at home and at school.
4. Lack of information on available services; people feel they can be infected through casual contact, many
people believe that people with HIV and AIDS are immoral or irresponsible.
5. Lack of support groups – these would help receive support from relatives and the society at large.

Ways of reducing stigma

1. Education is the best tool to reduce stigma; people can offer to volunteer their time to educate people about
discrimination against people living with HIV and AIDS.
2. Support people living with HIV and AIDS by encouraging them to practice safe sex, eat a healthy diet,
avoid alcohol and smoking.
3. Physical care: medical treatment using ARVs.
4. Giving them a well-balanced diet.
5. Counselling them to stop behaviour that could worsen their condition.
6. Clinical care: follow up check-ups for treatment of opportunistic diseases.
7. Emotional care
8. Offer financial assistance.
NON – INFECTIOUS DISEASES
These are diseases that cannot be passed from one individual to another. They are divided into:

40
a. Nutritional deficiency diseases: these are caused by lack of food nutrients. For example; kwashiorkor,
marasmus and rickets.
b. Genetic (inherited) diseases: these are passed from parents to their offspring through reproduction. For
example; sickle cell anaemia, haemophilia, albinism and Down syndrome.

IMMUNITY
Immunity is the ability to resist attack by disease causing microorganisms due to the presence of antibodies in
the blood. Antibodies are proteins used by the immune system to destroy or neutralize pathogens. Antigens
are toxins produced by pathogens.
There are two types of immunity; active immunity and passive immunity. Active immunity is the type of
immunity in which the body is involved in production of antibodies when it is exposed to antigens. Passive
immunity is the type of immunity in which the body receives ready-made antibodies in order to make it
immune to a particular disease.
Both active and passive immunity can be natural or artificial; can be natural if acquired through natural means
such as getting infected by a disease causing microorganism or breast feeding and can be artificial if acquired
through man-made means such as vaccination or immunisation.

Type of Definition or description Examples

immunity
Natural active This is the type of immunity developed in a A person becomes permanently immune to
immunity person after infection by a disease causing measles or chicken pox if they have
microorganism. suffered from it before.
Artificial This is the introduction of dead or BCG vaccination against tuberculosis,
active weakened germs or antigens into the polio vaccine, cowpox vaccine etc.
immunity bloodstream so as to stimulate production of
(vaccination) antibodies by the body.
Natural This is the type of immunity that occurs For example, from mother to child.
passive when antibodies are passed from another
immunity individual.
Artificial Immune serum containing ready-made Anti-venom or tetanus injections
passive antibodies is injected into the bloodstream
immunity to give temporal protection against a
particular antigen.

Immunity is important for prevention of diseases. Factors that reduce immunity include;
1. Poor diet : a balanced diet ensures one has a good immune system, lack of certain nutrients in the body
affects the immune system; vitamin D deficiency results in poor bone development and as a result a low
number of white blood cells is produced.
2. Development of resistant strains of pathogens: some pathogens may suddenly change the composition
of their genetic material making them resistant to antibodies.
3. Repeated invasions by pathogens: repeated invasion by pathogens weakens the action of antibodies and
ultimately weaken the immune system.
4. Intake of immune depressant drugs: immune-depressant drugs are drugs that suppress or reduce the
strength of the body’s immune system. Immune-depressant drugs weaken the immune system making the
body less resistant to infection.
5. Age : the immunity of an individual declines with age, this is because the lymphatic system fails to produce
enough antibodies.
6. Infection by HIV: HIV replicates (multiplies) in the white blood cells destroying the white blood cells as
a result weakening the immune system leading to AIDS.

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Importance of immunisation
Immunisation is the process whereby a person is made immune or resistant to an infectious disease, typically
by administration of a vaccine.
1. Immunisation protects against harmful infections before they come into contact with them in the
community.
2. It helps prevent the spread of contagious and dangerous diseases.

Life cycle of a housefly

The stages of a housefly life cycle are: egg, larva (maggot), pupa and adult as summarised in the diagram
below;

Eggs are laid in rotting material by the female housefly, the eggs then hatch into larva (maggot) 8 – 24 hours
after being laid, larva feed on rotting material and are able to move. After 4 – 5 days the larva develops into
pupa which is immobile and does not feed. 3 – 4 days later an adult housefly emerges from the pupa case
(puparium).
Houseflies are vectors for pathogens that cause cholera, dysentery and typhoid. These pathogens are carried
on the surface of the body.

Control of houseflies
1. Sanitary disposal of refuse and faeces, this reduces the breeding sites of houseflies.
2. Spraying with insecticide to kill adult flies.
3. Covering pit latrines.
Life cycle of a mosquito
The stages of a life cycle of a mosquito are: egg, larva, pupa and adult as summarised in the diagram below;

Eggs are laid in stagnant water by the female mosquito. The eggs then hatch into larva. Larva can swim and
feed. Larva eventually develops into pupa which is less active. After some time the adult insect emerges from
the pupa case (puparium).
Mosquitoes carry malaria plasmodium inside their bodies.

Control of mosquitoes (in order to control malaria)

1. Draining all stagnant pools of water to eliminate eggs, larvae and pupae.
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2. Spraying stagnant water with insecticides and oil. Insecticides kill eggs, larvae and pupae. Oil blocks
oxygen supply from eggs, larvae and pupae, thereby killing them.
3. Biological control – use of fish that feeds on mosquito larvae and pupae.
4. Use of insecticides – treated mosquito nets to trap and kill adult mosquitoes.
5. Clearing of bushes and tall grass where adult mosquitoes normally live.
6. Physical killing of adult mosquitoes.

Transport is the movement of materials within bodies of living organisms.

Structure of a typical flowering plant:

A typical flowering plant has a root system below the ground and a shoot system above the ground. The shoot
system consists of an upright stem with leaves and buds. A bud is an undeveloped or an embryonic shoot that
develops into a shoot, leaves or flowers. Buds can either lateral or terminal buds. Lateral buds (buds on the
side of the stem) grow into branches. Terminal bud (bud at the tip of the shoot) continues the upward growth
of the stem. A node is the region of the stem from which leaves and buds arise. The internode is the region of
the stem between two nodes.

Root System:
There are different types of root systems, they include: fibrous root system, tap root system and adventitious
root system.

Tap root:
A tap root is a single main root with smaller lateral roots growing from it e.g. carrots and cassava.

43
Fibrous root:
Fibrous roots are several main roots with lateral roots e.g. grass.

Adventitious root:
These are roots that grow straight from the stem e.g. onions.

Vascular bundles
The transport system in flowering plants is called a vascular system (vascular bundles). A vascular system
consists of xylem and phloem vessels.

Xylem vessels

Xylem conducts (transports) water and mineral salts from the roots to other parts of the plant and supports the
plant mechanically. Xylem vessels run from the roots, through the stem and branch into every leaf.
Xylem vessels have no cytoplasm or nuclei to create space for transportation of water and mineral salts. Cell
walls of xylem vessels are made of lignin and cellulose which help to keep plants upright.

Phloem vessel

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Phloem transports manufactured food from the leaves to all parts of the plant. Phloem vessels contain strands
of cytoplasm but no nucleus.
Each sieve element has a companion cell next to it. Companion cells provide energy needed for the transport
of food substances; they deliver proteins and other nutrients to sieve elements; they also manage the flow of
nutrients through sieve tubes.
Sieve pores allow passage of materials from one sieve element to the next.

Arrangement of vascular bundles in monocots and dicots:

Arrangement of vascular bundles in roots and stem of monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants differs.

Cross section of a dicot root: Cross section of a monocot root:

The epidermis covers and protects other root tissues. The root hair absorbs water and mineral salts from the
soil. The cortex serves as a storage tissue. The endodermis it controls permeability of the root to water. Xylem
vessels transport water and mineral salts from the roots to the rest of the plant and offer mechanical support.
Phloem transports manufactured food.
In dicot roots the xylem is in the centre of the root and is star shaped and phloem is located between the arms
of xylem. Monocot roots have their vascular bundles arranged in a ring.

Cross section of dicot stem: Cross section of a monocot stem:

The epidermis protects the inner layers from mechanical damage and from entry of pathogens. In most stems
the epidermis has pores known as lenticels through which gaseous exchange takes place. The cortex provides
mechanical support, and stores food. In green stems, cortex cells contain chloroplasts and make food by
photosynthesis.
The pith stores water and food substances and supports the stem.
In dicot stems the vascular bundles are arranged in a ring like manner. In monocot stems the vascular bundles
are scattered. Most of the vascular bundles are near the outside edge of the stem. There is no pith. Most
monocot stems do not have cambium; this is because they do not undergo secondary growth.

Water from the soil enters the root hair cells by osmosis. Water then passes across the root from cell to cell,
that is, from the root hair cell, into the cortex, into the endodermis and finally into the xylem vessels.
Mineral salts are absorbed by active transport. The mineral salts are in form of ions dissolved in water in the
soil; they travel to the xylem vessels along with water.
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Water moves up the plant through xylem vessels in a continuous stream known as a transpiration stream.
Transpiration stream can be defined as the movement of water from the soil into the root, through the stem,
into the leaf and finally into the atmosphere through the stomata.
The forces responsible for movement of water in the transpiration stream are; root pressure, capillary action
and transpiration pull.
Root pressure is the pressure created in xylem vessels due to inward flow of water by the roots. This pushes
the water up the xylem vessels.
Capillary action is the movement of water through narrow spaces as a result of cohesive and adhesive forces.
Cohesive forces are attractive forces between like molecules (water molecules). Adhesive forces are attractive
forces between unlike molecules (water and xylem vessels). This enables water to move up the xylem vessel
without breaking.
Transpiration pull is a suction force by which water is drawn up in xylem vessels. Transpiration pull is as a
result of continued transpiration by the leaves. Transpiration pull enables water to move up as a continuous
column from roots to the leaves.
Guttation is the loss of water drops from the tips and margins of leaves.

Transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the surface of the leaves through the stomata into the
atmosphere.
Guard cells control the opening and closing of stomata. This is because their cell walls are thicker around the
stoma than anywhere else.

When water is drawn into guard cells by osmosis, the guard cells become fully turgid causing the thick elastic
inner cell wall to bend and the outer wall to stretch, opening the stomata.
When a guard cell loses water by osmosis, it becomes flaccid causing the stomata to close.
Excessive transpiration can lead to plasmolysis of plant cells causing wilting of the plant. Wilting is a condition
that results when the rate of water loss (transpiration) is greater than the rate of water uptake. Temporary
wilting can be reversed by supplying a plant with water. If wilting is prolonged it leads to death of a plant.
Factors affecting the rate of transpiration
Factors that affect the rate of transpiration include: temperature, light intensity, wind and humidity.
1. Temperature: the rate of transpiration increases with an increase in temperature and vice versa.
2. Humidity: humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere (or the moisture content of the air).
The higher the humidity the lower the rate of transpiration and vices versa.
3. Wind: wind is moving air. The higher the wind speed the greater the rate of transpiration and vice versa.
4. Light intensity: this is the brightness or dimness of light. The higher the light intensity, the higher the rate
of transpiration and vice versa.

Plants can be adapted to reduce the rate of transpiration by having the following features:
 Presence of a thick waxy cuticle.
 Reduced size of leaves (needle shaped leaves).
 Presence of hairs on the lower side of the leaf.

46
 Shedding of leaves.
Measuring the rate of transpiration
The rate of transpiration can be measured using a potometer.

The potometer measures rate of water uptake in a cut shoot. The rate of water uptake in a cut shoot is equal to
water loss by transpiration. The rate of transpiration can be measured by measuring the distance travelled by
the air-water meniscus, because the rate of transpiration is equivalent to the distance travelled by the air bubble
in the capillary tube for a given amount of time.
Importance of transpiration:
1. Allows movement of water in the plant and hence it helps in transportation of substances dissolved in
water around the plant.
2. It creates a transpiration pull and so keeps water moving up the xylem.
3. It maintains turgidity of the cell as a result of continuous water flow into the plant and gives support to the
plant.
4. Transpiration ensures that the air in the atmosphere is not dry and this helps cool the environment, making
it suitable for habitation.

Translocation is the movement of manufactured food from the source to sites of usage and storage through the
phloem. Glucose manufactured during photosynthesis is first converted to sucrose before it is transported
Plant storage organs
The manufactured food is usually converted to starch and oils for storage. Oils are mainly stored in seeds e.g.
groundnuts and sunflower. Starch is stored in modified organs such as root tubers, stem tubers, bulbs, rhizomes
and corms. Seeds of beans and groundnuts store food. Fruits such as watermelon paw paw, mango store food
as sucrose in their fleshy succulent parts.

In humans the transport system is composed of the circulatory system and the lymphatic system. The
circulatory system is the main transport system in humans; It is made of blood vessels the heart and blood.

Blood is a specialised tissue consisting of plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets.

Plasma
Plasma is the liquid part of blood; it is made up of water (90%) and dissolved substances (10%) such as:
dissolved nutrients (glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol, salts and vitamins), metabolic wastes,
hormones, antibodies and plasma proteins (prothrombin, fibrinogen and albumin).

47
Functions of plasma:
1. Provides a medium in which substances dissolve before they are transported.
2. Transportation of dissolved food to all parts of the body.
3. Transportation of metabolic wastes from cells to excretory organs.
4. Transportation of hormones from endocrine glands to target organs.
5. Distribution of heat all around the body.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)

Red blood cells are disc shaped biconcave cells. They are made in made in the bone marrow. The function of
red blood cells is to transport oxygen within the body. Red blood cells are adapted for transportation of oxygen
in the following ways:
1. They are biconcave shaped; this increases the surface area for diffusion of oxygen.
2. They have haemoglobin; oxygen binds to haemoglobin so it can be transported.
3. Absence of nucleus; this creates more room for haemoglobin.
4. They are numerous to increase surface area for diffusion of gases.
5. They have an elastic cell membrane meaning they can squeeze through capillaries which have a diameter
lesser than the red blood cells themselves.

White blood cells (leucocytes)

They are made in the bone marrow and lymph nodes. White blood cells have a nuclei and are bigger than red
blood cells. The function of white blood cells is to fight infection and to clear up dead body cells.
White blood cells defend the body by either producing antibodies or by engulfing (ingesting) pathogens. There
are two types of white blood cells; lymphocytes and phagocytes. Lymphocytes are types of white blood cells
which produce antibodies. Antibodies destroy bacteria and neutralise toxins (antigens) produced by bacteria.

Phagocytes are types of white blood cells which engulf or ingest foreign particles. Phagocytes have a lobed
nucleus which makes engulfing easy. They are also able to move; this makes it possible for them to move
towards pathogens.

Differences between red blood cells and white blood cells

1. Red blood cells are biconcave shaped while white blood cells have no definite shape.
2. Red blood cells contain haemoglobin while white blood cells do not contain haemoglobin.
3. Red blood cells lack a nucleus while white blood cells have a nucleus.
4. Red blood cells transport oxygen while white blood cells defend the body against disease causing
microorganisms.
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Platelets (thrombocytes)
Platelets are small fragments of cells with no nucleus. Platelets are made in the bone marrow. Platelets play
an important role in blood clotting (coagulation). Clotting is important because it prevents excessive bleeding,
entry of disease causing microorganisms, helps maintain blood pressure and initiates the healing process of
damaged tissue.
Mechanism of blood clotting
When platelets are exposed by damaged or injured body tissue, they release an enzyme known as
thromboplastin (thrombokinase). Thromboplastin converts the protein prothrombin into an enzyme thrombin
in the presence of calcium ions (Ca2+) and vitamin K. Thrombin catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen a
soluble protein into fibrin an insoluble protein. Fibrin forms a mesh (net) over the wound. This mesh traps red
blood cells and white blood cells, leading to formation of a clot over the wound.

Functions of blood
Blood has three (3) main functions; transport, defence against disease and regulation of body temperature.
1. Transport;
 Blood transports oxygen to all parts of the body.
 Blood transports carbon dioxide from the cells to the lungs.
 Blood transports nutrients to cells.
 Blood transports hormones.
 Blood transports metabolic waste products from cells to excretory organs.
2. Defence;
Blood defends the body by phagocytosis (phagocytosis is the engulfing and digesting of pathogens and
other foreign particles) and production of antibodies which destroy or neutralise the antigens.
3. Regulation;
Blood helps to regulate body temperature by distributing heat.

There are four (4) types of blood groups; Group A, Group B, Group AB and Group O. These letters denote
the type of antigen present on the surface (cell membrane) of red blood cells. The following table shows the
antigens and antibodies present in each of the four blood groups.

Blood Group Antigen Antibody

A A b
B B a
AB A&B None
O None a&b

Blood transfusion
Blood transfusion is the transfer of blood from one individual called a donor to another called a recipient. For
a blood transfusion to be successful the blood of the donor has to be compatible with the blood of the recipient.
Blood group compatibility refers to the capacity of a blood recipient to receive the donors blood without
leading to agglutination or clumping of the blood being received. Agglutination is the clumping of red blood
cells bound together by antibodies. Any blood groups that have different antigens are incompatible.
Blood group compatibility table;

Recipient Donor
A B AB O
A + - - +
B - + - +
AB + + + +
O - - - +
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Key;
+ compatibility
- Incompatibility
Blood group AB is a universal recipient because it has no antibodies to react with the donor’s blood. Since
there are no antibodies, a transfusion from any blood group will not cause agglutination of donor red blood
cells.
Blood group O is a universal donor because it has no antigens to react with the recipient’s blood, hence there
will be no agglutination of blood.
A person can receive blood from another person of the same blood group without complications arising.

Before a blood transfusion is carried out, it is important to screen blood. Blood screening is the testing of blood
in order to determine the blood group and check for diseases such as hepatitis B and HIV. Checking for HIV
and hepatitis B is important so as to avoid transmission of pathogens by blood donors. Checking for the blood
group is important to prevent agglutination of blood.

Rhesus factor
If you have the Rh antigen on the surface of your red blood cells, you are said to be Rh positive (Rh +). If you
don’t, you are said to be Rh negative (Rh-). a b antibodies are always present in the blood, whereas Rh
antibodies are produced only when foreign Rh antigens enter the body.
Rhesus factor is important because it causes haemolytic diseases of new born and incompatibility blood
transfusions. When one parent is Rh+ (father) and the other is Rh- (mother) serious complications can arise in
a foetus or a baby. If some of the blood of the foetus enters the mother’s blood stream during pregnancy
through a miscarriage or placental tearing at the time of birth, the mother’s blood starts producing anti-Rhesus
antibodies. These antibodies remain in the mother’s blood and if the mother conceives another Rh+ foetus, the
antibodies will cross the placenta and attack the blood of the foetus, the antibodies will agglutinate foetal red
blood cells. At the time of birth, the child will suffer from haemolytic disease. A disease in which the baby is
anaemic and the skin appears yellow (jaundice). Haemolytic disease may lead to death if the baby does not
receive a blood transfusion soon after birth. Any subsequent pregnancies are miscarried.

Blood disorders in humans include; leukaemia, sickle cell anaemia and haemophilia.
Leukaemia is cancer of the blood caused by increased production of immature white blood cells. These
immature cells cannot carry out their normal functions. Leukaemia can be inherited or caused by
environmental factors. Environmental factors such as exposure to ionising radiation, exposure to benzene,
smoking and exposure to pesticides.
Sickle cell anaemia is a hereditary disease caused by abnormal haemoglobin, as a result the red blood cells are
sickle shaped instead of biconcave shaped. Sickle cell anaemia reduces the ability of the body to transport
oxygen.
Haemophilia is a hereditary genetic disorder that impairs the body’s ability to control blood clotting. As a
result, a person bleeds for longer periods than normal due to poor clotting of blood.

The function of the heart is to pump blood around the body. Walls of the heart are made of cardiac muscles,
these muscles contract and relax throughout one’s life.
Structure of the heart;

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The heart is divided into four chambers; atria (left and right upper chambers), ventricles (left and right lower
chambers). The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs and the left side of the lungs pump blood to
the rest of the body.
The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body through the vena cava. The left atrium
receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary vein.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. The left ventricle pumps blood to
all parts of the body except the lungs via the aorta. The left ventricle has a thicker wall as compared to the
right ventricle because the left ventricle pumps blood under high pressure to all parts of the body while the
right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs which is a shorter distance.
The septum completely separates the left and right chambers of the heart. The separation ensures that
oxygenated blood on the left does not mix with deoxygenated blood on the right.
Semi – lunar valves are found at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery. Semi – lunar valves prevent the
backflow of blood into the ventricles.
Tricuspid valves are found between the right atrium and right ventricle. Tricuspid valves prevent the backflow
of blood from the right ventricle into the right atrium.
Bicuspid (mitral) valves are found between the left atrium and left ventricle. Bicuspid valves prevent the
backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium.
Tendons attached to the valves, control the opening and closing of the valves. Tendons also prevent valves
from being turned inside out.
On the outside of the heart are blood vessels called coronary vessels. Coronary arteries supply nutrients and
oxygen to heart muscles. Coronary veins carry waste products from the muscles of the heart and empty the
deoxygenated blood into the vena cava.

Functioning of the heart

A heart beat is the regular contraction and relaxation of the cardiac muscles. A heart beat consists of systole
and diastole. Systole is the contraction of cardiac muscles. Diastole is the relaxation of cardiac muscles.

Atrial systole
Atrial systole is the contraction of muscles of the atria squeezing blood into the ventricles.
During atrial systole, the muscles of the atria contract, the bicuspid and tricuspid valves open while the semi
– lunar valves close. The ventricles relax and blood flows from the atria into the ventricles.

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Ventricular systole
Ventricular systole is the contraction of muscles of the ventricles squeezing blood out of the ventricles into
the arteries.
During ventricular systole, the muscles of the ventricles contract while muscles the atria relax, the bicuspid
and tricuspid valves close while the semi – lunar valves open and blood is pumped out of the ventricles into
the arteries.

Atrial diastole
Atrial diastole is the relaxation of muscles of the atria to receive blood from the veins.
During atrial diastole, the muscles of the atria relax; tricuspid and bicuspid valves close, blood flows in the
atria from the veins (vena cava – from the body, pulmonary vein – from the lungs).

Ventricular diastole
Ventricular diastole is the relaxation of muscles of the ventricles in order to receive blood from the atria.
During ventricular diastole, the muscles of the ventricles relax, muscles of the atria contract; semilunar valves
close and the ventricles receive blood from the atria.

Coronary heart disease

Coronary heart disease is the occlusion (blockage) of coronary arteries with cholesterol (fatty material).
Conditions associated with coronary heart disease include:
1. Atheroma: this is an accumulation of fatty material in the walls of coronary arteries.
2. Sclerosis: this is the hardening of coronary arteries due to the presence of fatty material.
3. Thrombosis: this is the blockage of coronary arteries by a mixture of blood clots (thrombus) and fatty
material.
4. Embolus: this is a moving clot that results when a thrombus is pushed out of place by a heartbeat.
5. Heart failure: this is a condition where the heart fails to pump blood due to limited supply of blood caused
by blockage of the coronary artery.

Causes of coronary heart disease

1. Diet
Blood cholesterol can be influenced by the amount and type of fat in the diet. Animal fats (milk, cream,
butter, cheese, egg yolk and fatty meat) are more likely to raise the blood cholesterol than vegetable oils.
High cholesterol levels can develop fatty deposits in blood vessels, leading to blockage of blood vessels.
An unbalanced diet with too many fats can also lead to obesity. Being overweight puts an extra strain on
the heart and makes it more difficult for one to exercise.
2. Stress
The body secretes high levels of adrenaline (a hormone) during stress; adrenaline increases blood pressure
which promotes accumulation of cholesterol in the blood stream
3. Smoking
Cigarette smoke contains nicotine (a stimulant) and carbon monoxide which may damage the lining of
blood vessels allowing atheroma to form. Nicotine increases accumulation of cholesterol in the blood.
4. Lack of exercise
When exercise is not undertaken, the heart muscle loses its tone (healthy tightness) and becomes less
efficient at pumping blood. This may allow atheroma to form on the arterial lining.
5. Genetic factors
In some families coronary heart diseases are passed from one generation to the other.
6. Age and gender
As we get older the risk of suffering from coronary heart diseases increases. Males are more at risk of a
heart attack than females; it may be because men tend to have less healthy lifestyles as compared to women.

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Ways of preventing coronary heart disease
1. Maintaining a healthy balanced diet will result in less chance of a person becoming obese. There will also
be a low intake of fat, so the chances of atheroma and thrombus formation are reduced.
2. Avoid smoking.
3. Avoid stress.
4. Regular physical exercise. Regular exercise increases muscle tone, leading to an improved blood flow and
the heart will require less effort to keep pumping.

Blood vessels are tubes through which blood moves around the body. There are three (3) main types of blood
vessels; arteries, veins and capillaries.

Arteries
They carry blood away from the heart to the limbs and organs of the body.

Arteries are adapted to carrying out their function in the following ways:
1. Walls of arteries have an elastic tissue; the elastic tissue in the walls of the arteries can stretch and recoil
with the force of blood. The elastic tissue also allows arteries to dilate and accommodate blood.
2. Walls of arteries are thick; the thick walls of the arteries withstand the high pressure of the blood flowing
through them and they prevent the arteries from bursting.
3. Walls of arteries are muscular; the muscles in the walls of the artery make it possible for the arteries to
contract and thus squeeze blood.
4. Arteries have a small lumen; a small lumen ensures that blood flows under high pressure.

Veins
Veins carry blood from the tissues to the heart.

Veins are adapted to carry out their function in the following ways:
1. Walls of the veins are thin; in veins blood flows slowly and smoothly so there is no need for thick elastic
walls.
2. Veins have a large lumen; the large lumen helps blood flow more easily through the veins.
3. Walls of veins are elastic; the elastic tissue helps veins to dilate and accommodate blood.
4. Veins have valves; valves prevent the backflow of blood since blood moves at low pressure.

Blood is kept moving in the veins by the contraction of muscles around them.

Capillaries
Capillaries take food, oxygen and other materials to cells in the body and take away their waste products.

53
Adaptations of capillaries to carry out their function;
1. Walls of capillaries are thin; the thin walls allow for easy diffusion of substances.
2. Walls of capillaries are permeable (have pores/ holes/ gaps in the walls); this allows filtration /
movement of small molecules between blood and cells.
3. Capillaries are small / narrow so blood moves slowly for efficient exchange of substances.
4. Capillaries are many, this provides a large surface area.
5. Capillaries have no elastic tissue; this allows only slow blood flow.

Capillaries penetrate every part of the body.

Capillaries form a link between arteries and veins. As arteries approach the organs of the body, they branch
into smaller tubes called arterioles, arterioles further divide and form capillaries. The capillaries then start
joining up to form venules which eventually form veins.

Differences between arteries and veins;

Arteries Veins
Carry blood away from the heart. Carry blood towards the heart.
Carry oxygenated blood except for the pulmonary artery Carry deoxygenated blood except for the pulmonary vein
which carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. which carries oxygenated blood from the lungs.
Have thick elastic muscular walls with a narrow lumen. Have thin elastic muscular walls with a wide lumen.
Are situated deep in the muscles. They are situated close to the surface
They carry blood at high pressure. They carry blood at low pressure.
They appear round in cross section. They appear regular in cross section.
They have no valves except at the base of pulmonary They have valves to keep blood moving in one direction
artery and aorta. This is because the blood coming from by preventing the backflow of blood.
the heart is enough to keep blood moving in one
direction.

Tissue fluid
Tissue fluid is the plasma leaked out of blood capillaries. Tissue fluid contains white blood cells, amino acids,
lipids, hormones, glucose, salts and vitamins. Tissue fluid lacks red blood cells (red blood cells cannot pass
through the tiny pores). All the components of tissue fluid are in lower concentrations as compared to blood.
Tissue fluid forms the immediate environment of individual body cells; it is through tissue fluid that exchange
of materials between cells and blood occur.
Some of the tissue fluid is reabsorbed into blood circulation at the venule end of the capillary, and some of it
is drained into lymphatic capillaries. Tissue fluid that is drained into lymphatic capillaries is called lymph.

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Blood, tissue fluid and lymph;

There are two types of circulatory systems; open circulatory system and closed circulatory system.

1. Open circulatory system

An open circulatory system is a type of circulatory system in which blood is not contained in blood vessels
but it flows freely within the body. Open circulatory system is found in arthropods.
In an open circulatory system blood is pumped by the heart into body cavities, the blood then surrounds the
body tissues. Blood is returned to the heart through openings found in the heart. Cells are in direct contact
with the blood and obtain the nutrients directly from the blood and waste products diffuse directly into the
blood. Blood flow is very slow in open circulatory systems.

2. Closed circulatory system

A closed circulatory system is a type of circulatory system in which blood is enclosed within blood vessels. A
closed circulatory system is found in all vertebrates and some invertebrates. Closed circulation is of two types;
single circulation and double circulation.

Single circulation
In single circulation blood passes through the heart once for each complete circuit, for example in fish. In
single circulation, blood flows at low pressure. In single circulation, capillaries are the only blood vessels
involved.

Double circulation
Double circulation is the type of circulation in which blood passes through the heart twice in each complete
circuit. Double circulation involves pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation.

Pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary circulation is the circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. The purpose
of pulmonary circulation is to oxygenate the blood and remove carbon dioxide from the blood in the lungs.

Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation is the flow of blood from the heart to the body and back to the heart. The purpose of
systemic circulation is to distribute oxygen around the body and to collect carbon dioxide from the body
tissues.

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Diagram of human circulation;

The lymphatic system is a transport and defence system made up of; lymphatic vessels, lymph and organs.
Lymphatic vessels bring lymph back into the circulatory system through the veins (subclavian vein – near the
junction of the arm and neck). Lymphatic vessels have valves which prevent the backflow of lymph.
Lymphatic vessels also contain lymph nodes which produce and store lymphocytes, they also filter foreign
bodies, bacteria and dead tissue from the lymph before it joins blood. Lymph lacks red blood cells, contains
more glycerol, fatty acids, white blood cells and antibodies than tissue fluid.
Some lymphatic vessels can contract, but most of the lymph flow results from the vessels being compressed
from time to time when the body muscles contract in movements such as walking and breathing.
Functions of the lymphatic system;
1. It drains excess tissue fluid (lymph) and takes it back to the blood.
2. It adds lymphocytes to the blood. Lymphocytes help to remove foreign particles and toxins which enter
the body.
3. Lymphatic capillaries (lacteals) absorb and transport fatty acids and glycerol to the blood.
4. Helps to remove foreign particles and toxins which enter the body.

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Relationship between capillaries, cells and lymphatic vessels:

Excretion is the removal of metabolic waste products from the bodies of living organisms. The products of
excretion are called excretory products, while organs used to remove them are called excretory organs.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Plants have no special excretory organs. Excretory products accumulate in leaves, seeds, fruits, flowers and
barks of stems. The excretory products are eliminated from the plant when the accumulating organs fall off.
Plants excrete metabolic waste products and non-metabolic waste products. Metabolic waste products include
alkaloids, oxygen and carbon dioxide. Non metabolic waste products include; latex, rubber, oils, tannins and
gum.
Alkaloids are nitrogenous wastes in plants. They include; nicotine, morphine, cocaine, quinine, caffeine and
cannabis.
The carbon dioxide produced by respiration at night (when photosynthesis is not taking place) is released
through the stomata. Oxygen produced during photosynthesis is excreted through the stomata.

EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
The main excretory organs and products include:
Excretory organ Excretory product
Kidney Nitrogenous wastes (Urea, uric acid and ammonia), excess
salts and excess water.
Lungs Carbon dioxide and water.
Liver Bile pigments.
Skin Urea, salts and water in form of sweat.

The urinary system;

The urinary system is a system of organs that produces and excretes urine from the body.

57
The renal artery supplies the kidney with blood; the renal vein carries blood away from the kidney. The kidney
filters blood (by removing nitrogenous wastes from blood), forms urine and regulates the amount of water in
the body. The ureter transports urine from the kidney to the bladder. The bladder temporary stores urine. The
sphincter muscle controls the flow of urine out of the bladder.
KIDNEYS
Structure of the kidney;

The kidney has three main parts; the cortex, medulla and pelvis. The cortex provides a space for arterioles and
venules from the renal artery and vein. The medulla contains a dense network of nephrons and blood vessels
that connect to the nephrons. The pelvis connects the kidney with circulatory and nervous systems from the
rest of the body (it is the part where blood vessels and nerves enter and exit the kidney); it is also the point of
exit for the ureter. The kidney is made up of thousands of tiny tubules called nephrons. The nephron is the
basic functional unit of the kidney.

Structure of the nephron;

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Mechanism of excretion in the kidney (nephron)
Excretion in the kidney occurs by ultra-filtration, selective reabsorption and osmoregulation. Ultra-filtration
is the process by which the fluid is filtered out of the blood by the glomerulus due to pressure. Selective
reabsorption is the process of absorbing back the substances needed by the body. Osmoregulation is the
maintenance of a constant water content of the body fluids.
The vessel bringing blood to the glomerulus is wider than the vessel taking blood away; as a result a high
pressure builds up in the glomerulus causing part of the blood plasma to leak through the capillary walls. This
fluid part of blood leaks into the Bowman’s capsule by ultra-filtration; and is called glomerular filtrate. The
glomerular filtrate consists mainly of water with dissolved salts, glucose and urea. The glomerular filtrate
drains from the Bowman’s capsule into the renal tubule.
As the filtrate moves along the renal tubule (loop of Henle); useful substances (glucose, some salts and some
water) are reabsorbed back into the surrounding capillaries by selective reabsorption. Water is reabsorbed by
osmosis, glucose by diffusion and mineral salts by active transport. In order to reabsorb these substances
efficiently, the cells in the renal tubule contain villi to increase the surface area for diffusion and they also
contain a lot of mitochondria to provide energy to transport substances against the concentration gradient.
Urea, excess salts and excess water continue down the tubule into the pelvis of the kidney. The urine (urea,
excess salts and water) pass down the ureter to the bladder.

Common disorders and diseases associated with the kidney

Diseases that affect the kidneys are as a result of bacterial infections, viral infections or accidents (injuries to
the kidney). Common kidney diseases include;
1. Nephritis: this is the inflammation of the nephrons. It is caused by bacterial infection. Nephritis can be
treated by using antibiotics.
2. Uraemia: is caused by accumulation of urea in the body. This maybe as a result of nephritis or mechanical
blockage of parts of the kidney. The blockage maybe removed surgically. Dialysis is also the ultimate
treatment for uraemia.
3. Acute renal failure:
Acute renal failure is when the kidneys suddenly stop working. This could be caused by heart attack, drug
abuse and insufficient blood flow to the kidneys.
4. Kidney failure:
Kidney failure refers to the malfunctioning of the kidneys as a result of partial or complete damage of the
nephrons. It may occur from a sudden situation that injures the kidneys or from a disease that gradually causes
the kidneys to stop functioning. Kidney failure may be treated in two ways; kidney transplant and using a
kidney dialysis machine.

Kidney transplant
Kidney transplant involves transplanting a kidney from a healthy person to the person whose kidney has
stopped working.

Advantages of kidney transplant

1. It can improve one’s quality of life and reduce the risk of dying from kidney disease.
2. No need for long hours of dialysis

Disadvantages of kidney transplant

1. Pain and discomfort of surgery.
2. Risk of rejection.
3. Frequent medical need.
4. Weakened immune system.
5. It is expensive.

Dialysis machine
The dialysis machine eliminates urea form the blood.
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The dialysis machine is made of a long coiled tube called the dialysis tubule through which the patient’s blood
passes. The tubule is long and coiled in order to increase the surface area for diffusion. The tubule is also
selectively permeable, allowing only small molecules to pass through. This selectively permeable membrane
separates the patient’s blood from the dialysis fluid. The dialysis machine contains dialysis fluid. The dialysis
fluid is a solution of salts, glucose and water. The concentration of the dialysis fluid is equal to the normal
concentration of blood.
Blood is removed from a vein in the arm and is kept moving through the dialysis machine using a roller pump.
The dialysis fluid has a similar composition to blood plasma but with no urea in it. So the urea diffuses out of
the patients’ blood into the dialysis fluid. The cleaned blood is the passed through a bubble trap to remove any
air bubbles before being returned to the patient’s vein. The blood is returned to a different point on the same
vein. The dialysis fluid is kept at body temperature and constantly changed as unwanted substances accumulate
in it.

Lungs are respiratory organs as well as excretory organs. They excrete carbon dioxide from the body. Carbon
dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli and out of the lungs during expiration.

The skin plays a role in excretion of excess water, mineral salts and traces of urea through sweat.
Structure of the skin;

The skin is made up of two layers; the epidermis (top layer) and the dermis (lower layer).

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1. The Epidermis: the epidermis is the outermost layer of the skin and is composed of two layers; the
cornified layer and the Malpighian layer. The epidermis protects the deeper layers of the skin from bacterial
infection.
a) Cornified layer: this is the top most layer of the skin; it is made up of dead cells. The dead cells
contain the protein keratin, which is waterproof. The cornified layer prevents water loss, it protects
the inner layers from entry of microorganisms and it protects the inner layers of the skin from physical
damage.
b) Malpighian layer: it consists of living cells, which are capable of cell division so they help in the
formation and replacement of the cornified layer. The cells in the Malpighian layer also produce a
pigment, melanin which gives the skin its colour and also protects the body from ultra violet radiation
(UV) which can cause cancer.
2. The Dermis: the dermis contains connective tissue, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, blood
vessels and nerve endings. The connective tissue contains elastic fibres. Beneath the dermis is a layer of
adipose tissue (a fat deposit).
a) Hair follicles: the epidermis is folded inwards forming a hair follicle from which hair grows. Hair
plays an important role in temperature regulation. Hair erector muscles contract and relax to control
the position of hair.
b) Sebaceous glands: these glands secrete an oily liquid called sebum into the hair follicle. Sebum
lubricates the hair, keeps the skin soft and moist and it also prevents growth of bacteria.
c) Sweat glands: they act as an excretory organ by secreting sweat. Sweat helps in temperature
regulation. The sweat travels up the sweat ducts and out onto the surface of the skin through the sweat
pores.
d) Blood vessels: they supply the skin with nutrients and oxygen and carry away waste products. Blood
vessels also help in temperature regulation.
e) Nerve endings (sense receptors): they are sensitive to touch, pain and temperature so they keep you
aware of changes in the external environment.
The fat cells act as a food reserve and help to insulate the body, preventing against heat loss.

Functions of the skin:

1. Protection – the cornified layer provides a barrier against bacterial infection and helps to reduce water loss.
The melanin also protects the skin from ultraviolet rays in sunlight.
2. Sensitivity –the sense receptors give rise to sensations of touch, pain, pressure, heat and cold. These make
us aware of changes in our surroundings.
3. Temperature regulation –the skin does so by adjusting the flow of blood near the skin surface and by
sweating.
4. Excretory organ –it removes excess water, small amounts of salts and traces of urea in form of sweat.
5. Production of vitamin D –vitamin D is produced under the skin when exposed to sunlight.

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Homeostasis involves the regulation of
body temperature (thermoregulation), regulation of the amount of water in our body (osmoregulation),
regulation of blood sugar level and removal of toxic metabolic wastes (excretion). The organs involved in
homeostasis include; the liver, the kidneys, the lungs and the skin.

Importance of homeostasis
Homeostasis is important because in living cells all chemical reactions are controlled by enzymes. Enzymes
are very sensitive to conditions in which they work.

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Osmoregulation is the maintenance of a constant water content of the body fluids. The kidneys regulate the
amount of water in the body; they do so by controlling how much water is lost in urine.
When there is a low amount of water in the body caused by dehydration and reduced water intake, the cells in
the hypothalamus stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete a hormone ADH (Anti-diuretic hormone). The Anti-
diuretic hormone makes the capillaries around the nephron reabsorb more water from the glomerular filtrate
into the blood stream.

Thermoregulation is the process by which living organisms control their body temperature. The regulation of
body temperature is mainly carried out by the skin and the control of the hypothalamus.
When the body temperature drops below 37°C, messages from the hypothalamus reduce heat loss in the
following ways:
1. Shivering. Shivering is the rapid contraction and relaxation of muscles. Shivering produces heat which
makes the body warm.
2. Increased respiration. Respiration releases heat.
3. Vasoconstriction. Vasoconstriction is the contraction of blood capillaries. Blood vessels near the surface
of the skin constrict or become narrower so that less blood flows through them. This reduces heat loss.
4. Hair stands upright. Hair erector muscles contract pulling the hairs upright. The upright hairs trap a warm
layer of air, which acts as a blanket above the skin and prevents heat loss to the environment.

When the body temperature rises above 37°C, messages from the hypothalamus promotes loss of the excess
heat in the following ways:
1. The rate of respiration reduces (slows down) so that less heat is produced.
2. Hair lies flat. Hair erector muscles relax and the hairs lie flat and so do not trap a warm layer of air. This
allows heat loss.
3. Vasodilation. Vasodilation is the relaxation of blood capillaries. Capillaries near the surface of the skin
dilate or become wider so that more blood flows through them and heat is lost from the body to the
surrounding.
4. Sweat glands secrete sweat. As water in sweat evaporates, it takes heat from the skin, thereby cooling the
body.

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Blood sugar level is regulated by the pancreas and the liver. The pancreas produces a hormone which helps
the liver to control the amount of glucose in the blood.
When levels of glucose are high, the pancreas secretes the hormone insulin, which lowers the level of glucose
in the following ways:
1. It causes the liver to convert excess glucose into glycogen, which is then stored in the liver cells and muscle
cells.
2. It also stimulates the liver and muscle cells to absorb glucose and use it for respiration.
3. Insulin also promotes conversion of glucose to fats and stored in the adipose tissue.
4. Insulin slows down the conversion of protein to carbohydrate.

When the levels of glucose are low, the pancreas secretes the hormone glucagon. Glucagon increases glucose
levels in the following ways:
1. It stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to glucose.
2. It also causes fats to be converted to glucose.
3. It may also cause proteins to be modified so that they are utilised for energy production.

The endocrine system is a network of glands (endocrine) that secrete chemicals called hormones. Hormones
are the body’s chemical messengers which speed up, slow down or alter the activity of target organs. Endocrine
glands are ductless glands; that is they have no ducts or openings to the target organs, so they release the
hormones into the blood as blood passes through them.
Although hormones circulate throughout the body, each type of hormone is targeted toward certain organs and
tissues. Hormones do not permanently remain in blood after being secreted; they are changed into inactive
compounds by the liver and are excreted by the kidneys.
Hormones ensure your body functions properly; they do so by controlling body functions such as growth,
homeostasis, cellular metabolism, reproduction, sexual development and so on. Activities of the endocrine
system are controlled by the nervous system.
The main endocrine glands in a human being include; pituitary gland, the pancreas, adrenal gland, thyroid
gland, testes and ovaries.

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The pancreas has a group of cells known as islets of Langerhans. These cells produce hormones that are
responsible for the regulation of blood glucose levels. Islets of Langerhans are of two types; alpha (α) cells
and beta (β) cells. Alpha cells secrete the hormone glucagon while beta cells secrete the hormone insulin.
When the levels of glucose are high, the islets of Langerhans detect this and secrete insulin into the blood.
Insulin lowers the level of glucose in the following ways;
 It causes the liver to convert the excess glucose to glycogen; the glycogen is then stored in the liver and
muscle cells.
 It increases the uptake of glucose by the body cells and uses it for respiration.
 It promotes conversion of glucose to fats and stored in the adipose tissue.
 It slows down the conversion of protein to carbohydrate.

When the level of glucose in the blood is low; glucagon is secreted into the blood. Glucagon increases the
level of glucose in the following ways;
 It causes the liver to convert glycogen to glucose.
 It also causes fats to be converted to glucose.
 It may also cause proteins to be modified so that they are utilised for energy production.

Lack or insufficient production of insulin leads to the disease called diabetes mellitus. Signs and symptoms of
diabetes mellitus include:
1. Abnormally high levels of glucose in the blood.
2. Having unclear or blurred vision.
3. Persistent thirst.
4. Drastic weight loss.
5. Loss of sensation in some body parts.
6. Frequent urination. The urine has glucose in it.
7. Fatigue.
Diabetes cannot be cured but it can be controlled by controlling the amount of carbohydrates in the diet and
insulin injection.

This is a pair of glands, each located just above each kidney. Adrenal glands secrete the hormone adrenaline
(epinephrine). Adrenaline is secreted in emergency situations such as conditions of fear, danger, anxiety and
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anger. For this reason adrenaline is referred to as the flight or fight hormone Adrenaline targets the liver, the
heart, lungs, the skin and the alimentary canal. Adrenaline prepares the body for action in the following ways;
1. It increases the heart rate; so that more blood containing glucose and oxygen can be carried to the muscles.
2. It diverts blood from the gut (alimentary canal) and skin to the muscles by constricting the blood vessels
of the gut and skin and dilating the blood vessels of muscles.
3. It dilates the pupils in the eyes for increased alertness.
4. It causes the liver to convert more glycogen to glucose, thereby increasing glucose levels in the blood to
be used for respiration.
5. It causes increased breath rate so that more oxygen is taken in to be used for respiration.
6. It increases sensitivity of the nervous system which in turn increases the speed at which the body reacts to
environmental stimuli.

The thyroid gland is situated in the front part of the neck and lies in front of the wind pipe. It produces the
hormone thyroxine. The formation of the hormone thyroxine requires the element iodine. Thyroxine controls
growth and development, it also controls the basal metabolic rate of nearly all body cells. Basal metabolic rate
is the rate of expenditure of energy when the body is resting.
Over secretion of thyroxine increases the basal metabolic rate and heart rate. Increased basal metabolic rate
results in weight loss (loss of body mass). Over secretion is a condition referred to as hyperthyroidism.
Under secretion of the hormone thyroxine leads to a condition known as myxoedema. Under secretion of the
hormone thyroxine slows the basal metabolic rate and mental activity as well. In children under secretion
causes cretinism. Cretinism is a condition where a child’s mental, physical and sexual developments are
retarded (slower).
In extreme cases of under secretion, the thyroid gland swells in an effort to try and acquire iodine. This causes
swelling of the thyroid gland, a condition known as goitre.

The pituitary gland is attached to the base of the brain. The pituitary gland is also called the master gland of
the endocrine system because it secretes hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to function. The
pituitary gland oversees other glands and keeps hormone levels in check. It does so by releasing stimulating
hormones. Hormones produced by the pituitary gland include;
1. Thyroid stimulating hormone: this hormone controls secretion of thyroxine by the thyroid gland.
2. Follicle stimulating hormone: is responsible for production of ova. It does so by stimulating formation
of follicles in the ovaries. A follicle is a fluid filled sac that contains an immature egg.
3. Luteinising hormone: causes ovulation (release of an egg) and formation of the corpus luteum.
4. Growth hormone: it promotes growth of body tissues and organs by stimulating the synthesis of
macromolecules especially proteins.
Over secretion of the growth hormone leads to gigantism and acromegaly. Gigantism is a condition where
an individual is abnormally tall and huge. Acromegaly is enlargement of bones accompanied by protrusion
of the lower jaw.
Under secretion of the growth hormone leads to dwarfism, a condition where an individual has physically
stunted growth and appears too small for their age
5. Anti-diuretic hormone: this hormone stimulates reabsorption of water from the renal tubule in the
kidneys when the body does not have enough water. Insufficient or lack of ADH brings about a condition
known as diabetes insipidus, a condition where an individual passes out large volumes of urine.

Ovaries produce two hormones; oestrogen and progesterone. Oestrogen is responsible for the development of
female sex organs and development of secondary sexual characteristics such as growth of pubic hair, hips and
breasts. Progesterone and oestrogen stimulates the growth of the lining of the uterus. Oestrogen and
progesterone also regulate the menstrual cycle.
Progesterone supports a pregnancy.
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Testes produce the hormone testosterone. Testosterone controls development of male sex organs and
development of secondary sexual characteristics such as growth of facial and pubic hair, deepening of the
voice and muscular development.

The nervous system is a system of coordination in animals made up of the brain, spinal cord and nerves. The
function of the nervous system is to coordinate all activities of the body and to enable the body to respond and
adapt to changes both inside and outside the body. The nervous system coordinates body activities by
transmitting messages throughout the body along the nerves in form of electrical impulses.
A receptor is the part of the body which detects or receives stimulus, causing the body to respond e.g. sense
organs. An effector is the part of the body which responds to a stimulus e.g. muscles and glands.
The nervous system can be separated into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system
(PNS). The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system while the nerves make up the peripheral
nervous system.
The central nervous system processes and coordinates messages travelling through the nervous system.
The peripheral nervous system delivers information to the central nervous system and carries commands of
the central nervous system.

Neurones are small masses of cytoplasm with a central nucleus. Neurones are the basic functional units of the
nervous system. Bundles of neurones form nerves. Nerves carry information in the peripheral nervous system.

Cell body: the cell body consists of a nucleus.

Dendrites: dendrites carry electrical impulses towards the cell body.
Axon: conducts impulses away from the cell body, towards another neurone. Sometimes axons are surrounded
by a myelin sheath.
Myelin sheath: gives electrical insulation preventing leakage of electrical impulses and speeds up
transmission of nerve impulses.
Nodes of Ranvier: facilitate rapid conduction of nerve impulses.

There are three types of neurones; sensory neurone, motor neurone and relay neurone.

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Sensory neuron:
The sensory neuron carries impulses from the sense organs to the central nervous system (brain and spinal
cord). Sensory neurones have a short axon and a long dendron. The cell body is located at the side (on one
side of the axon). The cell body has no dendrites.

Motor neuron:
The motor neuron carries impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors (muscles and glands).
Motor neurones have a long axon. The cell body is terminally located. The cell body has dendrites.

Relay neuron:
Relay neurones are located in the central nervous system. The axon has no myelin sheath. Relay neurones
transmit impulses within the central nervous system.

Neurones are connected to one another by synapses.

Synapse:
A synapse is a gap between two neurones. A synapse allows a neurone to pass an electrical impulse to another
neurone.

How a synapse transmits an electrical impulse

When a nerve signal reaches the end of the neurone, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from vesicles.
The neurotransmitter then diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to the membrane of the next neurone,
triggering an impulse in the next neurone. The electrical impulse is then carried onwards.

A reflex action is an automatic or involuntary response to a sensory stimulus. A reflex action has a survival
value as it protects an animal from dangerous factors. A reflex action is important as the response is rapid and

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it is protective so it prevents the body from mechanical damage or from injury. Some reflex actions are inborn
while others are learnt.

Examples of quick reflex actions include;

 Withdrawing of a hand from a hot object
 Blinking when an object approaches the eye
 Knee-jerk reflex – when the knee is tapped below the knee cap, the lower leg jerks (makes a sudden
movement) forward.
 Shedding of tears when an object enters the eye
 Coughing or sneezing because of irritants in the nasal passage
An example of a slow reflex action is the pupil reflex. Other examples of reflex actions include; sneezing,
salivating, peristalsis, vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Reflex arc
A reflex arc is the path taken by nerve impulse in a reflex action; an impulse travels along the sensory neurone
to the central nervous system, through the relay neurone and finally through the motor neurone.

Transverse section of the spinal cord;

The grey matter of the spinal cord consists of cell bodies; the surrounding white matter consists of bundles of
myelinated axons. The central canal is a fluid filled space that runs through the spinal cord, it transports
nutrients to the spinal cord and protects the spinal cord by cushioning the impact of a force when the spinal
cord is affected. The central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid. The cerebrospinal fluid acts as a shock absorber
and it nourishes the spinal cord. The dorsal root is the entry point of sensory neurones in the spinal cord, while
the ventral root is the exit point of motor neurones. Cell bodies of sensory neurones are situated in the dorsal
root and form a bulge known as a ganglion.
When a receptor is stimulated, it sends impulses along the sensory neurone. The impulses enter the spinal cord
via the dorsal root. In the grey matter of the spinal cord, the impulses pass on to a relay neurone across a
synapse. The impulse is then sent to a motor neurone. Motor neurones leave the spinal cord via the ventral
root. Motor neurones then send electrical impulses to an effector. The effector produces a response.

There are two types of reflex actions; simple reflex action and conditioned reflex action.

SIMPLE RELEX ACTION

Simple reflex actions are protective in nature since they help prevent damage to a body organ. Simple reflex
actions can be classified in to cranial reflex and spinal reflex.

Spinal reflex
Spinal reflexes involve the spinal cord. In a spinal reflex, a particular stimulus always produces the same
response. During a spinal reflex, the impulses pass through the spinal cord. An example of a spinal reflex
action is a knee jerk. Another example is the bulging of the biceps of the hand when struck.
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Knee jerk reflex;

If a tap is given to the tendon just below the knee cap, the leg gives an instant protective jerk upwards. The
impulse travels through the sensory neurone into the spinal cord. The impulse then gets through the relay
neurone, into the motor neurone. Once the impulse gets to the muscle; the muscle contracts suddenly, resulting
into the sudden automatic jerk of the leg. The knee jerk is protective and occurs without conscious thought.

Cranial reflex
Cranial reflex actions are controlled by the brain. Examples of cranial reflex actions are; constriction and
dilation of the eye pupil, blinking of the eye, salivation in response to sight or thought of food and sneezing.

CONDITIONED REFLEX ACTION

A conditioned reflex is a response that results from learning or training. The response given during a
conditioned reflex is not related to the stimulus but the animal learns to associate it with a related stimulus
after being trained to do so. This may be illustrated by Pavlov’s experiment.
Pavlov observed that dogs always salivated when they saw, smelled or tasted food. For some days, Pavlov
would ring a bell each time before giving the dogs food. Eventually, the dogs started salivating at the sound
of the bell alone. In this case, the salivation of the dogs is an example of a conditioned reflex and the sound of
the bell may be referred to as a conditioned stimulus.
Conditioning is used in training animals for different tasks. In human activities such as walking, responding
to a name, cycling and driving are examples of conditioned reflexes.
Reflex actions are important because they avoid overloading of the brain and they bring about quick responses,
otherwise the thinking process of the brain may take time and delay the response which may harm the animal.

The brain is the enlarged anterior end of the spinal cord. The brain is divided into the forebrain, midbrain and
hindbrain. The forebrain is composed of the cerebrum, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. The midbrain is
composed of the optic lobe. The hindbrain is composed of the cerebellum and medulla oblongata.

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Cerebrum
The cerebrum controls voluntary movement such as movement of limbs, movement of the mouth, lips, tongue
and neck. It is also responsible for sensations of pain, touch, sight and hearing. It is also responsible for
reasoning, intelligence, memory, speech and usage of information.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the centre for unconscious actions. The cerebellum controls muscle coordination, maintains
balance and it also controls body posture.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus controls and regulates body temperature, water balance, constriction and dilation of blood
vessels, sleep, appetite, talking and controls our feelings (anger, fear, pleasure, pain and affection).
Pituitary gland
The pituitary gland acts as a link between the nervous system and the endocrine system. It controls the
activities of all the glands in the body.
Medulla oblongata
It links the spinal cord and the brain. The medulla oblongata regulates involuntary functions such as breathing
rate, contraction and dilation of blood vessels, swallowing, salivating, coughing, respiration, sneezing and
heart rate.

Differences between the Nervous system and Endocrine system

Nervous system Endocrine system
Made of the brain, spinal cord and neurones. Made up of endocrine glands
Messages are transmitted in form of electrical Messages are transmitted in form of chemicals known
impulses. as hormones.
Messages are transmitted along nerve fibres. Messages are transmitted through the blood stream.
Messages travel very quickly. Messages travel more slowly.
Responses are short-lived (temporary) Responses are either temporary or permanent.
Responses are often quick. Responses are either quick (e.g. for adrenaline) or
slow (e.g. for sex hormones).
Responses can be voluntary or involuntary. Response is always involuntary and unconscious.

A drug is a chemical substance externally administered which modifies or alters the rate of metabolic reactions
in the body.
Drugs can either be useful or harmful. Useful drugs include medicine, while harmful drugs can be classified
into; stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens and narcotics.
Terms associated with drug abuse include:

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1. Dependency (addiction): this is a condition in which an individual’s body fails to function normally in
the absence of a particular drug.
2. Tolerance: this is a condition where an individual needs a higher dosage of a drug to produce an effect
that was initially being produced by a smaller dosage of the drug.
3. Withdrawal symptoms: these are symptoms an individual experiences when they discontinue using a
drug which they are addicted to.

Classes of abused drugs:

1. Stimulants: these are drugs that accelerate / increase the rate of impulse transmission in the nervous
system. Examples of stimulants include; cocaine, caffeine and nicotine. Effects of stimulants include;
increased alertness, increased heart rate and breathing rate, euphoria (extreme happiness), lack of appetite
and reduced desire to sleep.
Stimulants increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases such as hypertension and coronary heart disease.
Prolonged use can lead to addiction (dependency) and liver damage. Overdose can cause death.
2. Depressants: these are drugs that slow down the rate of impulse transmission in the nervous system.
Examples of depressants are tranquilisers, heroin and alcohol.
Effects of depressants include; reduced anxiety, increased desire to sleep, euphoria and numbing of pain
by inhibiting pain and emotion centres.
For depressants addiction is quickly established, they have severe withdrawal symptoms such as vomiting,
diarrhoea and dizziness. They also slow down the time taken to respond to stimulus, leading to accidents.
Depressants also cause damage to vital organs such as the liver, kidneys and brain.
Alcohol slows down impulse transmission, impairs judgement, it is addictive, damages brain cells, causes
liver cirrhosis, can cause stomach ulcers and may increase risk of certain cancers. In expectant mothers it
increases the risk of giving birth to underweight babies, foetal abnormalities – reduced physical and mental
development, it can also cause miscarriage.
3. Hallucinogens: these are drugs that distort the perception of an individual e.g. marijuana.
Narcotics: these are very strong painkillers e.g. morphine and heroin.

Tetanus toxin is a neurotoxin which inhibits transmission of impulses in the nervous system leading to
muscular tenseness. Tetanus toxin induces severe muscle spasms, this could lead to paralysis. Individuals who
have deep cuts with dirty objects are at high risk of tetanus infection. Such ones are given anti-tetanus
injections which contain antibodies that counter the effects of tetanus toxins.

A sense organ is any body organ responsible for detecting stimuli. Sense organs contain receptors. Sense
organs include; eyes, ears, the skin, the nose and the tongue. Human sense organs and stimuli they detect are
summarised in the table below;
Sense organ Stimulus / stimuli detected
The skin Temperature, touch, pain and pressure.
The eye Light
The ear Sound, balance
The nose Chemicals in air (smell)
The tongue Chemicals in food (taste)

The eye is the sense organ responsible for detecting light.

External structure of the eye;

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Internal structure of the eye:

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE EYE:

Eyebrows
The eyebrow stops sweat from running down into the eyes.
Eyelids
Functions of the eyelids include:
1. Protecting the eyeball by blinking. Blinking keeps the surface of the eye moist, prevents entry of
microorganisms and wipes dust particles from the eyeball.
2. Controlling the amount of light entering the eye in very bright light.
Eyelashes
Eyelashes trap dust particles, thus they prevent entry of dust in the eye.
Conjunctiva
1. It protects the cornea and the parts behind it.
2. It also secretes mucus; the mucus lubricates the eyes, cleans the eyes and maintains moisture.
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Iris
It controls how much light enters the pupil.
Sclera
1. It helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball; this is possible because it contains collagen fibres.
2. It also provides attachment for the external eye muscles; this is possible because it is tough.
Cornea
The cornea refracts (bends) light rays entering the eye towards the retina.
Aqueous humour
1. It maintains shape of the eyeball.
2. It refracts light rays to form an image on the retina.
3. It provides nourishment to the lens and cornea.
Pupil
The pupil admits light.
Lens
The lens focuses light rays on the retina.
Suspensory ligament
The suspensory ligament holds the lens in position.
Ciliary muscle
Ciliary muscle helps the lens to alter its shape for focusing.
Ciliary body
The Ciliary body contains ciliary muscles and secrets the aqueous humour.
Choroid
1. It prevents internal reflection of light so that clear images are formed.
2. It supplies food and oxygen to the eye.
Retina
It contains light receptor cells (rods and cones) which convert light energy to nerve impulses. The receptor
cells send-off nervous impulses to the brain through the optic fibre.
Vitreous humour
It maintains the shape of the eyeball supports the lens and refracts light.
Fovea (yellow spot)
Images are focused on the fovea (it is the point of most accurate vision.
Blindspot
This is the exit point for the optic nerve. There are no light sensitive cells on the blindspot.
Optic nerve
The optic nerve transmits nerve impulses from the retina to the visual centre of the brain.

Functions of the eye include;

1. Image formation
2. Focusing and accommodation
3. Pupil / iris reflex

1. Image formation
The retina is the part of the eye where images are formed. Light from an object enters the eye and gets refracted
by the cornea and the humours (aqueous and vitreous). The lens makes the final adjustments to focus the image
on the retina. The image formed on the retina is inverted (upside down), diminished (smaller than the object)
and real. This information is then carried from the retina to the brain by the optic nerve. The optical centre of
the brain then gives the correct interpretation of the image, forming the right size, distant and upright image.

2. Focusing and Accommodation

Focusing is the formation of a clear image on the retina. Accommodation is the adjustment in the shape of the
lens to ensure that a clear image is formed on the retina.
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Accommodation of a close (nearby) object
To focus the image on the retina; the ciliary muscles contract, the suspensory ligaments (slacken) loosen,
making the lens short and thick. Light rays are more refracted and the image is focused on the retina.

Accommodation of a distant (far) object

To focus the image on the retina; ciliary muscles relax and the suspensory ligaments become taut (tight),
making the lens long and thin. Light rays are less refracted and the image is focused on the retina.

3. Pupil / Iris Reflex

This is the adjustment of the diameter of the pupil by circular and radial muscles of the iris in response to
changes in light intensity.

In bright light (high light intensity)

In bright light, the circular muscles contract while the radial muscles relax, causing the pupil to constrict. This
reduces the amount of light entering the eye.

In dim light (low light intensity)

In dim light, the radial muscles contract while circular muscles relax, causing the pupil to dilate. This allows
as much light as possible to enter the eye for image formation.

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Defects of the eye
The most common eye defects are; short – sightedness (myopia), long – sightedness (hypermetropia) and
blindness.
1. Short – sightedness (myopia)
This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see close objects but distant objects appear blurred.
It is caused by an abnormally long eyeball or a permanently thick lens. Light rays from a distant object are
brought into focus before (in front of the retina). It can be corrected by wearing contact glasses with a
concave lenses. Short – sightedness is also caused by age, as people get older, the lens gets stiffer.

2. Long – sightedness (hypermetropia)

This is an eye defect where an individual can clearly see distant object but close objects appear blurred. It
is caused by an abnormally short eyeball or a permanently thin lens. Light rays from a nearby object are
brought to focus beyond the retina. It can be corrected by wearing contact glasses with a convex lens.

3. Blindness
Blindness is the lack or loss of visual perception. Causes of blindness include:
a. Vitamin A deficiency
Vitamin A deficiency causes night blindness. Night blindness is a condition in which vision becomes
diminished in dim light. Deficiency can be prevented by eating foods rich in vitamin A.
b. Filarial worm
Filarial worms cause river blindness. Filarial worms attack the eyes and cause glaucoma, cataracts and
conjunctivitis. River blindness can be prevented by killing adult filarial worms. It can be treated by
removing the worms surgically.
c. Physical injury
Eye infection, objects in the eye, burn wounds and very sharp objects can cause permanent blindness.
d. Diabetes mellitus

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 Diabetes mellitus can cause night blindness due to excess glucose levels in the blood and high blood
pressure that damages blood vessels in the eye.

The ear is the sense organ responsible for the detection of sound.
Structure of the ear;

The human ear has two main functions; it detects sound and also maintains balance and posture. The ear is
divided into three major parts; the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
THE OUTER EAR
The outer ear is an air-filled cavity made of the pinna (ear lobe) and the external auditory canal (meatus/ear
canal).
1. Pinna: the pinna catches sound waves and directs them to the ear canal.
2. External auditory canal: the skin lining the canal is hairy and has cells that secret wax. The hairs and
wax trap dust and micro-organisms preventing them from reaching the inner parts of the ear. The external
auditory canal carries sound waves from the pinna to the eardrum.
THE MIDDLE EAR
The middle ear is an air-filled cavity made of the eardrum, ossicles, Eustachian tube, oval window and round
window. Oval window and round window are membranes that open into the inner ear.
1. Eardrum: The eardrum vibrates when hit by sound waves in order to transmit the sound waves to the
ossicles.
2. Ossicles: are a set of three bones; hammer (malleus), anvil (incus) and stapes (stirrup). Ossicles amplify
the vibrations from the eardrum; they transmit sound waves from the eardrum, across the middle ear to the
inner ear.
3. Eustachian tube: links the middle ear to the pharynx. The Eustachian tube equalises pressure between the
middle ear and the atmosphere. This prevents the eardrum from bursting when atmospheric pressure
changes drastically.
4. Oval window: picks up vibrations from the stapes and transmits them to the perilymph in the inner ear.
5. Round window: relieves the pressure that builds up in the perilymph during vibrations of the oval window.

THE INNER EAR

The inner ear is a fluid-filled cavity made of the cochlea, semi-circular canal and auditory nerve.
1. Cochlea: it has sensory cells which are connected to the brain by the auditory nerve. It also contains a
fluid known as perilymph. The cochlea generates nerve impulses from sound waves; these nerve impulses
are then transmitted to the brain.
2. Auditory nerve: transmits the generated nerve impulse to the brain for interpretation.
3. Semi-circular canal: balances the body during motion (movement).
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Mechanism of Hearing
Sound waves make the air in the outer ear (pinna) vibrate; this in turn makes the eardrum vibrate. As the
eardrum vibrates, the vibrations pass along the chain of ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes). The oval window
then transmits the vibrations to the perilymph in the cochlea. As the perilymph vibrates, it makes the cochlea
vibrate; generating a nerve impulse, the hair cells in the membrane of the cochlea then send messages along
the auditory nerve to the brain.
Balance
Semi-circular canals are sensitive to movements of the head. They are filled with a fluid called endolymph.
When you move your head, the endolymph stimulates the hair cells, causing them to send messages along the
auditory nerve to the cerebellum of the brain. The brain responds by transmitting an impulse to the skeletal
muscles thereby restoring your body balance.
Deafness
Deafness refers to the loss of hearing; it can be as a result of different things:
 Damage to the cochlea affecting the sensory cells due to very high sounds.
 Damage of the auditory nerves as a result of a disease or an accident.
 Damage of the ossicles preventing their movement.
 Rupture of the eardrum by very loud sounds, infection or a physical blow.
 Accumulation of hardened wax blocking the external auditory canal.
Deafness can be prevented by avoiding very loud noise, cleaning our ears regularly to remove the excess
wax and treating infections of the inner ear.
Role of the skin as a sense organ
The skin contains sensory cells which can be stimulated by changes in temperature and pressure. When
stimulated, these cells send nerve impulses to the brain which gives a response.

Locomotion refers to the movement of an entire organism from one place to another. Only animals are capable
of carrying out locomotion.

A skeleton is any firm structure that offers mechanical support to the body and provides protection to the softer
parts of the body.

There are 3 types of skeletons; hydrostatic skeleton, exoskeleton and endoskeleton.

1. Hydrostatic skeleton:
This is a type of skeleton made up of watery fluids found inside the body. These fluids offer mechanical
support and help in movement.
Hydrostatic skeletons are found in soft-bodied invertebrates like earth worms, jellyfish and snails.
Cross section of an earthworm;

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During locomotion, the circular muscles contract, the fluid (hydrostatic skeleton) in the cavity presses on the
longitudinal muscles, causing them to relax and then stretch to elongate segments of the earthworms,
producing forward movement.

2. Exoskeleton:
This is a type of skeleton located outside the muscles of the body of an organism. It is found in arthropods –
crustaceans (crabs, lobsters), insects, myriapods (centipedes and millipedes) and arachnids (scorpions, spiders,
ticks).
In insects the exoskeleton is made of chitin (polysaccharide) and wax. The muscles that produce movement
are attached inside the exoskeleton. Chitin and wax are secreted by epidermal cell. At joints and on the wings
the exoskeleton is made of chitin only, because chitin is very flexible.

Functions of the exoskeleton:

1. Provides a rigid framework for the attachment of muscles.
2. Is waterproof (because of the waxy layer) and so prevents dehydration and desiccation (complete drying).
3. Forms a protective layer against injury.
4. Provides joints and points for muscle attachment.
5. The cuticle has outgrowths which form appendages (arms, legs) used for locomotion, as sense organs and
feeding.

Insect joint showing location of exoskeleton and muscles;

Apodemes are outgrowths of the exoskeleton onto which antagonistic (flexor and extensor) muscles are
attached. The femur has the flexor and extensor muscles. These are used for jumping. When the flexor muscles
contract, the extensor muscle relaxes causing the leg to bends. When the extensor muscle contracts, the flexor
muscle relaxes, causing the leg to extend.
A grasshopper;

3. Endoskeleton:
This is a type of skeleton located inside the body. It is found in vertebrates i.e. fish, birds, reptiles and
mammals. It is made up of bones and cartilage in areas that need flexibility.
Functions of the skeleton;
1. Support: the skeleton supports the body and provides its framework.
2. Protection: it protects delicate internal organs against physical damage.
3. Locomotion: bones allow free movement; giving the ability to bend, turn and twist, muscles which
contract to cause movement are attached to the skeleton.
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4. Synthesis of blood cells: the bone marrow is responsible for the production of blood cells (Red blood
cells, White blood cells and Platelets).
5. The skeleton is responsible for the storage of calcium and phosphorus – bones are made of calcium and
phosphate and therefore serve as storage for salts.
6. The rib cage plays a major role in breathing – by movement of the rib cage, the volume of the thoracic
cavity is increased and decreased, causing air to move in and out of the lungs.

The human skeleton is made up of bone and cartilage, it lies under muscles.

The human skeleton is divided into the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton forms
the axis of the body. The appendicular skeleton forms the appendages that are attached to the body axis.

Axial skeleton
It is made up of the skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum.

The skull
The skull is composed of facial bone, mandibles and cranium. Several bones of the skull (with the exception
of the mandibles) are joined together through joints called sutures to form the cranium. The skull also contains
sinuses (air filled cavities), sinuses contribute to the lessening of the weight of the skull and contribute to the
warming and moistening of the air inhaled through the nose.
The skull supports and protects the brain from injury, supports the eyes and ears, provides the chewing
mechanism and attaches with the neck making movement of the head possible.

The vertebral column (spine / backbone)

The vertebral column is formed by a number of bones (33 bones), most of these bones have an opening known
as a neural canal (a passage for the spinal cord and vertebral arteries). Each vertebra is separated from the
other by intervertebral discs (cartilage) to prevent friction and for shock absorption.
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The ribcage
The rib cage is formed by sternum, intercostal muscles, ribs and the thoracic vertebra. The ribcage protects
delicate organs such as the heart and lungs from mechanical damage, it also provides attachment for intercostal
muscles (hence brings about breathing).

Appendicular skeleton
It is made up of limbs and girdles. Limbs include fore limbs (arms) and hind limbs (legs). Girdles include the
pectoral girdle and the pelvic girdle. Girdles form a link between the axial skeleton and the limbs.
The pectoral girdle is made of shoulder blades (scapula) and collar bone (clavicle). It links the fore limbs to
the axial skeleton. The pelvic girdle is made up of hip bones. It links the hind limbs to the axial skeleton.

Cartilage
This is a firm and flexible rubber-like tissue which is made up of living cells and collagen. Cartilage is found
in firm but flexible parts such as; trachea, nose, ear lobe, larynx, between the vertebrae in the spine and at the
end of bones.
Functions of cartilage:
1. Keeps the trachea open even when the neck bends.
2. It allows bending of the spine.
3. Keep the pinna (ear lobe) and nose firm.
4. Reduces friction between bones and joints.
5. It is the main skeletal material of vertebrate embryos.

BONE
A bone is a tissue made of living cells (collagen) fibre and non – living cells (mineral substances - calcium,
phosphorus and magnesium). The living cells are capable of growth and self-repair and are supplied with food
and oxygen by blood vessels.
The living cells are laid up in a ring forming a system known as the Haversion system.
Structure of Harversion system;

The Haversion canal contains blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels. Blood vessels supply food and
oxygen to living cells. Living cells occur in structures known as lacuna. Canaliculus is a channel of cytoplasm
which link lacunae. The Volkmann canal links the Haversion canal to the bone marrow.
Bones are classified as compact or spongy. Spongy bone is less tightly packed. Compact bones are made up
of tightly packed rings known as haversion system. The haversion system gives bones a porous appearance.
Mammals have different types of bones. Different types of bones have differing shapes related to their
particular function.

1. Long bones
Long bones are hard dense bones that provide strength, structure and mobility.
Structure of a long bone;

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The compact bone is hard and forms the outer layer of the long bone. It is made of many Haversion systems
grouped together. The spongy bone has spaces in it. The bone marrow is very soft and has a good supply of
blood. Red blood cells, white blood cells and plasma are made in the bone marrow.
Long bones are mostly located in the appendicular skeleton. Long bones include; femur, tibia, fibula, humerus,
radius, ulna, metacarpals, metatarsals, phalanges and clavicle (collar bone).
2. Short bones
Short bones are cube shaped; they are as long as they are wide. Short bones provide stability and some
movement. Examples of short bones include; carpals (in the wrist) and tarsals (in ankles).
3. Flat bones
Flat bones are thin and curved. They provide protection of internal organs and provide large areas for
attachment of muscles. Examples of flat bones include; cranial bones, sternum and scapula.
4. Irregular bones
Irregular bones have a complex shape. They protect internal organs. Examples of irregular bones include;
bones of the vertebral column and bones of the pelvis.

Bones of the forelimb and hind limb

Bones of the forelimb: Bones of the hind limb:

Forelimb: is made up of the humerus, ulna, radius and bones of the hand. The humerus is the bone of the upper
arm. Ulna and radius are the bones of the lower arm. The ulna is longer than the radius. The ulna forms a hinge
joint with humerus at the elbow.
Hind limb: is made up of the femur, tibia and fibula. The femur is found between the hip and knee. The fibula
is smaller than the tibia. The tibia and femur form a hinge joint at the knee.

Bones of the spine (vertebrae) / vertebral column

Bones making up the spine are called vertebrae. The vertebrae enclose and protect the spinal cord and allow
passage of nerves. Each vertebra is separated from the other by intervertebral discs (cartilage) to prevent
friction and for shock absorption.
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There are different types of vertebrae:
Name Region where located Number
Cervical vertebrae Neck region 7
Thoracic vertebrae Chest region 12
Lumbar vertebrae Abdominal region 5
Sacral vertebrae Hip region 5
Caudal vertebrae or Coccyx Tail region 4

Generalised structure of vertebra;

Neural spine provides a surface for attachment of muscles and ligaments. Neural arch protects the spinal cord.
Neural canal is the passage of the spinal cord. Transverse process provides the surface for attachment of
muscles and ligaments. Centrum bind to intervertebral disc and form a cartilaginous bond with the next
vertebra.

Cervical vertebra
Cervical vertebrae are small and slim to allow flexibility. They have a reduced centrum and a short neural
spine, they also have a pair of canals known as vertebraterial canals through their neural archs.

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Thoracic vertebra
Thoracic vertebrae have long backward pointing neural spines. Ribs articulate (join) with their transverse
processes. Each thoracic vertebra has a large centrum, a large neural canal, a long neural spine and a short
transverse process.

Lumbar vertebra
Lumbar vertebrae are large and sturdy (physically strong and solid) for attachment of the strong muscles in
the lower back. Each lumbar vertebra has a short and large centrum, a neural spine which projects upward and
forward and it also has a long and wide transverse process. The functions of the lumbar vertebrae are to bear
stress due to the effect of locomotion and force of gravity, to provide support and allow the body to bend
sideways, and to provide attachment of abdominal muscles.

Sacral vertebra
They form what is known as a sacrum. Each sacral vertebra has a large and broad centrum, a narrow neural
canal, a wing like transverse process and a reduced neural spine. There is a pair of openings through which
the spinal nerves leaving the spinal cord pass. The wing like transverse process attaches the sacrum to the
upper part of the pelvic girdle. The rest of the transverse process are attached to muscles of the back. The
sacrum enables movement of hips and absorbs the weight of the body and transmits it to the pelvic girdle and
legs.

Caudal vertebra
Bones of the caudal vertebra fuse to form the coccyx. Caudal vertebrae have no neural canal, neural arch,
neural spine or transverse process, each only consists of a centrum only.

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Functions of the vertebral column:
 Protects the spinal cord from mechanical damage.
 Provides attachment for ribs and girdles.
 Supports the body.
 Imparts flexibility to the body.

A muscle is a tissue which contracts to produce movement. There are three types of muscles:
1. Smooth muscle: are found in walls of internal organs such as the uterus, the alimentary canal, walls of
blood vessels and in the bladder. Smooth muscles are involuntary, not striated, not branched and single
nucleated.

2. Cardiac muscle: is only found in the heart. Cardiac muscles are involuntary, intrinsically controlled,
striated, single nucleated and branched.

3. Skeletal (striated) muscle:

These are attached to the skeleton. Skeletal muscles are voluntary, striated, multinucleated and not branched.
The contraction of skeletal muscles is voluntary.

Skeletal muscles play a major role in locomotion, production of heat and in carrying out conscious movements
such as; facial expressions, eye movements and swallowing. These muscles are attached to the bone by means
of a tendon.

Skeletal muscles usually occur in pairs known as antagonistic muscles. Antagonistic muscles are pairs of
muscles which produce movement in opposite directions at the same joint. They occur in pairs because each
muscle can only contract so it requires the contraction of the other muscle to relax.
Examples of antagonistic muscles are biceps and triceps of the arm which act on the elbow joint. Biceps are
flexor muscles while triceps are extensor muscles. Flexor muscles are muscles that cause bending of the joint
when it contracts. Extensor muscles are muscles which cause extending of a joint when it contracts.

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Flexing (bending) the elbow joint; Extending the elbow joint;

Flexing the elbow joint: The brain sends impulses to stimulate contraction of biceps. Contraction of the biceps
causes the triceps to relax. The contraction also pulls the lower arm (radius and ulna) upwards toward the
humerus, thereby bending the elbow joint.
Extending the elbow joint: The brain sends impulses to stimulate the contraction of triceps. Contraction of
the triceps causes the biceps to relax. The contraction also pulls the lower arm (ulna and radius) downwards,
thereby extending the elbow.

A joint is a point where two or more bones meet. Joints offer flexibility allowing a range of motions. There
are three main types of joints:
1. Fibrous joints (immovable joints): these are joints where the bones are tightly held together by short and
tough fibres. They do not allow movement. E.g. sutures between the bones of the cranium, lower end of
tibia and fibula, pelvic girdle and sacrum.
2. Cartilaginous joints (slightly movable joints): these are joints in which bones are held together by
cartilage. The cartilage allows slight movement. For example, intervertebral discs that holds the vertebrae
together in the spine, joints that connect the ribs to the sternum and between pubic bones. Cartilaginous
joints of the vertebrae column allow bending. Cartilaginous joints of the pubic bones allow the baby’s head
through the pelvis during childbirth.
3. Synovial joints (movable joints): synovial joints are freely movable joints characterised by a cavity that
separates two bones. The cavities contain synovial fluid. The two bones are connected by ligaments.

Structure of a synovial joint;

Ligaments joins a bone to a bone and keep the joint stable by preventing dislocation. Tendons join muscles to
bones. Joint capsule encloses the joint membrane. Synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid. Synovial fluid
supplies nutrients and lubricates the joint during movement so that it moves smoothly and reduces friction.
Cartilage reduces friction at ends of bones.
These joints allow movement in one or more planes (direction). Synovial joints are given different names
depending on the kind of movement that takes place. E.g. ball and socket joint, hinge joint and pivot joint.

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Ball and socket joint:
This is a type of joint where one bone has a round head (ball) and another has a depression (socket). These
joints allow movement in 3 directions (planes). It is found at the shoulder (scapula – humerus) and the hip (hip
– and femur).

Hinge joint:
These are joints which allow movement in only one direction. They are found at the elbow (humerus – radius
and ulna), the knee (femur – tibia and fibula) and the knuckles.

Pivot joint:
These are joints that allow bones to rotate. They are found in the neck, the wrist and the elbow.

Disorders of joints:
Gout: this is a condition characterised by formation of uric acid crystals at the joints. It leads to swelling and
paining of joints. It can be controlled by reducing the intake of meat and meat products whose amino acids are
easily converted to uric acid.
Arthritis: this is inflammation of joints characterised by painful and swollen joints. The inflammation initially
affects the synovial membranes but eventually causes damage to cartilage and bone, making movement
difficult.

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Growth is the permanent and irreversible increase in size of an organism. Development is the process of change
that occurs during an organism’s life, producing a more complex and efficient organism.

Plants undergo 2 types of growth: primary growth and secondary growth. Primary growth is the increase in
length of the shoots and the roots. Secondary growth is the increase in the width of shoots and roots.

In plants growth only takes place in meristems. Meristems are a group of cells that undergo cell division.
Meristems are of two types; apical meristems and cambial meristems. Apical meristems are responsible for
primary growth, they are found at the tip of shoots and roots. Cambial meristems are responsible for secondary
growth and are found between xylem and phloem.

Primary Growth
Plant growth involves 3 stages; cell division, cell elongation (cell vacuolation) and cell specialisation (cell
differentiation).
Cell division: is the formation of new cells from already existing cells.
Cell elongation (cell vacuolation): this is the process by which cells grow bigger and develop their vacuoles
by absorbing a lot of water. Vacuolation is the developing of vacuole.
Cell specialisation (cell differentiation): is a process by which cells undergo changes in structure and in
chemical composition of the cytoplasm in order to become adapted to perform specific functions.

Regions of growth at shoot tip;

Regions of growth at root tip (apex);

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After specialisation plant cells may develop into the following; vascular bundles (phloem and xylem),
collenchyma, parenchyma, sclerenchyma and cambium.
Phloem transports manufactured food throughout the plant. Xylem transports water and water and mineral
salts from the roots to other parts of the plant and supports the plant mechanically. Collenchyma provides
mechanical support and flexibility to the stem. Parenchyma stores food, carries out photosynthesis and carries
out gaseous exchange. Sclerenchyma offers support to a plant. Cambium separates vascular bundles and
carries out cell division, hence bringing about secondary growth in dicot plants.

Primary growth enables the roots to penetrate the ground and the shoots to grow towards sunlight. There are
3 regions of growth at the tips of shoots and roots; region of cell division, region of elongation (vacuolation)
and region of cell specialisation (differentiation).
Secondary Growth
Secondary growth only occurs after primary growth has been completed and it only occurs in dicot plants.
Secondary growth is brought about by a secondary meristem (cambium). As cells in the cambium divide, they
make new cells which become xylem and phloem cells. As more new cells are formed, the circumference of
the stem gets larger.

Germination is the process by which seedlings develop from seeds embryos. Seeds that are able to germinate
are said to be viable seeds. Viability is the ability of a seed to germinate.
Structure of a Seed
Seeds are of two types; monocotyledonous seeds and dicotyledonous seeds. Monocot seeds are seeds with one
cotyledon, for example maize seed, sorghum and millet. Dicotyledonous seeds are seeds with two cotyledons,

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for example bean seed, sunflower and groundnuts. A seed contains an embryo plant (developing but not yet
complete) which consists of a radicle and a plumule.
A seed hardly contains any water, when it is formed on the plant the water in it is drawn out so that it becomes
dehydrated. Without water no metabolic reaction can take place.
Structure of a monocot seed; Structure of a dicot seed;

Functions of seed parts:

Testa (seed coat): protects the seed from physical damage and infection. It also prevents entry of water.
Endosperm: these are food reserves in monocot seeds. They store foods such as; proteins, starch and oils.
Cotyledon: these are food reserves in dicot seeds. They also contain enzymes.
Plumule: this is the embryonic shoot, it develops into a shoot after germination.
Radicle: this is the embryonic root, it develops into roots after germination.
Coleoptile: is a sheath (covering) which protects the plumule and prevent damage during germination.
Coleorrhiza: is a sheath (covering) which protects the radicle and prevents damage during germination.
Micropyle: this is a tiny hole in the testa. It allows oxygen and water to enter the seed and carbon dioxide to
leave.
Types of germination
There are two types of germination; epigeal and hypogeal germination.
Epigeal Germination:
This is the type of germination where cotyledons are pushed above the ground by elongation of the hypocotyl.
Hypocotyl is the part of the stem of an embryo plant beneath the seed leaves and directly above the root. The
cotyledons carry out photosynthesis before the leaves fully develop. This type of germination is common in
dicot seeds.

Hypogeal Germination:
This is the type of germination where the cotyledons remain underground, due to elongation of the epicotyl.
Epicotyl is the region of an embryo or seedling stem above the cotyledon. This type of germination is common
in monocot seeds.

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Conditions necessary for germination:
These include; water (moisture), oxygen and a suitaable temperature.
Water: it softens the testa so that it can split to release the plumule and the radicle. Water also activates the
enzymes and provides a medium for metabolic activities to take place.
Oxygen: it is required for respiration which provides energy for germination.
Temperature: enzymes function within temperatures ranging from 5°C - 40°C. Very low and very high
temperatures hinder germination. Seeds at very low temperatures fail to germinate because the enzymes are
inactive so they can’t catalyse metabolic reactions necessary for germination. Very high temperatures denature
enzymes and no metabolic reactions will take place.

The first step in seed germination is absorption of water by the dry seed. Absorption of water results in
sweelling of the seed. The swelling causes the seed coat to rupture, enabling the radicle to come out in form
of a primary root. Absorption of water activates enzymes which catalye metabolic activities. The cells of the
embryo resume metabolic activities and undergo cell division. Stored food (starch protein and fats) need to be
digested, this requires energy, so the germinating seed absorbs oxygen from the soil, respiration starts taking
place. After a few days, the plumule grows above the surface of the ground. The first leaves open out and
begin to photosynthesize.

Seed dormancy is the condition during which a seed carries out minimal metabolic activity and does not
germinate. Seed dormancy is a survival mechanism as it enables seeds to survive harsh (cold, drought)
conditions which would kill a growing plant.

A stimulus is any substance or factor that causes a response from an organism. A response is an action or
process that occurs in an organism due to the presence of a stimulus (plural – stimuli). Examples of responses
in living organisms are; tropic responses (tropisms) and taxic responses (taxism).

A tropic response is the response of a plant part to a stimulus by either growing towards or away from the
stimulus.

Stimulus Tropism Positive response Negative response

Light Phototropism Moves towards light Moves away from light
Gravity Geotropism Moves vertically downward Moves vertically upwards
Water Hydrotropism Moves towards water Moves away from water
Chemicals Chemotropism Moves towards a chemical Moves away from a chemical

Phototropism
This is a growth response of a plant part to light. Plant shoots are positively phototropic; while roots are
negatively phototropic. Positive phototropism in plant shoots ensures that the leaves are exposed to sunlight
in order for photosynthesis to take place.
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Role of auxin in phototropism;
Auxin is a plant hormone, it is found in actively growing regions (apical meristems) of plants such as; root
tips and shoot tips. The function of auxin is to promote cell division and cell elongation.

In an experiment to investigate the effect of light on growth of maize coleoptiles, it is observed that the
coleoptiles placed in a box with a hole on one side will grow towards the source/direction of light; while those
placed in sunlight will continue growing straight upward as illustrated by the following diagrams:
Coleoptiles placed in light from all directions (diffuse light);

When a plant shoot is exposed to diffuse light (light from all directions), the auxins are evenly distributed all
round the shoot tip. As a result growth is uniform all around the shoot tip, causing the shoot to grow straight.

Coleoptiles placed in light from one direction;

If a plant shoot is exposed to light from one source, auxin migrates to the darker regions away from light,
concentrating on the shady side. The uneven concentration of auxin causes the shady side to grow faster than
the light side so the shoot bends towards light.

Geotropism
This is a growth response of a plant part to gravity. Plant roots are positively geotropic so they always grow
downwards (towards the force of gravity). Shoots are negatively geotropic. Positive geotropism is important
as it helps the roots to anchor the plant firmly in the soil and it also helps them to absorb water and mineral
salts from the soil.

Role of auxins in geotropism

In an experiment when germinating seeds are placed on moist cotton wool in a dark place, with their plumules
and radicles horizontal, the plumule will grow away from gravity and the radicle towards gravity.

This is because gravity pulls the auxins to the lower side of the radicle, the auxins cause the upper side of the
radicle which is less concentrated with auxin to grow rapidly hence causing it to bend downwards towards
gravity.

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Chemotropism
This is a growth response of a plant part to chemicals by growing either towards or away from the chemicals.
Plant parts grow towards chemicals relevant to them, for example the pollen tube grows towards the ovary in
response to chemicals secreted in the ovary to bring about fertilisation.

Hydrotropism
This is a growth response of a plant part to water by growing either towards or away from the water. Plant
roots are generally positive hydrotropic, this ensures that the roots absorb the water the plant needs.

A taxic response is a movement of an invertebrate animal in response to stimuli by either moving towards or
away from stimuli. Movement towards stimuli is called positive taxism, while movement away from stimuli
is called negative taxism.
Phototaxis
This is a response to light. Houseflies move towards light so they are positively phototaxic. Maggots (a maggot
is a housefly larva) move away from light so they are negatively phototaxic. Wood lice are negatively
phototaxic. Cockroaches are negatively phototaxic.
Hydrotaxis
This is a response to water. Wood lice are positively hydrotaxic because they respond by moving towards
water. Earth worms are positively geotaxic as well as positively hydrotaxic.

Tropic Response Taxic Response

Occurs in plants Occurs in invertebrates
Involves growing either towards or away Involves moving either towards or away from
from the stimulus the stimulus
Only part of the plant responds The entire organism responds
Slower Faster

Reproduction is the process by which organisms produce their offspring (young ones of the same kind). There
are 2 types of reproduction; asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.

Asexual reproduction is the type of reproduction where gametes (sex cells) are not involved. In asexual
reproduction only one parent is involved. Examples of asexual reproduction include; binary fission, budding,
spore formation and vegetative propagation.

This is the type of asexual reproduction where one parent cell divides into two daughter cells. It usually occurs
in single celled organisms like amoeba and certain bacteria.
Binary fission (splitting) in amoeba;

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First the parent cell grows bigger in size by increasing the amount of cytoplasm. Then the DNA replicates and
the nucleus undergoes mitosis, forming two daughter nuclei. The cell membrane constricts, dividing the
cytoplasm into two so that each nucleus is surrounded by its own cytoplasm. Finally the two daughter cells
separate. Daughter cells are the resulting two cells.

This is the type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell develops an outgrowth called a bud. The bud
increases in size and eventually detaches from the parent plant and becomes an independent organism.
Examples of an organisms in which budding occurs are yeast.

Budding in yeast;

This is the type of asexual reproduction where spores are formed. Spores are reproductive units; they are
produced when conditions are not favourable for sexual reproduction. This type of reproduction occurs in ferns
and fungi such as Rhizopus and Mucor.

Importance of fungi and bacteria

Bacteria and fungi play an important role in decomposing dead organic matter. They cause decay of dead
organic matter, releasing nutrients into the soil. They also release carbon and nitrogen. Bacteria convert
atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia and nitrates which can be used by plants and animals.
Useful fungi include mushrooms and penicillin. Mushrooms are a good source of food rich in protein, dietary
fibre and vitamin B. penicillin is an antibiotic used to treat bacterial infection.

This is the type of asexual reproduction in flowering plants where new plants are grown from vegetative parts
(roots, stems and leaves) without involving seeds. Vegetative propagation can either be natural or artificial.

This is the type of asexual reproduction in which plants naturally propagate themselves using perennating
organs. Examples of perennating organs are; root tubers, stem tubers, corms, suckers, bulbs, runners and
rhizomes. Perennating organs possess buds and adventitious roots.
When vegetative propagation occurs naturally, it usually results from the growth of a lateral bud on a stem
which is close to or under the stem. The bud produces a complete plant with roots, stem and leaves.

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Root Tuber: these are roots with food reserves. New plants develop from the auxiliary buds at the base of
the old stem. Examples of root tubers are sweet potatoes and carrots.

Stem Tuber: this is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored food. Stem tubers have
eye buds (buds and leaf scales) that are able to grow into new plants. In suitable conditions, the bud uses the
stored food to form shoots from which roots develop. Irish potatoes are an example of a stem tuber.

Corms: this is a swollen vertical underground stem with apical and axillary buds which can grow into new
shoots. Vegetative propagation takes place when a lateral bud on the stem grows into an independent plant.
Examples of corms include; cocoyam, gladiolus, crocus and colocasia.

Runners: these are horizontal stems growing above the ground. Runners have buds at nodes, which may
develop into shoots and roots. Before the roots and shoots develop, the buds obtain their food from the parent
plant. Buds develop into young plants which make their own food. When internodes of the runner decay, a
number of new plants become independent of the parent plant. Examples are strawberry plants, sweet potatoes
and lawn grass.

Suckers: these are underground lateral branches of stems terminal buds and adventitious roots. Examples are
bananas. The sucker produces aerial shoots with adventitious roots. When fully grown, this new plant will
produce suckers.

Bulbs: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem (which does not store food).
Food is stored in the leaves which are modified to form bulbs. The stored food is used by the rapidly growing
terminal bud. Terminal bulbs found at the centre of the bulb produce shoots. E.g. garlic and onion.

Rhizome: this is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. At the nodes of rhizomes are terminal
buds which form shoots, the lateral buds develop into branches, and the adventitious roots grow from the stem.
Shoots become independent when the connecting rhizome dies.

This is the growing of plants from vegetative propagative parts of plants. Examples include budding, grafting,
cutting and layering.

Cutting
A part of the stem is cut from a parent plant and then planted. The best place to cut is just below a node. The
cutting is either put in a jar of water or in moist soil until adventitious roots appear. Leaves are removed from
the stem to prevent transpiration. Sugar cane and cassava are propagated this way.

Grafting
Grafting involves attaching part of a plant (especially the stem) onto another plant of the same species or
genus. The scion is attached to the stock (host). The scion is the cut plant; it is the part that has the desired
stem, leaves, fruits or flowers. The stock (host) provides an already established root system. The stock and
scion are cut with shapes that fit into each other before being tied together; the cambia from the two plants
should be brought into direct contact. Grafting is used in growing of citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons.

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Layering
First a branch close to the ground is selected, and then a ring of bark is removed from a low lying branch to
expose the cambium. It is then carefully bent so that it touches the soil (moist soil to stimulate the development
of adventitious roots). Then the part of the plant touching the soil is buried and pegs are placed to keep the
branch in the soil. The buried part is regularly watered. Roots develop and once established its cut and
transplanted elsewhere. Strawberry plants can be propagated in this way.

Budding
Budding involves cutting a bud from one plant and joining it to another plant of the same or related species
with an established root system. The bud is called the scion while the plant to which the bud is joined is called
the root stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some cambium. The cambium from the two parts has
to be in contact. The two parts are tied together leaving the bud exposed. Citrus fruits can be propagated in
this way.

Advantages of vegetative reproduction

1. Plants can be produced even when seed production fails.
2. It ensures that varieties of useful plants are kept unchanged as new plants are produced from one parent.
3. There is more production and population increases fast.

Disadvantages of vegetative propagation

1. Plants are not widely dispersed and as such they do not colonise new areas.
2. Plants are usually crowded and compete for light, water and nutrients.
3. Since all the plants are genetically the same, there is a danger of them being wiped out in case of disease
outbreak.

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Advantages of asexual reproduction:
1. A mate is not required for offspring to be produced, so only one parent is needed.
2. No gametes are needed.
3. Large numbers of offspring can be produced within a short period.
4. Desirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
5. No pollination and dispersal agents for plants required.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction:

1. Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
2. Lack of dispersal leads to overcrowding and competition for resources (water, nutrients, light).
3. Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
4. If the parent has no resistance to a particular disease, none of the offspring will have resistance.

Sexual reproduction is the type of reproduction in which offspring are produced by the fusion of male and
female sex gametes. Flowers are sexual reproductive organs of plants. The function of a flower is to make
gametes and ensure that fertilisation takes place.

Functions of flower parts:

Flower stalk (pedicel): supports the flower, attaches the flower to the stem and conducts water, nutrients and
hormones between the stem and the flower.
Receptacle: The receptacle provides attachment for other floral parts.
Sepals: they enclose the flower in the bud stage and protect it from desiccation (drying up) and from
mechanical damage. They are usually green; if green they photosynthesize, if colourful they attract insects for
pollination.
Petals: are brightly coloured and sometimes scented in insect pollinated flowers (to attract insects for
pollination). Petals also enclose and protect the male and female parts against mechanical damage.
Stamen (Androecium): these are male parts of a flower. They comprise of:
a. Anther: this is the male organ where pollen grains are produced. Pollen grains contain male gametes that
are used for fertilisation.
b. Filament: they also conduct water and nutrients to the anthers.

Carpel (Pistil/ Gynoecium): these are female parts of the flower, they comprise of:
a. Stigma: receives pollen grains during pollination and induces their germination of pollen tubes.
b. Style: holds the stigma in position to receive pollen grains and links the stigma it to the ovary, allows
growth of pollen tube during fertilisation

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c. Ovary: this is the female organ where ovules are formed. Ovules contain female gametes, which are
fertilised after pollination. The ovary develops into the fruit after fertilisation. Ovules develop into seeds
after fertilisation.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower or another but of
the same species. There are two types of pollination; self-pollination and cross pollination. Self- pollination is
the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same flower. Cross pollination is the transfer
of pollen grains from the anthers of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower in another plant of the same
species.

Differences between self-pollination and cross pollination

Self-pollination Cross pollination
Anthers and stigma may mature at the same Anthers and stigma usually mature at
time different times
Stamen are short Stamens are usually long
May produce chemicals (inhibitors) that Do not produce such chemicals
hinder self –pollination
Most flowers face up Most flowers face down

Disadvantages of self-pollination:
1. It is a form of inbreeding and this may result in loss of resistance to pathogenic and deficiency diseases.
2. Plants may transmit undesirable characteristics to their offspring.
3. It may give rise to sterile seeds which may not germinate.
Disadvantages of cross pollination:
1. It is difficult to maintain a pure breed since different genetic materials are exchanged.
2. Pollination may be hindered if species are separated by geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers
and seas.

Differences between insect pollinated flowers and wind pollinated flowers:

insect pollinated flower Wind pollinated flower
Generally large to be seen by insects. Generally small.
Large brightly coloured and scented petals to Small dull coloured non-scented petals.
attract insects for pollination.
Have nectaries to secrete nectar that attract insects No nectaries
for pollination.
Pollen grains are large, sticky and heavy to enable Pollen grains are small, smooth and light to be
them to stick on the body of an insect. blown easily by wind.
Stigmas are sticky and feathery to ensure that Stigmas are large and feathery
pollen grains from the bodies of insects stick on
them.
Stigmas lie within the petals. Located outside the flower to trap pollen grains.
Have small anthers that produce few but large Have large anthers to produce large amounts of
pollen grains. pollen grains to increase the chances of pollination
Anthers are enclosed within petals. Hang outside the petals

Filaments are short and firm. Filaments are long and dangling outside the flower,
so they can be in direct contact with air current.

Stigmas and anthers are supported firmly to protect Anthers are loosely supported by the filaments so
them from being destroyed as the insect wings flap. that they can be shaken easily by air current.
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Fertilisation
Fertilisation is the fusion of the female and male gametes to form a zygote.
After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs water from the stigma and germinates on the stigma to form a pollen
tube which develops and penetrates the stigma, it then grows through the style and ovary until it reaches the
embryo sac inside the ovule. After reaching the micropyle (an opening in the wall of the ovule), the tube
nucleus disintegrates to release the two nuclei. One male gamete fuses with a female gamete resulting in
formation of a zygote. The other male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei giving rise to a triploid nucleus
which forms the primary endosperm nucleus. The endosperm acts as a food storage tissue.

After fertilisation has taken place, further changes take place leading to fruit and seed formation. First the
floral parts such as the style, stigma, petals and sepals dry and fall off. The zygote inside the ovule divides by
mitosis forming the embryo composed of a radicle (embryonic root) and plumule (embryonic shoot) with one
or two cotyledons. The ovule develops into the seed which is composed of the embryo and endosperm. The
integuments (ovule wall) develop into the seed coat or testa. The ovary develops into fruit.

FRUITS
A fruit is an ovary after fertilisation containing seeds.
Fruits may be classified as follows:
1. Succulent fruits
2. Dry fruits
3. True fruits
4. False fruits
5. Simple fruits
6. Composite/aggregate fruits

Structure of a fruit;

Succulent fruits:
These are fruits that are fleshy or juicy. They can be further classified into:
a. Berries: these are fruits with many seeds embedded in the endocarp. Both endocarp and mesocarp are
fleshy. Examples include; tomatoes, oranges, lemons, guavas, water melons etc.

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b. Drupes: these are fruits with a hard and dry endocarp enclosing only one seed. The mesocarp is usually
fleshy. Examples include; mango, plums, avocados, coconuts, peach etc.
c. Pomes: these are fruits whose succulent part is formed from the receptacle. Examples include; apples,
pears, quince etc.
Dry fruits:
These are non-succulent fruits. They can be classified as:
a) Dehiscent fruits: these are dry fruits whose pericarp splits open when mature and dry to release seeds. They
include bean pod, pea pod etc.
b) Indehiscent fruits: these are dry fruits with pericarps that do not split open to release seeds. They include
maize grain, wheat grain, cashew nuts, jacaranda etc.
True fruits:
These are fruits that develop from the ovary without other parts being modified to become part of the fruit.
Examples: oranges, lemons, tomatoes, bean pod, mangoes etc.
False fruits:
These are fruits that develop from the ovary together with other floral parts modified to become part of the
fruit. Floral parts such as the receptacle. They include: pineapples, apples, pears etc.
Simple fruits:
These are fruits that develop from a single ovary e.g. avocado and mango.
Composite / aggregate fruits:
These are fruits that develop from several ovaries, e.g. strawberries, raspberries.

FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL

Dispersal is the scattering of fruits or seeds from the parent plant to other places. Fruits are adapted to disperse
their seeds as effectively as possible. Agents of dispersal include: wind, water, animals and self-dispersal
(explosive mechanism).
Wind –dispersed seeds:
1. Tend to be small and light so they can easily be carried by air current and float easily.
2. They have wing-like structures for flight and to increase the surface area for buoyancy (being able to float).
E.g. jacaranda and sycamore.
3. Some have hair-like structures that increase buoyancy in the air current. These hairs act like a parachute.
E.g. dandelion
4. Are loosely attached to the stalk so they can detach easily when shaken by wind.

Examples of wind- dispersed fruits are sycamore and dandelion.

Water – dispersed seeds:

1. Some have a fibrous pericarp that enables them to float in water. The fibrous mesocarp traps air and
increases buoyancy. E.g. coconut.
2. The epicarp is waterproof to protect the seed against soaking.
3. They are also air light to enable them float in water.

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Animal- dispersed seeds:
1. Some have hooks or are sticky to cling to bodies of animals. E.g black jack.
2. Some are succulent to attract animals. E.g. mangoes
3. Some are brightly coloured to attract animals. E.g. oranges
4. Some are scented to attract animals. E.g. oranges
5. The seed coat is resistant to digestive enzymes of the animal. The undigested seeds are passed out. E.g.
guavas
Self – dispersed/ explosive mechanism:
1. They have dry pods that split open along the line of weakness. E.g. bean pod, pea pod.

Frogs use external fertilisation (fertilisation occurs outside the body). Frogs require water in order to
reproduce; this is because they lay their eggs in water and larval stages are adapted to obtain oxygen from
water. During copulation, the female frog produces eggs which are simultaneously fertilised by the male. The
eggs are then left to develop. After 10 days the embryo is ready to hatch and is called a larva or a tadpole.
The tadpoles are well adapted for life in water, they use gills for gaseous exchange, they eat water plants and
small aquatic animals, and they also have muscular tails to help them swim. When tadpoles develop into frogs
they develop lungs and lose their gills and tail.

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Human bodies have gonads (sex organs) used for reproduction. Male and female gametes occur as part of the
reproductive system.

The Male Reproductive System:

Functions of parts of the male reproductive system:

Testicles: produce sperms and testosterone. Testes (plural) are found outside the abdominal cavity in a special
skin like sac called a scrotum.
Scrotum: holds the testes outside the body, keeping them cooler than the body temperature. A low temperature
is more effective for sperm production and storage. Sperm production is very sensitive to heat, if it’s too hot
sperms will not be formed.
Epididymis: this is a coiled tube that temporary stores sperms; it also conducts sperms between the
seminiferous tubules (in the testes) and the vas deferens,
Vas deferens (sperm duct): it links the testis to the urethra to allow transportation of semen containing sperms
from the epididymis to the urethra during ejaculation.
Urethra: it passes through the penis and may conduct either semen containing sperm from the sperm duct
through the penis; or carry urine from the bladder at different times.
Penis: this is an erectile organ used to deposit semen into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Prostate gland: secretes a fluid which activates sperms and adds nutrients/ nourishes sperm to form semen.
Semen aids in movement of sperms.
Cowper’s gland: produces a clear secretion (mucus) which forms the fluid part semen. This fluid also cleans
the system (by neutralising urine) before ejaculation.
Seminal vesicle: secretes a fluid which contains nutrients which nourish the sperm and aids sperm mobility.
Secretions of the prostate gland, Cowper’s gland and seminal vesicle increase the bulk of semen and provide
nourishment to the sperms.

The female reproductive system:

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Functions of parts of the female reproductive system:
Ovaries: they are responsible for the formation of ova (eggs), release of eggs and production of oestrogen and
progesterone.
Oviduct (fallopian tube): transports ova from the ovary to the uterus; it is also the site for fertilisation. Oviduct
is lined with ciliated cells which aid in movement of ovum. Funnel of oviduct collects eggs after ovulation.
Uterus: is a highly elastic organ. It is the site for implantation of the zygote after fertilisation and embryo
development. It also nourishes and protects the foetus during pregnancy. Muscles of the uterus contract and
push the foetus down the vagina during child birth.
Cervix: it contracts during pregnancy and dilates prior to child birth. It produces watery mucus which helps
the sperm to swim through to the uterus; mucus also lubricates the vagina during sexual intercourse. The cervix
is usually closed during pregnancy to prevent the foetus from being expelled before full development.
Vagina: it receives sperms during copulation; it is also the birth canal.

Primary sexual characteristics:

Primary sexual characters refer to the sex organs (uterus, vagina, penis and testes) and reproductive systems;
that a person is born with.

Formation of gametes:
The lining of the seminiferous tubules consists of rapidly dividing cells; these cells grow long tails (flagellae)
and become sperms.
At birth, a girl has thousands of immature ova in her ovaries, meaning no more ova are formed during the
female’s lifetime. At puberty, she is capable of producing mature ova. Between ages of 10 & 14, the egg cells
start to mature and are released one at a time about every 4 weeks from alternate ovaries
Secondary sexual characteristics:
Secondary sexual characteristics refer to other visible changes that mark adult maturation; they develop during
puberty. Puberty is the stage in the human life during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become
capable of reproduction.

Male secondary sexual characteristics:

 Sperm production.
 Enlargement of penis and testicles.
 Development of pubic hair around the genital parts and hair in the arm pits.
 Development of beards and hair on the chest.
 Deepening of voice.
 The body becomes more muscular.
 Pimples may appear on the face.
Female secondary sexual characteristics:
 Menstrual cycle begins.
 Enlargement of breasts.
 Widening of hips.
 Development of pubic hair around genital parts and hair in the armpits.
 Enlargement of vagina.
 Pimples may appear on the face.

The menstrual cycle is a recurring process in which the lining of the uterus is prepared for pregnancy, and if
pregnancy does not occur, the lining is shed at menstruation. Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining
together with some blood through the blood if the ovum is not fertilised.
The human menstrual cycles are very variable but the “model” cycle lasts 28 days in which a woman
experiences ovulation and menstruation, one after the other. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones

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produced by the pituitary gland (Follicle Stimulating Hormone and Luteinising hormone) and ovaries
(Oestrogen).
The pituitary gland secretes Follicle Stimulating hormone, this hormone stimulates production of ova and
development of the follicle.
Oestrogen brings about repair of the uterus lining and it promotes thickening of the uterus lining. Oestrogen
also inhibits production of follicle stimulating hormone. It also stimulates the release of the luteinising
hormone. It also causes change in cervical mucus.
The pituitary gland produces Luteinising hormone which is responsible for the release of ova and promotes
development of the corpus luteum.
When the follicle is fully developed; it projects from the surface of the ovary like a blister. Ovulation occurs
and the ovaries stop secreting oestrogen. Finally, the follicle bursts and releases the ovum (ovulation).
Ovulation is the release of ovum from the ovary. The empty follicle is now called a corpus luteum. After the
ovum is released it is wafted down the oviduct by the action of cilia.
The corpus luteum produces progesterone which also promotes thickening of the uterus lining. If the ovum is
fertilised, the corpus luteum continues secreting progesterone until the embryo sinks in the uterus wall, then
the placenta starts secreting progesterone through pregnancy maintaining the uterus lining and prevents
menstruation from occurring during pregnancy. If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum gradually
disappears, no more progesterone is secreted so the uterus lining breaks down and menstruation occurs.
A new follicle starts to develop in the ovary and the cycle begins again.

At menopause, the ovaries cease to produce ova and hormones, the menstrual periods cease, the woman can
no longer have children, sexual desire is gradually reduced.

Fertilisation is the fusion of the male and female gamete to form a zygote. Fertilisation occurs in the oviduct.

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The egg; The sperm;

The nucleus of the ovum fuses with the sperm nucleus to form a zygote during fertilisation.
The head of the sperm has enzymes which dissolve the zona pellucida during fertilisation. The middle piece
contains mitochondria which provide energy the sperm needs for swimming. The tail is used for swimming to
the ovum before fertilisation can occur.

Differences between an egg cell and a sperm cell

1. Eggs are produced in the ovaries while sperms are produced in the testes.
2. Eggs are larger while sperms are smaller.
3. Only one egg is produced in a month while many sperms are produced all the time.
4. Eggs cannot move on their own while sperms are able to move using a tail.

After fertilisation, the zygote travels through the oviduct towards the uterus and repeatedly divides by mitosis
to form an embryo. Once it reaches the uterus, the embryo undergoes implantation. Implantation is the process
by which an embryo gets attached to the wall of the uterus.

Twins
Twins can be identical or non – identical. Sometimes a mother may have twins, triplets or even more children
at a time.
Identical twins result when the ball of cells formed from the zygote divides completely into two soon after
fertilisation. Each ball of cells then grows into a separate embryo although they often share the same placenta.
The two embryos have each developed from the same egg and sperm, so they have they exact same genes,
they are the same sex and are often very difficult to tell apart.
Non – identical twins are formed when two separate eggs are fertilised by two separate sperms. This can only
happen when more than one egg is released from the ovaries at the same time. Each embryo has its own
placenta.

As the embryo develops it forms a temporal organ known as the placenta, some cells of the embryo develop
into amniotic membrane. By the eighth week, vital organs develop and the embryo is now referred to as a
foetus. As the embryo grows, the uterus enlarges to contain it.

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The placenta:
1. Prevents mixing of maternal blood and foetal blood; this is very important because mother and foetus may
have different blood groups and if the blood mixes, agglutination may occur which would be fatal to both
mother and foetus. The other reason is that bloods of the foetus and mother at different pressures; high
pressure of mother’s blood would damage foetal blood vessels. Preventing mixing of blood is also
important as it prevents direct transfer of drugs/ toxins and it also ensures there is no direct transfer of
pathogens.
2. It serves as a medium of exchange of dissolved food and oxygen between the mother and foetus.
3. It also removes waste products from the foetus.
4. It also supplies antibodies to the foetus hence providing passive immunity to certain diseases to the foetus.
5. It produces progesterone which maintains the lining of the uterus wall during pregnancy, prevents
menstruation and breakdown of uterus lining.

Umbilical cord: it contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical vein). The artery takes blood from
the embryo to the placenta; it mainly carries metabolic wastes from the embryo to the placenta. The vein
returns blood to the embryo; carries dissolved food and oxygen from the placenta to the embryo.

Amnion:
1. Is responsible for enclosing the amniotic fluid
2. Produce amniotic fluid
3. Prevents entry of bacteria.

Amniotic fluid:
1. Protects the foetus from mechanical shock.
2. It prevents unequal pressures from acting on the foetus. It acts as a lubricant as the foetus moves.
3. It maintains a constant temperature around the environment of the foetus.
4. It also protects the foetus from drying out (dehydration)

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Uterus:
1. It is the site for implantation of the zygote after fertilisation and embryo development.
2. It also nourishes and protects the foetus during pregnancy.
3. Muscles of the uterus contract and push the foetus down the vagina during child birth.

Growth of the foetus requires a good supply of nutrients and oxygen, the foetus gets all the nutrients required
from the mother so she needs to pay particular attention to what she consumes. She also needs to bear in mind
that harmful substances can also cross the placenta. The harmful substances affect the foetus negatively.
Harmful substances include; cigarette smoke, alcohol and viruses. Carbon monoxide in cigarette smoke
reduces the amount of oxygen available to cells of the foetus; this leads to low birth weight. Alcohol
consumption can cause foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is characterised by mental retardation and
deformation of the baby. Viruses may affect the foetus and cause still birth or abortion. Viruses can also cause
defects to the eyes, ears and nervous system.

The care a woman receives during pregnancy is crucial for her own health as well as the health of her unborn
child. Antenatal (before birth) care is a routine care for the healthy pregnant woman. It incorporates the way a
woman should look after herself during pregnancy, so that the birth will be safe and her baby healthy. Antenatal
services are available at clinics and hospitals.
The mother-to-be should ensure that she eats properly so the foetus can develop properly. She needs more
iron, proteins, calcium, carbohydrates, vitamins and other minerals. She needs Iron to prevent anaemia and for
formation of foetal red blood cells. She needs Amino acids for healthy growth and development of the foetus.
She needs more calcium for development of foetal skeleton. She needs more carbohydrates for growth and
energy. She needs vitamins and other minerals for proper regulation of metabolic processes.
She should avoid smoking, alcohol and caffeine. She should not take any drugs unless they are strictly
necessary and prescribed by the doctor.
A pregnant woman needs to exercise as physical activity will keep her muscles strong. She should also give
birth at a health facility.

Gestation period refers to the period of time between fertilisation and birth. In humans, gestation period takes
about 9 months/ 266-270 days/ 38 weeks.
Birth happens at the end of a pregnancy when a baby is pushed out from a woman’s uterus. Normal birth
occurs through the vagina. If birth cannot happen naturally, the baby will be taken out of the mother’s uterus
by caesarean section.
First the pituitary gland secretes the hormone oxytocin. This hormone initiates contraction of the uterus wall
(labour). The cervix becomes dilates until it is wide enough to allow the baby’s head to pass. Pressure caused
by contractions of the uterus causes the amnion to burst, releasing the amniotic fluid. The vagina also stretches
for the passage of the baby. The baby is expelled from the uterus due to contractions of the uterus and
abdominal muscles. The umbilical cord will then be cut as the baby no longer needs the placenta. The final
stage is the expulsion of the placenta after it detaches from the uterus through the vagina (after birth).

Infertility can be defined as the inability to reproduce.

Causes of infertility in men:

In males, infertility is caused by problems that affect either sperm production or transportation of sperm. These
include:

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1. Sperm production problems; this could be as a result of undescended testicles, infections, radiation,
smoking, and varicocele (varicose veins in the testes). Undescended testicles may produce abnormal sperm
which may have an unusual shape, making it harder to move and fertilise an egg. Varicose veins in the
testes may prevent natural cooling of the testes and as a result may affect sperm production. Smoking
deteriorates the quality and count of sperm.
2. Sperm transport problems; this could be as a result of blockage or damage of tubes that carry sperms from
the testes to the penis, this would cut out the flow of sperms. Blockage or damage may be as a result of
infections, physical damage and prostate related problems.
3. Sexual problems such as erection and ejaculation.
4. Hormonal problems; pituitary gland may fail to communicate effectively to testicles, causing lower
production testosterone and lack of sperm production by the testes.
5. Injury or infection in the epididymis.
6. Sexually transmitted diseases which cause inflammation in the scrotum.

Causes of infertility in women:

In females, the most common causes of infertility are associated with ovulation, damage to fallopian tubes or
uterus. Age can also be a contributing factor, because as a woman ages her fertility naturally tends to decrease.
They include:
1. Ovulation problems; they may be caused by hormone imbalance, tumour or cyst, eating disorders, alcohol
or drug use, excess weight, stress and extremely brief menstrual cycles.
2. Damage to oviduct caused by pelvic inflammatory disease and fibroids. Inflammatory disease can be as a
result of sexually transmitted diseases.
3. Damaged ovaries caused by physical damage or infection of the ovaries.
4. Endometriosis; this is the abnormal growth of tissues outside the uterus. It can affect the ovaries, uterus,
eggs and fallopian tubes.
5. Abnormal cervical mucus; it can prevent sperm from reaching the egg or make it difficult for the sperm to
penetrate the egg.

This is the action people take in order to prevent pregnancy. Birth control methods can also be called
contraceptive methods. Birth control methods can either be natural or artificial.

Natural methods include; withdrawal method and rhythm method.

Withdrawal method: this is the withdrawal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation. This method
is unreliable because fluids that a man releases before ejaculation contain traces of sperm.
Rhythm method: couples only have sexual intercourse during safe periods of the menstrual cycle when
fertilisation is less likely to occur. This method is unreliable because ovulation period cannot be easily
predicted.

Artificial methods can be chemical, mechanical and surgical.

Chemical methods: they include; contraception pill, contraception injection and spermicides.
Contraception pill and injection: hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in form of
pills and injections to prevent ovulation and implantation. They are both very effective if taken according to
prescription. Very reliable though they have side effects such as interfering with the pattern of the menstrual
cycle, nausea and weight gain or cervical cancer.
Spermicides: these are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual intercourse.
Spermicides kill or immobilise sperm. It is a reliable birth control method but should only be used with
diaphragm.
Mechanical (barrier) methods: these include; condom, diaphragm and intra-uterine device.

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Condoms: this is a thin rubber sheath placed on an erect penis before intercourse. It traps semen preventing
sperms from being deposited directly into the vagina. It also prevents transmission of sexually transmitted
infections. Condoms are reliable when used right.
Diaphragm (cap): is a flexible rubber cap fitted over the cervix so as to block sperm from entering the uterus.
It is more reliable if inserted correctly and if used with spermicides. The diaphragm must be fitted by the
doctor.

Intra – uterine device (IUD): this is a T – shaped plastic or metal that is placed inside the uterus by the doctor
into the wall of the uterus where it probably prevents implantation of the fertilised ovum. It is very effective
but there is a small risk of uterine infections.
Surgical methods: these include tubal ligation and vasectomy.
Tubal ligation (laparotomy): oviducts are tied, blocked or cut. This method is very reliable and irreversible.
The ovaries are unaffected, sexual desire and menstruation continues as before, but sperm can no longer reach
the ova.
Vasectomy: this is the cutting and tying of vas deferens (sperm ducts) to block passage of sperm from the
testicles. This method is reliable but can hardly be reversed.
Benefits of using contraceptives (birth control):
1. Helps prevent unwanted pregnancies.
2. Women are empowered to decide when they are ready to have a baby.
3. Contraceptives such as condoms prevent unwanted pregnancies
Risks of using contraceptive:
1. Disturbed menstrual cycle.
2. Weight gain.
3. Hormonal imbalance.

Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction:

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Brought about by cell division, binary fission, Brought about by sexual reproductive organs
spore formation and vegetative propagation. in plants and animals.
Only one parent plant is required. Two parent plants are required.
No sex cells are required. Male and female sex cells are required.
Undergoes mitosis. Undergoes meiosis.
Offspring are genetically identical to parent. Offspring are genetically different from both
parents.
Rate of reproduction rapid under favourable Rate of reproduction takes long.
conditions.
Population increases rapidly. Population increases slowly.
No zygote is formed. Fertilisation forms a zygote.
Occurs in unicellular organisms and in some Occurs in plants and more complex
plants. organisms.

Genetics can be defined as the study of the mechanisms involved in the control, transmission and expression
of inherited characteristics from one generation to the next.
Terms used in the study of genetics
1. Gene: is a section of DNA that is responsible for controlling characters inherited from one generation to
the next.
2. Allele: is one half of a gene pair for a given characteristic. Each sexually reproducing organism has two
alleles for each of its characteristics.
a. Dominant allele: this is an allele that always expressed or shown in the phenotype of an organism.
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 b. Recessive allele: this is an allele that is hidden or overshadowed in the phenotype due to the presence
of a dominant allele.
c. Codominant alleles: are two different alleles which are equally expressed in the phenotype when
present together. E.g. the alleles IA and IB for blood group.
3. Chromosome: is a thread of DNA made up of genes. Chromosomes carry inherited information from one
generation to the next.

The number of chromosomes in each cell of a particular species is fixed.

a. Diploid chromosome: this is the total number of chromosomes in a body cell. E.g. 46 in a human
being.
b. Haploid chromosome: this is half of the number of chromosomes in reproductive cells. E.g. 23 in
human beings.
4. Genotype: is the genetic make-up of an organism (the combination of alleles an organism has for a given
characteristic), e.g. Tt, where T and t are alleles for a gene.
a. Homozygous genotype: this is a type of genotype where same alleles are controlling the same
characteristic, i.e. both alleles are either dominant or recessive. E.g. TT or tt. Homozygous organisms
are called pure breeds.
b. Heterozygous genotype: this is a type of genotype where are different alleles controlling the same
characteristic; one allele is dominant while the other is recessive. E.g. Tt

5. Phenotype: these are visible characteristics of an organism, controlled by the genotype, e.g. a tall plant or
a dwarf plant.

Variation is the difference in characteristics in individuals of the same species. Variation is of two types;
continuous variation and discontinuous variation. Variation is caused by genetic factors as well as
environmental factors.
Continuous variation
This is the type of variation in which individuals do not belong to a distinct class but have a wide range of
character expression between two extremes. Examples of continuous variation include; height, weight, earlobe
attachment and skin colour (complexion). Continuous variations are determined by several genes and are
more likely to be affected by environmental factors.

Discontinuous variation
This is the type of variation in which individuals show clear distinctions among themselves. Examples include;
sex, blood groups, colour of eyes and tongue rolling. Discontinuous variations are genetically inherited and
cannot be altered by environmental factors.

Flowering plants of the same species may vary from one another in a number of ways;
1. Colour of flowers differs in some plants; rose flowers for instance can be white, red or pink.
2. Size and shape of leaves of plants can vary in certain species; for example leaves of some sweet potatoes
are large and broad while in some they are small and pointed.
3. Grains of some plants may differ; some maize grains are white, some are yellow, while others are purple.
4. Size and shape of fruits varies; for example some mangoes are large, while others are small, others are
curved and have a characteristic scent.

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 Differences between continuous and discontinuous variation
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation
Individuals exhibit a wide range of There is a sharp contrast between characteristics
characteristics. of individuals.
The differences are not easily distinguished. Differences are easily distinguished.
Is controlled by many genes. Controlled by a few genes.
Environmental factors affect the way genes Environmental factors have no effect on the
are expressed. genes.
Examples include height, weight and skin Examples include blood group, tongue rolling and
colour. colour of eyes.

Variations in plants and animals are due to differences in the genetic constitution (make – up) as well as
environmental factors on the organisms.

Environmental factors
They include; diet, radiation, climate (water, temperature and light intensity), soil and pollution. An organism
lacking nutrients will be stunted in growth (due to low metabolic reaction), while that supplied with all the
necessary nutrients will grow normally. Plants in fertile soil grow faster than plants in poor soil. A person
might inherit a trait to be tall, but poor diet during childhood will cause poor growth. A plant in the shade of
a big tree will grow taller as it tries to reach more light, causing it to be different from plants of its species in
terms of height.

Genetic factors
Genetic factors may include; mutation, meiosis (crossing over and random assortment) and sexual
reproduction.

Cell division is the process by which new cells (daughter cells) are formed from existing cells (parent cells).
There are two types of cell division; mitosis and meiosis.

This is the type of cell division that occurs in body (somatic) cells to produce daughter cells that are genetically
identical to the parent cell. Mitosis involves four stages; prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. The
four stages are preceded by interphase.
Interphase:
In this stage, the DNA replicates (is copied) so that the chromosomes in the nucleus each consist of two copies.
Prophase:
During prophase the chromosomes become short and thick. The nuclear membrane disintegrates and the
nucleolus disappears. Centrioles move to opposite poles of the cell. Chromosomes develop spindle fibres.
Metaphase:
During metaphase the chromosomes align themselves at the equator (centre) of the cell. This ensures even
distribution between the two daughter cells.
Anaphase:
During anaphase, chromatids are separated from each other and are pulled towards opposite ends of the cell
by spindle fibres.
Telophase:
Once the chromatids reach the opposite poles of the cell, they become complete chromosomes. The
chromosomes disappear by unwinding and becoming longer. The spindle fibres disappear. The nuclear
membrane reforms around each set of chromosomes. In animal cells, the cytoplasm constricts at the centre

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eventually forming two daughter cells identical to the mother cells. In plant cells a cell plate (a new cell wall)
forms, separating the two cells.

Importance of mitosis:
1. Mitosis ensures that the daughter cells are identical to parent cells and have the same number of
chromosomes, hence maintaining genetic stability.
2. Mitosis allows for growth of multi cellular organisms.
3. Mitosis is the basis of asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms. E.g. Binary fission in Amoeba.
4. Replacement of cells.

Meiosis is the type of cell division where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells containing half the
genetic information (half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell). Meiosis takes place in reproductive
organs to form gametes (sex cells – sperms in males and ova in female). Meiosis occurs in two parts; the first
meiotic division and the second meiotic division. Each of the two divisions is made of prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase. These stages are preceded by interphase.
MEIOSIS I
Interphase:
The DNA in the cell is copied resulting in two identical full sets of chromosomes.
Prophase I:
Chromosomes condense (shorten and thicken) and become visible. Spindle fibres (meiotic spindles) appear
on the centrioles. Homologous chromosomes pair up. Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes having
the same length and similar position of the centromere. Crossing over takes place between chromatids of
homologous chromosomes. Crossing over is the exchange of genetic material between two different
homologous chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. The nuclear membrane disintegrates.
Metaphase I:
Centromeres of homologous chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell. Centrioles of homologous
chromosomes point to the opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibres attach to one chromosome of each pair.
Anaphase I:
The chromosomes are separated from each other and are pulled to the opposite pole by the meiotic spindle
fibres. The chromosomes are separated randomly; this is referred to as random assortment.
Telophase I:

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At each pole of the cell, a full set of chromosomes gather together. The spindle fibres disappear. A nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to create two new nuclei. The cell then pinches in the middle
to form two daughter cells.
MEIOSIS II
This stage consists of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and telophase II. Meiosis II copies the two cells
of meiosis I so that four haploid cells are formed.
Prophase II:
Now there are two daughter cells, each with 23 chromosomes. In each of the two daughter cells, the
chromosomes condense again. Spindle fibres form again. The nucleolus disappears. The nuclear membrane
disintegrates releasing the chromosomes.
Metaphase II:
Chromosomes move to the equator of the cell. Centrioles are at opposite poles in each daughter cell. Spindle
fibres at each pole of the cell attach to each chromosome.
Anaphase II:
Chromosomes are separated and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibres. The chromosomes
are separated randomly.
Telophase II:
At each pole, a full set of chromosomes gather together. Spindle fibres disappear. A nuclear membrane forms
around each set of chromosomes creating two nuclei. The cytoplasm constricts forming four daughter cells.

Importance of meiosis:
1. Contributes to variation due to crossing over and random assortment of chromosomes.
2. Formation of gametes.
When something goes wrong during cell division, it results in to cancer. Cancer is uncontrolled cell division.
The extra cells form a mass of cells called a tumour. These cancerous cells can be harmful and even lead to
death. Cancer is usually caused by smoking, radiation, X- rays and poor choices of diet.

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 Differences between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Meiosis
Occurs in somatic cells (body cells). Occurs in production of gametes.
Has one phase of cell division. Has two phases; meiosis I and meiosis II
No crossing over occurs. Crossing over occurs leading to variation.
Two daughter cells are produced. Four daughter cells are produced.
Daughter cells are diploid Daughter cells are haploid.
Chromosomes and genes in each daughter cell are Homologous chromosomes and their genes are
identical. randomly assorted between the gametes.
If new organisms are produced by mitosis in New organisms produced will show variations
asexual reproduction, they will resemble each other from each other and from their parents.
and their parents.

Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from one generation to the next.
Monohybrid inheritance
Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of one pair of contrasting characters controlled by only one gene.
Mendel carried out experiments to try and explain monohybrid inheritance. He experimented on pea plants to
study one characteristic at a time, in this case he was studying height.
Mendel’s experiments
He usually started with hybrids (pure breeds) for his parent generation.
Experiment 1
Mendel crossed homozygous tall plants with homozygous short plants. The seeds produced all grew into tall
plants. From this he concluded that the allele for tallness was dominant to the alleles for shortness. This
experiment can be explained using the following genetic diagram:

*the parents used at the beginning of any genetic experiment are called the first parental generation (P1-
generation). The offspring of the P1 generation are called the first filial generation (F1-generation). The
offspring of the F1-generation are called the second filial generation (F2-generation) and so on.

Experiment 2
3 1
Mendel allowed the F1 plants to self-pollinate. Of the offspring were tall while were short. This is
4 4
explained by the following genetic diagram:

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*the fractions of the offspring phenotypes may be converted into ratios or decimal numbers. This information
may also be converted to actual numbers e.g. if the total number of the offspring is 1000, the number of short
plants will be calculated as follows;

Sex inheritance in humans

Sex inheritance is controlled by two chromosomes; X and Y chromosomes which are called sex chromosomes.
A person with genotype XX is female while a person with genotype XY is male. The chances of either having
a male child or a female child are equal as illustrated by the following diagram;

Sex linkage
Sex linkage is the occurrence of a non sex gene on a sex chromosome. If the gene is on the X chromosome it
is said to be X – linked. Examples of X – linked conditions in humans include haemophilia and colour
blindness. These X – linked conditions do not occur on the Y chromosome because they are found on the extra
portion of the X chromosome.

Haemophilia
This is an inherited disease where a human being bleeds for longer periods than normal due to poor clotting
of blood. The allele for haemophilia (h) is recessive while the allele for normal blood clotting (H) is dominant.
Possible phenotypes and genotypes are given below;

Genotype Phenotype
XHXH Normal female
X H Xh Normal carrier female
XhXh Haemophilic female
XHY Normal male
XhY Haemophilic male

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Red – green colour blindness
This is a genetic disorder where a person cannot distinguish between the colours red and green. The allele for
red – green colour blindness (r) is recessive while the allele for normal vision (R) is dominant. Possible
genotypes and phenotypes for red – green colour blindness are given below;

Genotype Phenotype
XRXR Normal female
XRXr Carrier female
XrXr Colour blind
XRY Normal male
XrY Colour blind male

CODOMINANCE
There are 4 different types of blood groups; A, B, AB and O. Blood group inheritance is controlled by three
alleles. Both IA and IB are dominant over IO but are codominant to each other.

Genotype Phenotype
IAIA A
IAIO A
IBIB B
IBIO B
IAIB AB
IOIO O

Coat colour in cattle is also a characteristic of Codominance. If a white bull is crossed with a red cow, the
offspring will neither be white or red but roan which is an intermediate colour. Roan coat colour is a mixture
of red and white. If a roan bull is crossed with a roan cow, the offspring will be a mixture of white, roan and
red.

MUTATIONS
A mutation is a spontaneous change in the structure of a gene or in the number of chromosomes. Any substance
that causes a mutation is called a mutagen or mutagenic factor. Examples of mutagens include; chemicals
radiation and viruses. There are two types of mutation; gene mutation and chromosome mutation.

Gene mutation
Gene mutation is the change in chemical structure of a gene. Consequences of gene mutations include;
1. Emergence of insect’s resistance to insecticides.
2. Microorganisms resistant to antibiotics
3. Genetic disorders which include; albinism, sickle cell anaemia, red-green colour blindness and
haemophilia.
Examples of gene mutations in humans include; albinism, sickle cell anaemia, red – green colour blindness
and haemophilia.
1. Albinism
This is an inherited disease where an organism lacks the capacity to synthesize melanin. As a result, the
skin, hair, eyebrows and eyelashes have a white colour.
2. Sickle cell anaemia
This is an inherited disease where a person has abnormal haemoglobin, making the red blood cells sickle
shaped. Sickle cell anaemia reduces the capacity of the body to transport oxygen.

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Chromosome mutation
This is a spontaneous change in the number of chromosomes. Down’s syndrome is an example of chromosome
mutation. A human being has 47 chromosomes instead of 46 chromosomes.

Classification is the orderly grouping of organisms into distinct groups based on their common features or
characteristics.

Taxonomy
Taxonomy is the branch of biology where each organism is placed in a series of groups arranged in a hierarchy.
A taxon is a group of organisms that have similar features. The highest taxon an organism can belong to is a
kingdom.
A kingdom is a group of closely related phyla. Phylum is a group of closely related classes (plural – phyla)
Class is a group of closely related orders. Order is a group of closely related families. A family is a group of
closely related genera. Genus is a group of organisms closely related but less similar than a species (plural –
genera). Species is a group of organisms having similar features and are capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile offspring.

The taxonomies of a human being, lion, wolf and maize are given in the following table;
Taxon Human being Lion Wolf Maize
Kingdom Animalia Animalia Animalia Plantae
Phylum Chordata Chordata Chordata Angiospermophyta
Class Mammalia Mammalia Mammalia Monocotyledoneae
Order Primates Carnivora Carnivora Commelinales
Family Hominid Felideae Canidae Poaceas
Genus Homo Panthera Canis Zea
Species Homo sapiens Panthera leo Canis lupus Zea mays

Nomenclature
Nomenclature is the naming of organisms with scientific names. The system of naming used is the binomial
system of nomenclature. In this system, the scientific name of each organism has two parts; the first part of
the name is genus and the second part is the name of the species.
All living organisms are placed into 5 kingdoms; kingdom Prokaryota, kingdom Protoctista, kingdom Fungi,
kingdom Plantea and kingdom Animalia.

Kingdom Prokaryota
These are unicellular organisms, examples include; bacteria and blue – green algae.

Characteristics
1. Unicellular
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2. Have no nucleus.
3. Reproduce by binary fission
4. Have a cell wall enclosed in a capsule.
5. Have flagella or cilia for motion.

Kingdom Protoctista
Examples include; plasmodium, amoeba, paramecium, chlamydomonas and algae.

Characteristics
1. Have a nucleus.
2. Some possess chloroplasts and are able to make food by photosynthesis, while some are heterotrophs.
3. They move by use of cilia, flagella or pseudopodia (amoeba use pseudopodia).
4. Some have vacuoles while others don’t have.

Kingdom Fungi
Most fungi are made of thread like structures called hyphae rather than cells. Examples include; yeast, moulds,
mushrooms.
Characteristics
1. Are either unicellular (yeast) or multicellular.
2. Have a cell wall made of chitin.
3. Reproduce asexually by means of spores or by budding.
4. Feed by saprophytic nutrition.

Kingdom Plantea
These are multicellular organisms. Examples include; Chlorophytes (algae), Bryophytes (mosses)
Pteridophytes (ferns) and Spermartophytes (coniferous plants and flowering plants).

Phylum Chlorophyta
They include algae.
Characteristics
1. They have no real roots, stems or leaves.
2. They lack xylem and phloem.
3. They live in water or very wet places.

Phylum Bryophyta
These include mosses and liverworts.
Moss; liverwort;

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Characteristics
1. Have simple stems and leaves.
2. They have rhizoids instead of roots.
3. They lack xylem and phloem vessels.
4. They reproduce by means of spores.
5. They live in wet places.

Phylum Pteridophyta
These are ferns.

Characteristics
1. Have true stems, leaves and roots.
2. Reproduce by means of spores. Spores grow at the back of leaves.
3. Have xylem and phloem.

Phylum Spermatophyta
These are seed bearing plants. They have roots, stems, leaves and vascular bundles (xylem and phloem). This
phylum is divided into class Gymnosperms and class Angiosperms.

Gymnosperms
These do not have real flowers; seeds grow inside cones (for this reason they are called coniferous plants).
Gymnosperms produce cones instead of flowers. The seeds are naked; they are not enclosed in a fruit, this is
because they have no ovary. They include; conifers, cycads and pine.

Angiosperms
These are flowering plants. Seeds grow inside a fruit which developed from an ovary. Angiosperms are further
divided into sub classes monocotyledon and dicotyledon.

Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Leaves are narrow with parallel venation. Leaves are broad with net venation.
Leaves are attached to the stem by leaf sheath. Leaves are attached to stem by leaf stalk.
Have fibrous root system. Have tap root system.
Embryo has one cotyledon. Embryo has two cotyledons.
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 Vascular bundles in the stem are scattered with no Vascular bundles in the stem are arranged in a ring
pith. around the pith.
Have no vascular cambium so do not exhibit Have vascular cambium and so exhibit secondary
secondary growth. growth.
Floral parts occur in multiples of threes Floral parts occur in multiples of four or five

Kingdom Animalia
Organisms have a nucleus, are multicellular and are heterotrophic. Phyla in kingdom Animalia include;
Phylum Porifera, Phylum Cnidaria, Phylum Annelida, Phylum Mollusca, Phylum Platyhelminthes, Phylum
Arthropoda and Phylum Chordata. Main phyla are Arthropoda and Chordata.

Phylum Arthropoda
Arthropods are animal with jointed legs, no backbone and a waterproof exoskeleton. Phylum Arthropoda is
divided into classes Arachnida, Myriapoda, Crustacea and Insecta.

Class Arachnida
These are scorpions, spiders, mites and ticks.

External features of an arachnid;

Characteristics

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1. Bodies are divided into two regions; the cephalothorax and abdomen.
2. Have no antennae.
3. Have simple eyes. They have several pairs of simple eyes.
4. Have four pairs of legs.
5. They lack wings.
6. They have pedipalps. The pedipalps are used in reproduction.
7. They have chelicerae. The chelicerae are used to pierce prey and paralyse it with poison.

Class Myriapoda
These are millipedes and centipedes.

Characteristics
1. They have a head and a segmented body.
2. Each segment has a pair of legs.
3. They have one pair of antenna
4. Have simple eyes.
5. Centipedes are carnivores while millipedes are herbivores.
6. Centipedes have flattened bodies while millipedes have cylindrical bodies.
External features of a myriapod;

Class Crustacea
Marine Crustacea are crabs, prawns, lobsters and shrimps. Freshwater Crustacea are water fleas, freshwater
shrimp and water louse. Wood lice are land- dwelling (terrestrial) Crustacea.

Characteristics
1. Aquatic Crustacea use gills for gaseous exchange.
2. They have two pairs of antennae.
3. They have two pairs of compound eyes.
4. They have two body parts; cephalothorax and abdomen.
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The diagram below shows the external features of a lobster;

Class Insecta
Insects form a very large part of Arthropods. They include; butterflies, cockroaches, mosquitoes, houseflies,
beetles and so on.

Characteristics
1. Body divided into 3 parts; head, thorax and abdomen.
2. They have one pair of antennae.
3. They have 3 pairs of legs.
4. They have compound eyes.
5. They may have 2 pairs of wings, a pair or none.
6. Gaseous exchange is through the trachea system.

Phylum Chordata
These are animals with backbones, they are called vertebrates. They include; fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds
and mammals.

Class Pisces (Fishes)

Characteristics
1. They are cold blooded.
2. They are aquatic.
3. Most have bodies covered with scales.
4. They have fins for locomotion and balance.
5. They reproduce sexually but fertilisation occurs externally.
6. Have gills for gaseous exchange.

Class Amphibia (Amphibians)

They include frogs, toads and newts (salamander).

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Characteristics
1. They are cold blooded
2. They have soft and moist skin.
3. They have four limbs.
4. They use skin and lungs for gaseous exchange.
5. Exhibit external fertilisation.

Class Reptilia (Reptiles)

They include; snakes, lizards, tortoises, crocodiles and turtles.

Characteristics
1. They are cold blooded.
2. Their skins are dry, scaly and water proof.
3. Apart from snakes, reptiles have four limbs.
4. They exhibit internal fertilisation.
5. They lay eggs with rubbery shells, these eggs are waterproof.
6. They use lungs for gaseous exchange.

Class Aves (Birds)

Characteristics
1. They are warm blooded.
2. Their body is covered with feathers.
3. Legs are covered with scales.
4. They have wings.
5. They have two legs.
6. The upper and lower jaws are extended to form a beak.
7. Fertilisation is internal and the female lays hard – shelled eggs.
8. Use lungs for gaseous exchange.
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Class Mammalia (Mammals)
They include, mouse, elephant, human being, cats, sheep, cows etc.
Characteristics
1. They are warm blooded
2. Body is covered with hair or fur.
3. They have four limbs.
4. They have mammary glands and suckle their young on milk.
5. They give birth to fully form young ones.
6. They have well developed lungs for gaseous exchange.
7. They have different types of teeth; incisors, canines, premolars and molars.

Identification keys
An identification key is a series of statements about characteristics of organisms which, if followed step by
step, makes it possible for identification or classification of organisms. In a dichotomous key, there is a series
of paired contrasting statements, leading to the identification of the organisms covered by the key.
When constructing an identification key, one must always begin by listing the characteristics of the organisms
they are trying to identify and then proceed with the construction of the key based on the listed characteristics.
An example of a dichotomous key that can be used to place an unknown vertebrate in the correct class;

An example of a dichotomous key that can be used to identify possible invertebrates that can be found in a
composite heap;

An example of a dichotomous key that can be used to identify laboratory glassware;

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124
Soil is a loose material which covers the earth’s crust.
Functions of soil
1. Provides a medium on which plants grow.
2. Provides an anchorage and support for plants.
3. Supplies plants with water and mineral salts necessary for growth.
4. Provides oxygen for root respiration.
5. It serves as shelter to some animals.
6. Man uses soil to construct buildings, roads and as a source of water and minerals and for farming.

Soil comprises of organic material and inorganic material. Organic materials are soil organisms and humus
which is formed from plant and animal remains. Inorganic materials are mineral particles, water, air and
dissolved mineral salts. Soil is made up of mineral particles, soil organisms, humus, water and air.
Mineral particles
Mineral particles include; sand, clay and gravel. Mineral particles are an important source of mineral salts.
Soil water
Soil water is important in the following ways;
1. It dissolves mineral salts in the soil.
2. It is necessary for photosynthesis.
3. It is necessary for the germination of seeds.
4. It prevents wilting.
Air
Air is important in that;
1. It provides oxygen for respiration of plant roots and soil organisms.
2. It provides oxygen necessary for seed germination.
3. It provides nitrogen necessary for synthesis of nitrates by nitrogen fixing bacteria.

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Humus
Humus has the following functions;
1. It improves the drainage and aeration of soil.
2. It improves the water holding capacity of the soil.
3. It is an important source of mineral salts.
Soil organisms
Soil organisms include; fungi, bacteria and worms. Fungi and bacteria decompose dead plants and animals
forming humus and releasing nutrients. Some bacteria form nitrates from atmospheric nitrogen. Worms burrow
the soil and improve the drainage and aeration of the soil; they also improve soil texture by putting into the
soil dead plant leaves and what they egest.

Soil can be grouped into; clay soil, sand soil and loam soil.
Clay soil
Clay soil contains more than 30% clay and less than 40 % sand. Clay particles are small in size.
Properties
1. Has a high water retaining capacity.
2. Poorly aerated.
3. Is acidic.
Clay soil is not good for growing crops because it is acidic, poorly drained and poorly aerated. Clay is good
for building and making pottery.
Sand soil
Sand soil contains more than 70% sand and less than 20% clay. Sand particles are large in size.
Properties
1. It has good drainage.
2. It has good aeration.
3. Poor in minerals.
Sand soil is not good for growing crops because it does not retain water and has fewer minerals.
Loam soil
Loam soil consists of 50% sand, 30% clay and 20% humus. The humus gives loam soil a good crumb structure.
Properties
1. Has good aeration
2. Has good drainage
3. Has a neutral pH
Loam soil is the best soil for growing crops because it is well aerated, well drained and retains enough water
and mineral salts.

Fertile soil is soil that has the capacity to produce a high crop yield for a considerable period of time. Soil
fertility depends on factors such as; presence of mineral salts, pH, aeration, drainage, good soil structure and
humus.
Mineral salts
Plants require several nutrients in order to grow properly. They are able to synthesize carbohydrates, but other
nutrients such as nitrates; phosphates etc. are absorbed from the soil by roots in form of ions.
Soil pH
Soil pH is the concentration of hydrogen ions in soil solution. Soil pH influences the growth of plants. Some
plants grow well in neutral soils, others in slightly alkaline soils and others in slightly acidic soils. Soil pH
also influences the availability of plant nutrients. Soil pH influences activities of soil organisms which in turn
influences soil fertility.
Aeration
Air is needed by plant roots and by soil organisms for metabolic processes. In this way air contributes to the
fertility of the soil.
Drainage
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Drainage is the downward movement of water in the soil. Good drainage is important for proper plant growth.

CAUSES OF LOSS OF FERTILITY IN SOIL

Fertility of the soil is lost in many ways. These include;
1. Soil erosion
Soil erosion is the removal of top soil by either wind or running water. Soil erosion is caused by;
i. Deforestation; this is the cutting down of trees indiscriminately without replacing them.
ii. Poor farming methods; a farmer loosens up the soil by ploughing and so exposes it erosion.
iii. Late burning; this makes all the plants burn because fire is fierce. The roots which hold the soil are
completely burnt.
iv. Overgrazing; this is when too many animals feed on grass in a small area. This removal of grass
promotes soil erosion since it exposes the soil.
2. Leaching
Leaching is the washing down of minerals by running water. Leaching is more in sandy soils than clayey
soils because water moves through sandy soils faster than in clayey soil. Poor farming methods and
overgrazing cause leaching.
3. Growth of weeds
Weeds are plants that grow among crops. Weeds introduce unnecessary competition for nutrients with
crops.
4. Overcrowding of plants
This is when there are too many crops in a small area. Overcrowding creates competition for nutrients and
light. Overcrowding depletes nutrients faster and hence contributes to loss of soil fertility.
5. Monoculture
This is growing of the same crop on the same piece of land for a long time. Monoculture depletes nutrients;
this is because the nutrient demand of the crop is the same every time it is grown.
6. Harvesting
When crops are harvested some nutrients are taken away with the soil. If the unwanted remains are thrown
away or completely burnt, soil nutrients are further depleted.

METHODS OF IMPROVING AND RETAINING SOIL FERTILITY

1. Drainage and aeration
In clay soil, drainage can be improved by adding lime. Lime makes clay particles cling together. This
leaves enough air spaces hence improving the drainage and aeration.
Drainage and aeration in sand soil can be improved by adding compost or farmyard manure.
2. pH
In order to improve the pH of soil; lime or calcium oxide can be added to acidic soil in order to neutralise
the acid, sulphates can be added to alkaline soil to lower the pH.
3. Weeding
Weeding is the removal of unwanted plants to leave room for wanted ones. Removal of weeds eliminates
unnecessary competition.
4. Application fertilisers
Some fertilisers change the pH of the soil while add nutrients to crops.
5. crop rotation
This is the growing of different types of crops alternately on one piece of land. Crop rotation improves soil
fertility because different crops demand different mineral salts from the soil.

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Ecology is the study of interactions of living things with each other and their environment. Terms associated
with the study of ecology;
1. Habitat; a habitat is a place where an organism lives.
2. Population; a population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same
time.
3. Community; refers to several populations of organisms living together and interacting in a given habitat.
4. Ecosystem; it is a community of living organisms interacting with one another and with their physical
environment.
5. Niche; this is a role an organism plays in an ecosystem.

Energy flow
The sun is the principal source of energy for ecosystems.
Since green plants are autotrophs, they capture light energy from the sun and convert it into chemical energy
during photosynthesis, thereby producing food for other organisms in an ecosystem. For this reason, plants are
called producers. In an ecosystem, there are 3 categories of organisms; producers, consumers and
decomposers. A producer is an organism that makes its own food using light energy from the sunlight through
photosynthesis. A consumer is an organism that gets its energy from feeding on other organisms. Decomposers
break down dead organic matter.
Plants are producers. Animals that feed on plants are called primary consumers. Those that feed on primary
consumers are called secondary consumers and those that feed on secondary consumers are called tertiary
consumers.
Food chains
A food chain is the representation of the transfer of energy from one organism to the next, beginning with the
producer. The feeding level of an organism in a food chain is called a trophic level. In every food chain,
producers occupy the first trophic level; primary consumers occupy the second trophic level; secondary
consumers occupy the third trophic level; tertiary consumers occupy the fourth trophic level and
decomposers occupy the fifth trophic level.

Examples of food chains include;

1. Grass → grasshopper → lizard → hawk
2. Leaves → caterpillar → sparrow → hawk
3. Grass → rabbit → fox
4. Grass → grasshopper → frog → snake → hawk
The organisms at the beginning of the food chain are usually numerous while the animals at the end of the
chain are often large and few in number.
Food webs
A food web is a network of several interconnected food chains. Examples of food webs;

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Ecological pyramids
Ecological pyramids are diagrammatic representations of numbers of organisms at each trophic level.
Ecological pyramids are of 3 types; pyramid of numbers, pyramid of biomass and pyramid of energy.
1. Pyramid of numbers
A pyramid of numbers shows the number of organisms at each trophic level in a food chain.

2. Pyramid of biomass
A pyramid of biomass is a diagram showing the total mass of organisms at each trophic level.
3. Pyramid of energy
The pyramid of the energy shows the energy of organisms at each trophic level.

A population is a group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time.
Factors affecting population growth rate
Population growth rate is the increase in the size of a population per unit time. The growth rate of a population
is affected by the following factors; birth rate, immigration, death rate and emigration. Birth rate is the number
of births per unit number of adults in a population. Immigration is the movement of more organisms into a
population. Death rate is the number of deaths per unit number of adults in a population. Emigration is the
movement of organisms out of a population.
These factors are affected by biotic and abiotic factors. Biotic factors include; food availability, predators,
parasites, disease and competition. Abiotic factors include; climate change, availability of water, oxygen, light
and pollutants.
Abundant food or a good food supply will enable organisms to breed more successfully to produce more
offspring; this will lead to an increase in population size. Shortage of food can result in starvation, leading to
death or force emigration, reducing the population.
If there is heavy predation of a population, the rate of breeding may be unable to produce enough organisms
to replace those eaten, so the population will drop.
Disease can be a problem in large populations because it can spread easily from one individual to another.
Epidemics can reduce population sizes very rapidly.
A high birth rate and a high rate of immigration lead to a positive population growth rate. A high death rate
and a high rate of emigration lead to a negative population growth rate.

Population growth of an organism follows an S – shaped pattern (sigmoid curve).

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This curve is made of three phases;
1. Lag phase; this is when there is very little increase in population size because the organisms are not yet
fully adapted to the environment.
2. Exponential / logarithmic phase; this is when organisms are fully adapted to the environment and are
reproducing at a fast rate.
3. Stationary phase; this is when the birth rate equals the death rate.

Nutrient cycles ensure that nutrients are always available in different forms.

Carbon occurs in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide gas. It is found in fuel such as coal, and in plant and animal
tissues. The carbon cycle is the cycling of carbon in the biosphere. The carbon cycle involves processes that
remove carbon from the atmosphere and those that add carbon to the atmosphere. The processes involved in a
carbon cycle are summarised in the diagram below;

Photosynthesis
Green plants remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as a result of their photosynthesis.
Fossilisation
Environments that prevent rapid decay produce fossils. The carbon in the dead organism becomes trapped and
compressed and can remain there for millions of years. The carbon may form fossil fuels such as coal,
petroleum (crude oil) and natural gas.
Respiration
Plants and animals obtain energy by respiration. The glucose in their cells is converted to carbon dioxide and
water. The carbon dioxide and water are excreted so the carbon dioxide returns to the atmosphere.
Decomposition
Decomposition is the process by which complex organic molecules are broken down into simple inorganic
molecules by the action of decomposers (microorganisms - fungi and bacteria). Decomposers feed on dead
organic matter. Decomposers include fungi and bacteria. As decomposers feed on dead organic matter; the

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carbon becomes part of the decomposers bodies. When the decomposers respire, they release carbon dioxide
in the air.
Combustion (burning)
When carbon containing fuels such as wood, coal, petroleum and natural gas are burned, the carbon is oxidised
to carbon dioxide (C + 02 → CO2).

Nitrogen occurs in the atmosphere as nitrogen gas, in plants and animals in form of proteins and in soil as
nitrates. The nitrogen cycle is the recycling of nitrogen in the biosphere. The processes involved in converting
nitrogen from one form to another in the nitrogen cycle are summarised in the diagram below;

Nitrification
Nitrification is the process by which ammonia (NH3) is oxidised to form nitrite (NO2-) and nitrite is oxidised
to from nitrates (NO3-). Nitrification is carried out by nitrifying bacteria. Bacterium Nitrosomonas is
responsible for the conversion of ammonia to nitrite. Bacterium Nitrobacter is responsible for the conversion
of nitrite to nitrate.

Nitrogen fixation
Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen gas from the atmosphere is converted to absorbable nitrogen
compounds by action of nitrogen fixing bacteria. Examples of nitrogen fixing bacteria include; rhizobium,
clostridium and Azotobacter. Rhizobium is a symbiotic bacteria found in the root nodules of leguminous plants
such as beans, peas, clover and groundnuts. Clostridium and Azotobacter are free living in the soil.

Denitrification
Denitrification is the process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria.

Lightning
The high temperature of lightning discharge causes some of the nitrogen and oxygen in the air to combine
nitrogen oxides. Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain water and form nitric acid (a weak acid). Nitric acid contains
nitrates which plants are able to absorb.

Water exists as a solid (ice), a liquid (water) and a gas (vapour). Water circulates between open water bodies
(oceans, seas, lakes and rivers), the atmosphere and land to form the water cycle. Processes that take place
during the water cycle are summarised in the diagram below;

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Plants take up water from the soil by osmosis, and lose it through transpiration. The sun shining and wind
blowing over the water bodies evaporate water from their exposed surfaces. The water vapour then condenses
to form clouds. The clouds then release water in form of rain or snow (precipitation). The rain collects in
streams, rivers and lakes and finds its way to seas and oceans.

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms interacting with one another and with their physical
environment. An ecosystem is made up of living (biotic) and non – living (abiotic) factors that interact with
one another to form a stable self-sustaining system. Biotic factors include; plants, animals and other
microorganisms. Abiotic factors include; light, temperature, humidity, pH and wind.
The habitat of fish might be a pond. In the pond, probably there will be many fish forming a population of
fish. But fish will not be the only organisms in the pond, there will be many aquatic plants and animals making
up a pond community. The living organisms in the pond, the water in it, and the mud make up an ecosystem.

Effects of agriculture on the ecosystem

Agriculture is the process of producing food, feed and other desired products by cultivation of certain plants
and raising of livestock.
Advantages of agriculture:
1. It ensures that there is enough food for increasing populations of human beings.
2. It makes it possible for newly developed varieties of crops and breeds of livestock are nurtured with little
competition from wild types.
Disadvantages of agriculture:
1. It contributes to deforestation.
2. Some chemicals used in agriculture e.g. herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers cause pollution of the
environment.

Deforestation
Deforestation is the permanent removal of trees.
Effects of deforestation include;
 Animals living in the forest lose their homes and sources of food; plant species become extinct as the land
is used for purposes such as agriculture, housing and roads.
 Promotes soil erosion. Soil erosion is the displacement of the upper layer of soil. Soil erosion by wind and
water is more likely to happen as there are no roots to hold the soil in place. The soil can end up in rivers
and lakes destroying the habitats there. Soil erosion leads to flooding as there is no soil to absorb and hold
rainwater.
 Carbon dioxide builds up in the atmosphere as there are fewer trees to photosynthesise. This increases
global warming. Climate change affects habitats.
 It promotes leaching. Leaching is the loss of water soluble plant nutrients from the soil.

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Pollution is the addition of harmful substances to the environment. A pollutant is any substance that pollutes
the environment. Pollution affects the entire ecosystem.

Water pollution
Water pollutants include; untreated sewage, oil spills and agricultural run – off containing fertilisers,
herbicides and pesticides.
When water from raw sewage, fertilisers, herbicides or pesticides is discharged into rivers it contains large
quantities of phosphates and nitrates, which allow aquatic plant life to grow very rapidly.
Eutrophication is the enrichment of natural waters with nutrients that allow the water to support an increasing
amount of plant life. If these nitrates and phosphates enter a water system, they become available in excess, a
condition known as eutrophication, these nutrients become available for algae, algae absorb the nutrients and
grow rapidly, forming a blanket on the surface of water, blocking light from reaching the algae below. Without
light algae will die. Bacteria decompose the dead algae using up oxygen in the water for respiration. Animals
in the water die through lack of oxygen. As oxygen levels drop, aquatic animals such as fish cannot breathe,
so they die and the whole ecosystem is destroyed.
Herbicides and pesticides are poisonous to aquatic animals and humans who may drink the water.
Oil spillages are toxic, once the oil seeps into the soil or water systems, habitats are destroyed. Oil limits the
supply of oxygen to aquatic plants and animals, resulting in death. Oil also sticks to feathers of some aquatic
birds, making it difficult for them to swim and reducing their buoyancy.
Water pollution can be prevented by treating sewage waste, containing oil spills and reducing on the use of
fertilisers and pesticides.

Air pollution
Air pollutants include; nitrogen oxides, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide and lead
compounds. Nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain drops and form acid rain. Acid rain dissolves aluminium salts in
the soil; these salts eventually reach toxic levels in lakes and streams. Oxides of nitrogen also take part in
reactions with other air pollutants and produce ozone. Carbon dioxide causes global warming, which in turn
causes drastic climate changes, resulting in droughts and floods.
Carbon monoxide reduces the capacity of blood to transport oxygen; leading to breathlessness, headache and
suffocation in human beings.
Sulphur dioxide irritates eyes and respiratory tract, causing breathing problems. When sulphur dioxide
dissolves in rain water, it forms acid rain. The acid rain corrodes buildings. Acid rain lowers the pH in rivers
and lakes, killing aquatic organisms. When acid rain falls on plants, it reduces their growth and damages their
leaves.
Air pollution can be prevented by making automobile engines efficient to ensure complete combustion, using
more efficient furnaces, use alternative sources of energy other than fossil fuel e.g. solar energy, conversion
of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid by passing it through water tanks.

Land pollution
Land pollutants include non – biodegradable substances such as plastics, heavy metals, garbage and use of
pesticides. Non – biodegradable substances are substances that cannot be decomposed by microorganisms.
As plastic in water gradually deteriorate, they fragment into tiny pieces, which are eaten by fish and birds,
making them ill.
Pesticides may bring about loss of soil fertility leading to reduced vegetation.
Heavy metals such as lead and mercury cannot be excreted by bodies of organisms and are poisonous when
they reach certain levels and may lead to deaths of higher predators.
Land pollution can be prevented by avoiding careless dumping and accumulation of wastes, recycle non –
biodegradable substances, reduce the use of pesticides and creating dumpsites away from residential areas.

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Conservation is the protection and management of the earth’s natural resources. Natural resources include
biotic factors (plants and animals) and abiotic factors (soil, water, altitude and temperature). Conservation is
important for the preservation of species and balance of nature.
Many plant and animal species are threatened with extinction. Some of these plant species are used to get
extracts from which drugs are made. Conservation helps to prevent endangered species from going into
extinction. Endangered species can be protected in the following ways;
 Protect the natural habitat. By protecting habitats, organisms can be protected.
 Education; an environmental education programme for learners and people in the community to
educate them on deforestation, poaching, fishing, alternative means of generating income
 Reduce, reuse and recycle; by recycling and reusing things we can reduce the impact on our
environment.
 Use fewer herbicides and pesticides; herbicides and pesticides are dangerous pollutants that affect
living organisms at many levels because they take long to break down and as a result they build up in
soils and food chains, harming organisms that feed on them.
An ecosystem that is destroyed is not balanced, so organisms in an ecosystem must be checked. Levels of
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air should be maintained. Water catchment areas should be maintained. A
clean environment should be maintained.
In order to conserve and preserve our earth we need to reduce, reuse and recycle.

Reduce
Reduce means using fewer resources. We need to help our environment; we can reduce by:
 Buying products from recycled materials.
 Buying products made locally, so less energy is used for transport.
 Buying products that do not have a lot of packaging.
 Avoid buying disposable goods. They are more expensive as you throw them away and replace them.
 Use a dish cloth (kitchen towel) instead of paper towels.
 Make double sided photocopies whenever possible.
 Save energy by turning off lights that you are not using.
 Reduce the amount of travelling in fuel driven vehicles. Cycle or walk instead of driving.
 Save water by closing the tap while brushing your teeth.

Reuse
To reuse something is to use it again instead of throwing it away.
Ideas of reusing items include;
 Return returnable bottles.
 Use empty bottles, jars, shoe boxes for storage containers.
 Turn kitchen waste into compost.
 Use envelopes and paper printed on one side for making lists.
 Reuse shopping bags or take own cloth bags to shops.
 Repair broken appliances.
 Sell used clothes, appliances and furniture or donate them to needy people.

Recycling
Recycling is a series of steps in which a used product is reprocessed, remade and sold as a new product.
Recycling is a form of environmental management. You can contribute to recycling by:
 Buying products made from recycled materials.
 Recycling products that have been bought.
Products that you can recycle include: all types of paper, glass, metal cans, all types of plastic and oil.
Reasons for recycling;
1. It is a fuel source; methane from garbage serves as a cooking gas.
2. Compost; organic particles can be recycled as compost. This improves soil texture and enriches it with
nutrients.
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3. Recycling paper saves forests as it reduces the need to increase deforestation.
4. Reduces air pollution

Sustainable use of resources

Sustainable use of resources refers to the long – term ability of an ecosystem to sustain life without irreversibly
damaging the ecosystem.
In order to sustain resources, we need to;
 Avoid deforestation
Deforestation destroys habitats of several plant and animal species, leading to desertification and
destruction of the country’s rich biodiversity.
 Avoid over fishing
It’s important to maintain fish stocks at a level where breeding continues or some species may become
extinct.
 Avoid over hunting
Hunting is controlled by strict rules, this is in order to avoid over hunting and to give animals time to
breed.
 Encourage game keeping
Game keeping is encouraged as it offers visitors the opportunity to observe animals in their natural
habitat.

Biodiversity is the variety of life.

Importance of biodiversity
Biodiversity is important because it provides us with our many basic needs such as food, fuel, shelter and
medicine. Ecosystems provide services such as pollination, seed dispersal, climate regulation, water
purification, nutrient cycling and control of agricultural pests. Biodiversity also holds value for potential
benefits not yet recognised such as new medicines. Biodiversity brings about nutrient storage and recycling.
By conserving biodiversity, we preserve and maintain ecosystems. Conservation of species could also result
in economic and social development for local communities in form of ecotourism.

Adaptations of organisms to their environment

Organisms are adapted to live, survive and reproduce in their environments. For example:
1. Fish are adapted to live in water, their bodies are covered with scales and they have fins which enable them
to swim, they use gills for gaseous exchange, they are cold blooded, they lay eggs in water.
2. Insects have an exoskeleton made up of chitin (chitin prevents water loss and hence prevents them from
drying, they reproduce by laying eggs, gaseous exchange occurs through the tracheal system.
3. Mammals have lungs for gaseous exchange, they have hair or fur which helps keep them warm, they have
sense organs, care for their young ones.
4. Plants have chloroplasts to make their own food, have roots to anchor them firmly to the ground and to
absorb water and mineral salts, they reproduce by means of seeds (sexually) or by means of spores
(asexually).

Impact of human activities on organisms

Plants and animals are threatened with extinction due to human activities such as:
1. Hunting: hunting is a source of income; people are engaged in illegal trade of elephant tusks, rhinoceros
horns, bush meat as well as animal skin. Hunting can be controlled by strict legislative laws, this will help
prevent loss of biodiversity.
2. Overfishing: it is important to prevent overfishing in the breeding season as this may lead to loss of fish
species.
3. Charcoal production: charcoal production brings about deforestation and charcoal is a source of energy for
many. It is important to keep planting trees.
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Economic reasons for maintaining biodiversity
All living organisms play an important role in the ecosystem and as human beings we benefit in the following
ways:
1. Ecotourism: Ecotourism provides people with a means to explore the natural world, tourists enjoy the
diversity and in a way generate a source of income.
2. Medicinal benefits: plants are a source of most medicines be it herbs or western medicines.
3. Source of food: both plants and animals are a good source of food to many animals.
4. Agricultural benefits: most plants are a good source of food to many animals and a source of shelter to
some animals.
Social benefits: when biodiversity is maintained there will be natural recycling of oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen and water, which will benefit the entire ecosystem. It will also bring about purification of water, help
make the soil fertile for proper plant g

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