Introduction to Electrical Circuits

Mid Term
Lecture - 11

Faculty Name: Mr. A N M Shahebul Hasan

Email ID: [email protected]

Reference Book:
Introductory Circuit Analysis
Robert L. Boylestad, 11th Edition

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W6 C11 Chapter 13 13.2 SINUSOIDAL ac VOLTAGE 13.1 Quiz/
CHARACTERISTICS AND DEFINITIONS Presentation
13.5 GENERAL FORMAT FOR THE 13.8-
SINUSOIDAL 13.11
VOLTAGE OR CURRENT
13.6 PHASE RELATIONS 13.12

13.7 AVERAGE VALUE 13.14-

13.16
13.8 EFFECTIVE (rms) VALUES 13.20-
13.24
C12 Chapter 14 14.6 COMPLEX NUMBERS 14.16-
14.18

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 OBJECTIVES
✮ Become familiar with the characteristics of a sinusoidal waveform,
including its general format, average value, and effective value.

✮ Be able to determine the phase relationship between two sinusoidal

waveforms of the same frequency.

✮ Understand how to calculate the average and effective values of any

waveform.

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 Introduction
Alternating Waveform
• Alternating -->> waveform alternates between two
prescribed levels in a set time sequence.

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Definitions
Waveform: The graph of instantaneous values of an alternating quantity plotted
against time is called waveform.

Periodic Waveform: A waveform that continually repeats itself after the same time
interval.
Different Types of Waveform

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Definitions
Instantaneous Value: The value of an alternating quantity at a particular
instant or moment of time is known as its instantaneous value.

At t= 1 ms the current is 2 A
At t= 2 ms the voltage is 3 V
At t= 3 ms the current is 3 A
At t= 5 ms the voltage is 2 V
At t= 5 ms the current is -1.5A
At t= 10 ms the voltage is -2.5 V
At t= 7 ms the current is -4 A

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Definitions
Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative values of alternating quantity is called cycle.
A cycle can also be defined as that interval of time during which complete set of non-repeating events or
wave form variations occur (containing positive as well as negative loops). One such cycle of the alternating
quantity is shown in the following Figure.

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Definitions
Time Period (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete its one cycle is
known as time period which is denoted by T seconds.
➢ After every seconds, the cycle of an alternating quantity repeats.
➢ The period of an alternating current or voltage is the smallest value of time which
separates recurring values of the alternating quantity.

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Faculty of Engineering
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Definitions
Frequency (f): The number of cycles completed by an alternating quantity per second is
known as frequency. It is denoted by f and it is measured in cycle/second which is known
as Hertz, denoted by Hz.

As time period (T) is time for one cycle i.e. seconds/cycle and frequency is cycles/second,
it can be said that frequency is the reciprocal of the time period.

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Peak or Amplitude or Maximum Value: The maximum instantaneous value attained by
an alternating quantity during positive and negative half-cycle is called its amplitude or
peak value. In the following Figure Em or Ep or Vm or Vp is the peak value.

Peak-to-Peak Value: The full voltage

between positive and negative peaks of
the waveform, that is, the sum of the
magnitude of the positive and negative
peaks is called Peak-to-peak value
which is denoted by Ep-p or Vp-p.

V p− p = 2V p =2Vm

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Sinusoidal ac Voltage Characteristics and Definitions

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General Format for the Sinusoidal Voltage or Current

• The basic mathematical format for the

sinusoidal waveform is:

where:
Am is the peak value of the waveform
 is the unit of measure for the horizontal axis

• The general format of a sine wave can also

2
be as:
=
T
where:
  = 2f
The angular velocity () is: =
t
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General Format for the Sinusoidal Voltage or Current

For electrical quantities such as current and voltage,

the general format is:
i = Imsin t = Imsin 
e = Emsin t = Emsin 
where:
the capital letters with the subscript m represent the
amplitude, and
the lower case letters i and e represent the instantaneous
value of current and voltage, respectively, at any time t.

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Faculty of Engineering
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 Phase Relations
• If the waveform is shifted to the right or left of 0°, the expression
becomes:

where:  is the angle (in degrees or radians) that the waveform has been shifted

• The phase relationship between two waveforms indicates which one leads
or lags the other, and by how many degrees or radians.

• The terms leading and lagging are used to indicate the relationship
between two sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency plotted on the
same set of axes

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 Phase Relations
• If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive-going
(increasing with the time) slope before 0°:

• If the waveform passes through the horizontal axis with a positive-going

slope after 0°:

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Phase Relations

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 Phase Relations
Example 13.12 What is the phase relationship between the sinusoidal waveforms of each
of the following sets?

Solution: b. i leads v by 80º, or v lags i by 80º.

a. i leads v by 40º, or v lags i by 40º. c. i leads v by 110º, or v lags i by 110º.

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Phase Relations

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 Average Value
The average value of an alternating quantity is defined as that value which is
obtained by averaging all the instantaneous values over a period of half-cycle
for a symmetrical waveform and full-cycle for a asymmetrical waveform.

Average value can be calculated by the following methods:

❑ Graphical Method
❑ AnalyticalMethod

The average value can be obtained by taking ratio of area under curve over to
length of the base of curve.

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Faculty of Engineering
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 Average Value Calculation Using Analytical Method
Consider sinusoidally varying current: i(t) = I m sin

Consider elementary interval of instant ‘dθ’ as shown in

the following Figure. The average value of current can
be calculated by:

The average value of a sinusoidal quantity is 63.7% of its maximum value. The
average is are denoted by upper-case letter.

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Explanation:

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 Thank You

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