CONTROL SYSTEM

SHORT NOTES SESSION

Topic We will Cover

 Transfer Function (BDR, SFG)

 Time Domain Analysis

 Stability Analysis

 Root Locus
Nyquist Analysis
 Frequency Analysis
Bode Analysis
 Controllers

 Compensator

 State Space Analysis

 Control System Analysis

Transfer Function Approach State Model Approach

TRANSFER FUNCTION APPROACH

𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑂𝑓 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Transfer Function=
𝐿𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑂𝑓 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Initial Condition=0

𝐿[𝑐 𝑡 ] 𝐶(𝑠)
𝑇 𝑠 = = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 0
𝐿[𝑟 𝑡 ] 𝑅(𝑠)
CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Open Loop Control System

Reference Input Controller Process Reference

output
 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Closed Loop Control System

Reference Input Controller Process Reference output

±

Feedback ,H(s)

𝐺(𝑠) 1
𝑇 𝑠 = 𝐸 𝑠 /𝑅(𝑆) =
(1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 ) (1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠 )
Effect Of Negative Feedback

• Stability
• Negative Feedback decreases Gain
• Improves Dynamic Response Of System
• Reduces the effect of disturbance signal or noise
• Improves the Bandwidth
Sensitivity

𝜕𝑇/𝑇 %𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 .𝐺 1
𝑇
𝑆𝐺 =
𝜕𝐺/𝐺
=
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐺
=
𝜕𝐺 .𝑇
= 1+𝐺𝐻

𝜕𝑇/𝑇 %𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑖𝑛 𝑇 𝜕𝑇 .𝐻 −𝐺𝐻

𝑆𝐺𝑇 =
𝜕𝐻/𝐻
=
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐻
=
𝜕𝐻 .𝑇
= 1+𝐺𝐻
≅ −1
Signal flow graph

SFG

MASON’S RULE: 𝐶(𝑠) σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖 Δ𝑖

=
𝑅(𝑠) Δ

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains
of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) – (sum of the
products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not touch each
other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop
gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th
forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
TIME RESPONSE
ANALYSIS
 Time Response Analysis

Standard Input Test Signals

(a) Step function

r(t)= Au (t)
(b) Ramp Function

r(t)= Atu (t)

(c) Parabolic function

𝐴𝑡 2
R(t) = U(t)
2
First Order System
Time response of a first order control system

1/ST

𝐶(𝑠) 1
Transfer Function =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑆𝑇 + 1
Response to Unit Impulse Input Function
1 −𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑇𝑢 𝑡
𝑇

Response to Unit step Input Function

1
𝐶 𝑆 =
𝑆(𝑆𝑇+1)
𝑡
−
𝑐 𝑡 = 1−𝑒 𝑇 𝑢 𝑡
𝑡
−𝑇
𝑒 𝑡 =𝑟 𝑡 −𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡
𝑡
−𝑇
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒 𝑢 𝑡 =0
𝑡→∞

1 −𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑇𝑢 𝑡
𝑇
Response to Unit ramp Input Function
1
𝐶 𝑆 =
𝑆2(𝑆𝑇+1)

𝑐 𝑡 = (𝑡 − 𝑇 − 𝑒 −𝑡𝑇 )𝑢(𝑡)

𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝑐 𝑡 = (𝑇 − 𝑒 −𝑡𝑇 𝑢 𝑡 )
−𝑡
𝑒𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑡 ∞ (𝑇 − 𝑒 𝑇𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑇
Second Order System
Time response of a Second order control system

𝜔2𝑛
𝑠(𝑆 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛)
ωd= 𝜔𝑛 (1 − 𝛿2)

𝐶(𝑠) 𝜔2𝑛
Transfer Function = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2δω𝑛 + 𝜔2𝑛
Response to Unit step Input Function

Case-1 δ<1 underdamped Response

1 − 𝛿2
𝑐 𝑡 =
𝑒 −𝛿𝜔𝑛𝑡
sin 𝜔𝑑𝑡 + 𝜑 𝑢 𝑡 𝜑 = tan−1
1−𝛿2 𝛿

Case-2 δ=0 undamped Response

𝑐 𝑡 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑛𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

Case-2 δ=1 critically Damped Response

− 𝛿ω𝑛𝑡
𝑐 𝑡 = 1 + 𝜔𝑛𝑡 [1 − 𝑒 ]
Pole Locations for Different cases, For
a second Order system.
Transient Response Specifications of
second order control system
(a) Delay Time (td)
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 50 % of the final
value.
1 + 0.7𝜉
𝑡𝑑 =
𝜔𝑛
(b) Rise Time (tr)
It is the time required for the response to rise from 0 to 100%
(underdamped) 5 to 95% ( Critical damped) 10 to 90% ( over damped) of the
final value
−1 1 − 𝜉2
𝜋 − tan
𝜉 𝜋 − cos −1 𝜉
𝑡𝑟 = =
𝜔𝑑 𝜔𝑑
(c) Peak Time (tp)
It is the time required for the response to rise from zero to peak of the time
response.
𝑛𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑑
Where,
for n-1,2,3,…..
n-1, first overshoot
n-2, first undershoot
(d) Settling Time (ts)
It is the time required for response to rise and reach to the tolerance band.

4
For 2% tolerance band, 𝑡𝑠 = 4𝜏 =
𝜉𝜔𝑛

3
For 5% tolerance band, 𝑡𝑠 = 3𝜏 =
𝜉𝜔𝑛
(e) Peak over shoot (Mp)
It gives the normalised difference between the steady state output to first peak
of the time response.
𝜋𝜉
−
1−𝜉2
%𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒 × 100%
The time period of the oscillation before reaching the steady state.
T oscillation=2 π/ⴍd

Number of Oscillation before reaching steady state is

N= T settling/TOscillation
Steady state Error
Steady state error is caused by imperfection in the system components deterioration and ageing of components.
Error E(s) depends on input as well the system components and their layout. Also depends on the type of system

R(s) E(s)
G(s)
–

𝑅 𝑠
𝐸 𝑠 =
1+𝐺 𝑠 𝐻 𝑠
H(s)
Static Error Coefficients

Static position Error Coefficient

Kp = lim G(s)H(s)
s→0
Static velocity Error coefficient
Kv = lim sG(s)H(s)
S→0

Static Acceleration Error coefficient

Ka = lim S2 G(s)H(s)
S→0
Steady state Error for step , Ramp and parabolic input for different Number Type of
system.
𝑒 ∞
Number 𝑅 𝑅
Error constants Kp Kv Ka 𝑅
Type 𝐾𝑣 𝐾𝑎
1 + 𝐾𝑃
0 Finite 0 0 Finite ∞ ∞
1 ∞ Finite 0 0 Finite ∞
2 ∞ ∞ Finite 0 0 FINITE
≥3 ∞ ∞ ∞ 0 0 0
STABILITY
Stability

A Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is said to be stable if the following conditions are
satisfied:
1. If the system is excited by a bounded input, the output must be bounded.
2. If input to the system is zero, the output must be zero, irrespective.
Marginal Stable System

A LTI system is said to be marginal stable if for the bounded input, the output
maintains the constant amplitude and frequency.

Absolute Stable System

System is stable for all the value of system gain (K) from 0 to ∞.

Conditional Stable system

System is stable for a certain range of K.
Routh Hurwitz (R-H) Criterion
Purpose
To find:
1. Closed loop system stability
2. Number of closed loop pole in right side or left of the s- plane.
3. Range of K for Conditionally stable system.
4. Value of K required for marginal stability and thereby, determine the
frequency of oscillations.
5. To find a closed loop system stability by using R-H criteria we need
characteristic equation.
General nth order characteristics equation is
a0sn + a1sn-1 + a2sn-2 + . . . + an-1s1 + an = 0
• Routh array
1. For closed loop system to be stable, all the coefficient in the first column must be
positive and there should not be any missing coefficient in the first column.
2. If there is any sign change in the first column of the Routh array then system is
unstable.
3. Number of sign changes is equal to number or roots lying in the rights side of the
s- plane.
• Magnitude and sign of every term in each row and column depend on first
column element, therefore we always see first column term.

• The presence of zero in the first column of the Routh’s tabulation leads to
following conclusions.

1. Equal real roots with opposite signs.

2. Pair of conjugate roots on imaginary axis.

 Difficulties and Limitations of Routh Array
1. The Routh array is applicable to LTI System only.
2. It determines poles in LHS or RHS of s- plane but not their exact location.
3. whenever any one coefficient is zero in first column then replace zero by smallest
positive constant (ϵ) and continue the Routh array, finally substitute ϵ = 0 and check
for the sign change.
4. When Routh array ends, abruptly, Construct an Auxilliary equation and differentiate
it to get new coefficient to complete to the Routh array.
5. When the system is marginally stable, find the frequency of sustained oscillations
from Auxilliary equation should be an even polynomial of order two only.
Root Locus
Root locus is defined as the locus of closed loop poles obtained when system gain K is
varied from 0 to ∞.
Angle Condition

Angle condition is used for checking whether certain points lie on root locus or not
and hence, the validity of root locus for closed loop poles. For a point to lie on root
locus, the angle evaluated at that point must be an odd multiple of ± 1800 i.e. ±(2q +
1)1800 .
Magnitude condition
The magnitude condition is used for finding the system gain K at any point on root
locus.
|G(s) H(s) | = 1
Construction Rules of Root Locus

1. Root locus is symmetrical about real axis.

2. Let P = Number of open loop poles
Z = Number of open loop zeros

If P > Z
Then (a) The number of branches of root locus =P
(b) The number of branches terminating at zero = Z
(c) The number of branches terminating at infinity = P – Z
3. A point, on real axis is said to be on root locus if, to the right side of this point,
the sum of number of open loops poles and zeros is an odd number.
Angle of ASYMPTOTES

Number of asymptotes = P – Z
2𝑞+1 180°
Angle of =
𝑃−𝑍
(where, q 0, 1,2,. . .)
Centroid
Centroid is the point of intersection of asymptote on the real axis.

∑Real part of open loops − ∑Real of open loop Zeros

Centroid =
𝑃−𝑍
Break away point

They are the points where multiple roots of characteristic equation occurs.
Procedure to find out break away point:
(a) Construct characteristic equation i.e. 1+G(s) H(s) = 0.
(b) Write K in terms of s.
(c) Find dK
(d) The root of dK = 0 give break away points.
Intersection of root locus with imaginary axis

Roots of auxiliary equation at K =K(marginal) from Routh array gives intersection of

root locus with imaginary axis.
Angle of departure and arrival
The angle of departure is tangent to the root locus at the complex poles.
The angle of arrival is tangent to the root locus at the complex zero.

ɸD = 180o + ɸ

ɸA = 180o - ɸ ɸ = ɸZ - ɸp
Where, ɸZ :- Sum of all the angles subtended by remaining zeros
ɸp :- Sum of all the angle subtended by poles
Effect of Addition of Pole
1. Operating range of K decreases for system to be stable.
2. Relative stability reduces.
3. System becomes more oscillatory.
4. The break away point shift towards the imaginary axis.
5. Damping factor decreases and system becomes unstable.
6. Setting time (Tr ) and bandwidth increases.
7. Rise time (Tr ) decreases.
Effect of Addition of Zero
1. System become stable.

2. Relative Stability improves.

3. Range ok K for stability increases.

4. System becomes less oscillatory.

5. Break away point shift towards the left side of the s- plane.

6. Damping factor increases.

7. Bandwidth decreases.…………………………………
FREQUENCY DOMAIN
SPECIFICATION
Frequency Domain Specification

𝐺(𝑠)
𝑀 𝑠 = Putting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
(1 + 𝐺 𝑠 𝐻(𝑠)
|𝐺 𝑗ω |
|𝑀 𝑗ω| =
|(1 + 𝐺 𝑗ω 𝐻(𝑗ω)|
For a second order control system
𝜔2𝑛
𝑀(𝑠) =
𝑠2+2𝑠δω𝑛+𝜔2𝑛

𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 2𝛿2 + 4𝛿4 − 4𝛿2 + 2

𝜔2𝑛
𝑀(𝑗ω) =
−ω2+𝑗2δω𝑛+𝜔2𝑛

𝜔2𝑛
|𝑀 𝑗ω | =
√( 𝜔2𝑛−ω2 +𝑗2δω𝑛+𝜔2𝑛
𝐵𝑊 = 𝜔𝑐 = 𝜔𝑛 1 − 2𝛿2 + 4𝛿4 − 4𝛿2 + 2

ωr= 𝜔2𝑛 (1 − 2𝛿2)

1
𝑀𝑟 =
2𝛿 (1−𝛿2)
POLAR PLOT
Polar Plot
It is a plot of absolute values of magnitude and phase angle in degree of open loop
transfer function G(jω) H(jω) versus ω drawn on polar coordinates

im [G(jω) H(jω

[re G(jω) H(jω)]

General shapes of Polar Plot

Type -0/ order – 1

1 im [G(jω) H(jω
𝐺 𝑠 =
1+𝑇𝑠

[re G(jω) H(jω)]

General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type -0/ order – 2
1
𝐺 𝑠 = [re G(jω) H(jω)]
1 + 𝑇1 𝑠 1 + 𝑇2 𝑠
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type -0/ order – 3
1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]
𝐺 𝑠 =
1 + 𝑇1 𝑠 1 + 𝑇2 𝑠 1 + 𝑇3 𝑠
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type -0/ order – 4

1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

𝐺 𝑠 =
1 + 𝑇1 𝑠 1 + 𝑇2 𝑠 1 + 𝑇3 𝑠 1 + 𝑇4 𝑠
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type –2/ order –2

1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

𝐺 𝑠 = 2
s
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type –2/ order –3

1 [re G(jω) H(jω)]

𝐺 𝑠 =
s2 1 + 𝑇𝑠
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type –2/ order –4
1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠2 1 + 𝑇1 𝑠 1 + 𝑇2 𝑠 [re G(jω) H(jω)]
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type –2/ order –5
1
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠2 1 + 𝑇1 𝑠 1 + 𝑇2 𝑠 1 + 𝑇3 𝑠 [re G(jω) H(jω)]
General shapes of Polar Plot
im [G(jω) H(jω
Type –3/ order –4
1
𝐺 𝑠 = 3
𝑠 1 + 𝑇𝑠 [re G(jω) H(jω)]
Stability from Frequency Response Plot

Phase Margin
𝑃𝑀 = 1800 + < 𝐺 𝐽𝜔 𝐻(𝐽𝜔)

1 1
Gain Margin (G.M) 𝐺. 𝑀 = =
𝐺 𝐽𝜔 𝐻 𝐽𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝑃𝐶
𝑋
=

1
𝐺. 𝑀 𝑑𝐵 = 20log
𝑥

Stable ωgc< ωpc G.M, P.M POSITIVE

Unstable ωgc>ωpc G.M ,P.M NEGATIVE

Marginally Stable ωgc=ωpc G.M , P.M ZERO

NYQUIST STABILITY CRITERIA
Nyquist Stability Criteria
• Nyquist stability criteria.
• It is mapping of imaginary axis of S- Plane to G(s) H(s) plane.
• This mapping is unique.
• Closed contour on S- plane does not include any pole (open loop).

N=Z-P
N Number of encirclement of ( -1 + j0) point in clockwise direction.

Z Number of closed loop poles on the right half of S – Plane.

P Number of poles ( open pole) on the right of S- plane.

• For system to be stable Z Must be zero i.e. N =-P.

• It implies that encirclement of ( -1 + j0) point must be equal to number of right half
plane poles (open loop) in anticlockwise direction.
• For minimum phase system Nyquist stability criteria says that there should be no
encirclement of ( -1 + j0) point.
• For minimum phase system polar plot is sufficient to investigate whether or not the
closed loop system is stable.
• It is applicable to both minimum and non minimum phase system.
BODE PLOT
Bode Plot
Bode plot is Variation of magnitude of Sinusoidal transfer Function expressed in
decibel and corresponding phased angle in degrees being plotted w.r.t frequency on a
logarithmic scale in rectangular axis

𝑀𝑑𝐵 = 20log |𝐺 𝑗ω 𝐻( 𝑗ω |

imajinary part
<∅= tan−1
real part
Bode Plots of K

M φ

20log10K 1800

log10ω log10ω

-1800
 𝟏
Bode Plots of
𝑺𝑵

M φ

-20NdB/decade
-N900

log10ω log10ω

-1800
 𝟏
Bode Plots of
(𝟏+𝑺𝑻)

M φ

𝜔=1/T 𝜔=1/T
log10ω log10ω
-450

-20NdB/decade -900
Bode Plots of (1+ST)

M φ

900
20NdB/decade
450

𝜔=1/T log10ω 𝜔=1/T log10ω

-450
 100(1+0.1𝑠)
G(s) =
(1+0.001𝑠)(1+𝑠)
STATE SPACE
ANALYSIS
 U1(t)
I Y1(t) O

{
U2(t)

}
.
N . .
Y2(t) U
P
MIMO T
. .
. .
U . P
T Uk(t) U
Yk(t)
T

. . . . . .

X1 X2 …………………. .XK
}
STATE
𝑑2 𝑦 4𝑑𝑦
2
+ + 3𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 ·
𝑋𝑛×1 = 𝐴𝑛×𝑛 𝑥𝑛×1 + 𝐵𝑛×𝑚 𝑢𝑚×1

𝑌𝑝×1 = 𝐶𝑝×𝑛 𝑥𝑛×1 + 𝐷𝑝×𝑚 𝑢𝑚×1

 −1
𝑇. 𝐹. = 𝐶[𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴]

𝑒 𝐴𝑡 = 𝜑 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝑆𝐼 − 𝐴 −1
Properties Of STM
(a) φ(0)=I(identity matrix)

(b) φ-1(t)=φ(-t)

(c) φ(t)k =φ(kt)

(d) φ(t1+t2)=φ(t1) φ(t2)

Controllability and Observability

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐵: 𝐴𝐵: 𝐴2 𝐵: . . . . . . . . . . . 𝐴𝑛−1 𝐵

𝑄 𝐶 ≠ 0 For System to be Controllable

𝑄𝑐 = 𝐶𝑇. 𝐴𝑇𝐶𝑇: 𝐴𝑇 2 𝐶 𝑇 . . . . . . . . 𝐴𝑇 𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑇

𝑄 𝑂 ≠ 0 For System to be Observable

Compensator and controller
Phase Lead Compensator

1
𝑠+ 𝛼(1 + 𝑠𝑇)
𝐺𝑐 𝑠 = 𝑇 =
1 (1 + 𝑠𝛼𝑇)
𝑠+
𝛼𝑇
𝑅1
𝛼= ; 𝑇 = 𝑅1𝐶
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 Phase Lead Compensator Bode Plot

20𝑑𝐵/𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑑𝑒
1
20𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝛼
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔
−1 1−𝛼 −1 1−𝛼
𝜑 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ ] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ]
2 𝛼 1+𝛼

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝜔
ωc1 ωm ωc2 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚
1 1 1 𝛼=
𝑇√𝛼
1 + sin 𝜑𝑚
𝑇 𝑇𝛼
1 −1 1−𝛼 −1 1−𝛼
𝜔𝑚 = 𝜔 𝑐1𝜔 𝑐2 = 𝜑 𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 [ ] = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [ ]
𝑇√𝛼 2 𝛼 1+𝛼