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UNIT I- RELATIONAL DATABASES

Purpose of Database System – Views of data – Data Models – Database
System Architecture – Introduction to relational databases – Relational
Model – Keys – Relational Algebra – SQL fundamentals – Advanced SQL
features – Embedded SQL– Dynamic SQL.

1. What is database system? (April/May 2010) (JAN 2024)

The Database and the software together are called as database system.

2. Define Database management system. (Nov/Dec 2008) (JAN 2024)

• Database management system (DBMS) is a collection of
interrelated data and various programs that are used to handle
the data.
• The primary goal of DBMS is to provide a way to Store and
Retrieve the required information from the database in
convenient and efficient manner.

3. List any eight applications of DBMS. (AprilMay-2019)

• Banking
• Airlines
• Universities
• Credit card transactions
• Tele communication
• Finance
• Sales
• Manufacturing
• Human resources
4. What are the advantages of using a DBMS?
The advantages of using a DBMS are
• Controlling redundancy
• Restricting unauthorized access
• Providing multiple user interfaces
• Enforcing integrity constraints.
• Providing backup and recovery

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5. Give the levels of data abstraction. (April/May 2014, Nov/Dec 2017)

• Physical level
• Logical level
• View level
6. Define null values.
In some cases, a particular entity may not have an applicable
value for an attribute or if we do not know the value of an
attribute for a particular entity. In these cases, null value is used.
7. Define the terms i) Key attribute ii) Value set.
• Key attribute:
An entity type usually has an attribute whose values are distinct
from each individual entity in the collection. Such an attribute is
called a key attribute.
• Value set:
Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a
value set that specifies the set of values that may be assigned to
that attribute for each individual entity.
8. Define weak and strong entity sets.
• Weak entity set: entity sets that do not have key attribute of
their own are called weak entity sets.
• Strong entity set: Entity set that has a primary key is termed a
strong entity set
9. What does the cardinality ratio specify?
Mapping cardinalities or cardinality ratios express the number of
entities to which another entity can be associated. Mapping cardinalities
must be one of the following:
✓ One to one
✓ One to many
✓ Many to one
✓ Many to many
Relationships in R, the participation of entity set E in relationship R is
said to be partial.
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10. Define the terms i) DDL ii) DML. (APR/MAY-23)

➢ DDL: Data base schema is specified by a set of definitions
expressed by a
special language called a data definition language.
➢ DML: A data manipulation language is a language that enables
users to access or manipulate data as organized by the
appropriate data model.
11. Write short notes on relational model.
The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both
data and the relationships among those data. The relational model is an
example of a record-based model.
12. Define tuple and attribute.
Attributes: column headers
Tuple: Row present in the table.
13. Define the term relation.
Relation is a subset of a Cartesian product of list domains.
14. Define tuple variable.
Tuple variable is a variable whose domain is the set of all tuples.
15. Define the term, Domain.
For each attribute there is a set of permitted values called the domain
of that attribute.
16. What is a candidate key?
Minimal super keys are called candidate keys.
17. What is a primary key?
Primary key is a candidate key chosen by the database designer
as the principal means of identifying an entity in the entity set.
18. What is a super key?
A super key is a set of one or more attributes that collectively allows
us to identify uniquely an entity in the entity set.
19. What are the levels of Data independence? (Nov 2010) (JAN 2024)
➢ Physical Data Independence: Changing the schema at the
physical level without affecting the schema at logical level.
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➢ Logical Data Independence: Changing the schema at Logical level

without affecting schema at view level
20. What are the functions of Authorization & Integrity Manager?
Tests for satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the
authority of users to access data.
21. What are the functions of Transaction Manager & File Manager?
➢ Transaction Manager:
It ensures that database remains in a consistent state despite
system failure and the concurrent transaction executions proceed
without conflicting.
➢ File Manager:
It manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data
structures used to represent information stored on disk.
22. What are the functions of Buffer Manager?
It is responsibility for fetching data from disk storage to main
memory & deciding what data to cache in main memory.
The storage manager implements several data structure such as,
➢ Data files - Store the database itself.
➢ Data dictionary - Stores the metadata about the structure of the
Database (i.e) Schema of the database.
➢ Indices - It provides fast access to data items. The Database
index provides pointers to those data items that hold a particular
value.
23. What are the functions of the Database administrator?
(Nov/Dec2010)
• Schema definition
• Storage structure and access method definition
• Schema and physical organization modification
• Granting of authorization for data access
• Routine Maintenance

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24. What are the different types of data model? (Nov 2024)(A\M-2019)
• Relational Model
• Network Model
• Hierarchical Model
• Entity Relationship Model
• Object Based Model
• Semi-structured Model
25. List the difference between File Processing and database
System. (or) Explain the purpose of Database system. (Nov/Dec
2008) (Apr/May 2015) (Nov/Dec 2016, 2019) (Apr/May 2024)
File Processing Database System
System
Data independence is not Data independence is there
there
It is difficult to access the It is easy to access the data
data
Data integrity & Security is Data integrity & Security is
less more
It produces concurrent Data can be accessed
anomalies. Concurrently
26. Define atomicity in transaction management. (MAY/JUNE 2013)
➢ Either all operations of the transaction are reflected properly in the
database or none are. This is also known as the “all or nothing
property‟.
27. Define data model. (Nov/Dec 2011) (Apr/May 2019) (Nov 2024)
➢ A data model is a collection of conceptual tools for describing
data, data relationships, data semantics and consistency
constraints.
➢ Data Model is a Structure below the Database.
28. Explain the basic structure of a relational database with example.
➢ A relational database is one which consists of rows & columns. A

relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data

& relationship among those data.

Enroll Name Dept

no
11010 Vinoth IT
11021 Kanna ECE
11023 Kumar EEE
11008 Peter CSE
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29. With an example explain what are derived attribute is?

(Nov/ Dec. 2011)
➢ An attribute whose value is derived from the value of other
attributes.
➢ Example: Age can be derived from Date of Birth
30. What are the functions of DBA? (April/May 2010)
➢ Schema definition
➢ Storage structure and access method definition
➢ Granting of authorization for data access.
➢ Routine Maintenance.

31. Define the two levels of data independence. (Nov/ Dec 2010)
➢ Physical Data Independence: Modification in physical level
should not affect the logical level.
➢ Logical Data Independence: Modification in logical level should affect
the view level.

32. Explain the basic structure of a relational database with an

example. (April/May 2010)
➢ The structure of a relational database consists of the attributes
(column name) and a set of permitted values for those attributes
called as domain (column value).

33. What are the parts of SQL language?

The SQL language has several parts:
• Data - definition language
• Data manipulation language
• View definition
• Transaction control
• Embedded SQL
• Integrity
• Authorization

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34. What are the categories of SQL command? (Apr/May 2012)

SQL commands are divided in to the following categories:
• Data - definition language
• Data manipulation language
• Data Query language
• Data control language
• Data administration statements
• Transaction control statements
35. What are the three classes of SQL expression?
SQL expression consists of three clauses:
➢ Select
➢ From
➢ Where
36. What is meant by relational model?
➢ Relational model stores data in the form of table
➢ Each table corresponds to application entity and each row
represents an instance of that entity.
37. What is join? Why should we go for join? What are the types?
➢ Join is an operation by which the result is obtained by combining
more than one table and by using a single SQL command
➢ TYPES:
1. Equi join – Returns rows from both the tables that satisfies the equal to
condition.
2. Non equi join - Returns rows from both the tables that
satisfies the non- equal to condition such as <, <=, >, >=, <>.
3. Self-join – Returns rows from the singe table by comparing itself
based on some condition.
4. Inner join-Returns rows from both the tables including all the

attributes based on certain condition

5. Outer join Types:
i. Left outer join – Returns all the rows from the left table and
the rows from the right table that matches with the left table.

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ii. Right outer join- Returns all the rows from the right table
and the rows from the left table that matches with the right
table.
iii. Full outer join – Returns all the rows from both right and left table.
38. Define relational algebra.
➢ The relational algebra is a procedural query language.
➢ It consists of a set of operations that take one or two relation as
input and produce a new relation as output.
39. What is a SELECT operation?
➢ The select operation selects tuples that satisfy a given predicate.

We use the lowercase letter σ to denote selection.

40. What is the use of rename operation?
➢ Rename operation is used to rename both relations and a
attribute. It uses the as clause, taking the form: Old-name as
new-name
41. List the string operations supported by SQL.
➢ Pattern matching Operation
➢ Concatenation
➢ Extracting character strings
➢ Converting between uppercase and lower-case letters.
42. List the set operations of SQL.
➢ Union
➢ Union all
➢ Intersect
➢ Intersect all
➢ The except
43. What is the use of Union, intersection and except operation?
1. Union:
➢ Includes all tuples that are either in relation r1 or in r2 and in both r1
and r2.
➢ Avoid duplicates.
2. Union all:
➢ Includes all tuples that are either in relation r1 or in r2 and in both r1
and r2.
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➢ Allow duplicates.
3. Intersect:
➢ Includes all tuples that are in both relation r1 and r2.
➢ Avoid duplicates.
4. Intersect all:
➢ Includes all tuples that are in both relation r1and r2.
➢ Allow duplicates.
5. Except:
➢ Includes tuples that are in relation r1 and not in r2.

44. What are aggregate functions? and list the aggregate functions
supported by SQL. (Nov/Dec 2024)
➢ Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of values
as input and return a single value.
➢ Aggregate functions supported by SQL are
• Average: avg
• Minimum: min
• Maximum: max
• Total: sum
• Count: count
45. What is the use of group by clause?
➢ Group by clause is used to apply aggregate functions to a set
of tuples.
➢ The attributes given in the group by clause are used to form groups.
➢ Tuples with the same value on all attributes in the group by
clause are placed in one group.
➢ Example: Select count(*) from student group by department.

46. What is the use of sub queries?

➢ A sub query is a select-from-where expression that is nested
within another query.
➢ A common use of sub queries is to perform tests for set
membership, make set comparisons, and determine set
cardinality.

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47. What is view in SQL? How is it defined?

➢ Any relation that is not part of the logical model, but is made
visible to a user as a virtual relation is called a view. We define
view in SQL by using the create view command.
➢ Syntax to create view command is
Create view <view name><attributes> as <query expression>
48. List the table modification commands in SQL.
➢ Deletion
➢ Insertion
➢ Updates
➢ Update of a view
49. List out the statements associated with a database transaction.
➢ Commit work
➢ Rollback work
50. What is transaction?
Transaction is a unit of program executions that accesses and
possibly updates various data items in the database.
51. List the SQL domain Types.
SQL supports the following domain types.
1. Char(n), 2. varchar(n), 3.int, 4. numeric (p, d),
5. float (n) 6. date.
52. What is the use of integrity constraints?
➢ Integrity constraints ensure that changes made to the database by
authorized users do not result in a loss of data
consistency.
➢ Thus, integrity constrains guard against accidental damage to the
database.
53. What is trigger?
➢ Triggers are statements that are executed automatically by the
system as the side effect of a modification to the database.
➢ Syntax:
Create or replace trigger < trigger name >< before / after >
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<insert / update / delete > on < table name >for < each row > where<
condition >;
54. Define foreign key. Explain with an example. APR/MAY-23
➢ A value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes
also appears for a certain set of attributes in another relation.
➢ The definition of a table has a declaration
“Foreign key(attribute) references <table name>”
➢ Example:
1. Create table account(accno number primary key, custname varchar(50));
2. Create table branch(accno number foreign key(accno)
references account, bname varchar(50));
Where, accno is a primary key in table account and a foreign key in
table branch.
55. Write the purpose of triggers. (May/June 2013)
➢ Triggers are useful mechanisms for alerting humans or for starting
certain tasks automatically when certain conditions are met.
56. List the requirements needed to design a trigger.
The requirements are
✓ Specifying when a trigger is to be executed.
✓ Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executes.

57. Give the forms of triggers.

➢ The triggering event can be insert or delete.
➢ For updated the trigger can specify columns.
➢ The referencing old row as clause
➢ The referencing new row as clause
➢ The triggers can be initiated before the event or after the event.
58. Name the various privileges in SQL.
➢ Delete
➢ Select
➢ Insert
➢ Update

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59. Mention the various user privileges.

➢ All privileges directly granted to the user or role.
➢ All privileges granted to roles that have been granted to the user or role
60. Give the limitations of SQL authorization.
➢ The code for checking authorization becomes intermixed with
the rest of the application code.
➢ Implementing authorization through application code rather than
specifying it declaratively in SQL makes it hard to ensure the
absence of loop holes
61. What is a PROJECT operation?
➢ The project operation is a unary operation that returns its
argument relation with certain attributes left out. Projection is
denoted by pie (π).
62. What are the parts of trigger?
➢ The parts of trigger are
✓ event
✓ Condition
✓ action
• EVENT
It is an SQL statement which causes the trigger to occur.
• CONDITION
It is a logical expression to be satisfied for the trigger to occur
• ACTION
The statement which is executed after a trigger has occurred.
63. What is an embedded SQL?
Embedded SQL is a method of combining the computing power of
a programming language .
64. What is domain integrity? Give example. (MAY 2008)
➢ The domain integrity states that every element from a relation
should respect the type and restrictions of its corresponding
attribute.
➢ A type can have a variable length which needs to be respected.

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➢ Restrictions could be the range of values that the element can

have, the default value if none is provided, and if the element can
be NULL.
➢ Ex: stud no number
65. List out the various relational algebra operators. (DEC 2010)
Relational algebra operators. (Apr/May 2024)
1. Fundamental operators
▪ Select
▪ Project
▪ Rename
▪ Union
▪ Set difference
▪ Cartesian product
2. Additional operators
▪ Intersect
▪ Division
▪ Join
66.Give the usage of the rename operation with an example.(MAY 2010)
Rename is used to change the name of the attribute or table name.
➢ IN SQL
a. Rename the column name Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename RENAME COLUMN OldName TO
NewName
Example:
Alter table account rename column accno to ano;
b. Rename the table name Syntax:
ALTER TABLE tablename RENAME OldName TO NewName
Example:
Alter table account rename account to account_details;

67. What do you mean by weak entity set? (MAY 2010)

In a relational database, a weak entity set is an entity set that cannot
be uniquely identified by its attributes alone; therefore, it must use a
foreign key in conjunction with its attributes to create a primary key.

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68. Consider the following relation:

EMP (ENO, NAME, D A T E _OF_BIRTH, SEX, DATE_OF_JOINING, BASIC_PAY, D E P T ).

Develop an SQL query that will find and display the average BASIC_PAY in
each DEPT. (DEC 2011)
Answer:
Select avg (basic_pay) from emp group by dept;

69. What is embedded SQL? What are its advantages? (MAY 2011)
➢ Embedded SQL is a method of combining the computing power of a

programming language.
➢ A language in which SQL queries are embedded is referred to as

a host language, and the SQL structures permitted in the host

language comprise embedded SQL.
➢ EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request to the
preprocessor.

Advantages of Embedded SQL:

➢ Embedded SQL provides several advantages over a
call-level interface:
➢ Embedded SQL is easy to use because it is simply Transact-
SQL with some added features that facilitate using it in an
application.
➢ It is an ANSI/ISO-standard programming language.
➢ It requires less coding to achieve the same results as a
call-level approach.
➢ Embedded SQL is essentially identical across different host
languages. Programming conventions and syntax change
very little. Therefore, to write applications in different
languages, you need not learn new syntax.
➢ The pre compiler can optimize execution time by generating
stored procedures for the Embedded SQL statements.

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70. Is it possible for several attributes to have the same domain.

Illustrate your answer with suitable example. NOV/DEC 2015

A Domain is the set of legal values that can be assigned to an attribute.

Each Attribute in a database must have a well-defined domain; We can’t
mix values from different domains in the same attribute .Hence it is not
possible for Several Attribute to have same domain.
For Example: Student domain has attribute Roll no, name, Address.

71. What are the disadvantages of File processing System? Apr 2016
The file processing system has the following major disadvantages:
• Data redundancy and inconsistency.
• Integrity Problems.
• Security Problems
• Difficulty in accessing data.
• Data isolation.

72. Give a Brief Description on DCL Command. NOV-DEC-2014

Data Control Language:

It is used to control access to data in a database. It includes:
Grant: used to allow specified users to perform specified tasks.
Revoke: used to cancel previously granted or denied permissions.

73. Why does SQL allow duplicate tuples in a table or in a query

result? NOV/DEC-2015

Every individual scalar value in the database must be logically

addressable by specifying the name of the containing table, the name of
the containing column and the primary key value of the containing row.

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PART-B
1. Explain the purpose of Database system. (APRIL/MAY 2010)
The database system arose in response to early methods of file
processing system.
File processing system:
• It is supported by conventional OS. It stores permanent records in
various files if needs different application programs to extract
records from and add records to appropriate file.
• The file processing system has number of disadvantages. To avoid
these disadvantages, we need database system.
1. Data Redundancy and Inconsistency
REDUNDANCY:
• Duplication of data in several files.
• Leads to higher storage and access cost.
INCOSISTENCY:
• changes made in one data is not reflected in all the copies
of the same data.
2. Difficult In Accessing Data:
• Does not allow needed data to be retrieved in convenient
& efficient manner.
3. Data Isolation:
• Since data are scattered & files are in different format
writing new application programs to retrieve appropriate
data is difficult.
4. Integrity Problem:
• The data values stored in the database must satisfy
certain type of consistency constraints.
• The constraints are enforced by adding appropriate code
in programs.
• When new constraints are added it is difficult to change
programs to enforce them.
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5. Atomicity Problem:
• If any failure occurs the data is to be restored to the
consistent state that existed prior to failure.
• It must be atomic happen entirely or not at all.
6. Concurrent Anomalies:
• Interaction of multiple users to update the data
simultaneously is possible and may result in
inconsistent data.
7. Security Problems:
• Not every user of database system is allowed to access data.
• Enforcing security constraint is difficult in file processing system.

2. Explain the different views of Data. (MAY 2016) (or) Explain the
difference between physical level, conceptual level & view level of
data abstraction. (MAY 2011) (Nov/Dec 2019)

• Introduction
▪ Data abstraction
• Physical level
• Logical level
• View level
▪ Instances &schema
• Physical schema
• Logical schema
• Subschema

Introduction
The major purpose of a database system is to provide users with an
abstract view of data (i.e.) the system hides the details of how the
data is stored and maintained.

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Data Abstraction:
• Figure 1.1 describes Developers hide the complexity of database
from users, to simplify users’ interaction with the system
• Three levels of abstraction are
✓ Physical level
✓ Logical level
✓ view level

Figure 1.1: views of Data

Physical Level:
➢ This is the lowest levels of abstraction.
➢ This level describes how the data are actually stored.
➢ This level describes complex low level data structure in details.
Logical Level:
➢ This is Next higher level of abstraction
➢ Describe what data are stored and what relationship exist among the
Data.
➢ The logical level thus Describes the database in terms of small
number of relatively simple structure.
➢ Database administrators decide what information to be kept in
database.
➢ Database Administrator use logical level of abstraction.
View Level:
➢ This is highest level of abstraction.
➢ Describe only part of the entire database.
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➢ It simplifies the user interaction with system.

➢ It provides many views for the same database.
INSTANCE & SCHEMA:
Instance: The collection of information stored in a database at a
particular moment.
Schema: The overall design of database is called database schema.
➢ Physical schema: describes database design at physical level.
➢ Logical schema: describes database design at logical level
➢ Subschema: describe different views of the database.

Data Independence: -
➢ Changing the schema at one level, without affecting the schema at higher
levels.
Physical Data Independence: -
✓ Changing the schema at physical level, without
affecting the schema at logical level.
Logical Data Independence: -
✓ Changing the schema at logical level, without affecting
the schema at view level.

3. What is a Data model? Explain the various types of data models.

(Nov/DEC- 2010) (APR -2019) (NOV2014) (Apr/May 2024)
• Data Model Definition
▪ Types
1. Network data model
2. Hierarchical data model
3. Relational model
4. Entity relationship model
5. Object based data model
6. Semi structured data model

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Data Model Definition

➢ It is a collection of conceptual tools for describing data,
data relationship, data semantics and consistency
constraints.
➢ It provides a way to describe the design of a database at a physical,
logical & new level.

TYPES:
• Network data model
• Hierarchical data model
• Relational model
• Entity relationship model
• Object based data model
• Semi structured data model

Network Data Model:

➢ In Figure 1.2 network model the data are represented by
collection of records and their relationship is represented by
links.
➢ Network database consists of collection of records connected to one
another through links.
➢ Each record is a collection of fields or attributes& each of
which contain only one data value.
➢ a link is an associated between two records.

Ex:
Customer record is defined as
Type customer =record
Customer_name :string;
Customer_street :string;
Customer_city :string;
End

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Account records is defined as

Type account=record
Acc_number : string;
Balance :integer;

End
In network model the two records are represented as
A-102 4000
Johnson church road chennai

A-101 5000

Michel College pondy

road
A-201
9000

Peter temple trichy

street
A-203 6500

Figure 1.2: Network Data Model

The sample database shows that Johnson has account A-102 & Michael
has account A-101 &A201 & Peter Has Account a-203.

Hierarchical Model:
➢ In Figure 1.3 describes Hierarchical model consists of a
collection of records that are connected to each other through
links.
➢ Records are organized as a collection of trees.

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Ex:

Root

Johnson church road Chennai Peter temple street tiruchy

Michel college road Pondy

A-102 4000
A-203 6500
A-101 5000 A-201 9000

Figure 1.3: Hierarchical Model

Relational Model:
➢ It uses a collection of tables to represent both data and relationship
among data.
➢ Each table has multiple columns and each column
has a unique name.
➢ Tables are known as relation; each table contains record each
record defines fixed no of fields the attribute of the records type.
➢ It is the most widely used as a model. Refer Fig 1.4

Eg: Enrollno NAME DEPT

11010 Vinoth IT

11021 Kanna ECE

11023 Kumar EEE

11008 Peter CSE

Figure 1.4: Relational Model

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Entity Relationship Model:

➢ It uses a collection of basic objects called entities and
relationship among these objects.
➢ An entity is a thing or object in the real world that is
distinguished from another object.
➢ The entity relationship model is widely used in database design.
➢ Eg: In Figure 1.5, Customer and account is entity and depositor is
relationship

Figure 1.5: Entity Relationship

Model: Object Based Data Model: -
➢ The object-oriented language like C++, java, C# are becoming
the dominant in software development.
➢ The object- b a se d data model combines object- o r i e n t e d
features with relational data model.
➢ It is of two types
1. Object oriented data model
✓ It is the extension of ER model with notion of
encapsulation methods & object identity.
2. Object relational data model
✓ Combines features of object-oriented data model and

relational data model.

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Semi structured Data Model:

➢ It permits the specification of data where individual data item of the
same type may have different set of attributes.
➢ The extensible markup language (XML) widely used to represent
semi structured data.

4. Explain the component modules of a DBMS and their

interactions with the architecture. (DEC 2008) (APR-23)

(JAN 2024) Explain the overall architecture of database

system in detail. (MAY 2017) Explain the database system

structure with a neat diagram. (MAY 2010) Explain the

Database System Architecture in detail? (DEC 2009/MAY 16)

With the help of a neat block diagram explain the basic

architecture of database management system. (DEC 2015)

• Introduction
▪ Functional Components of database system
1. Storage Manager
• Authentication & Integrity Manager
• File Manager
• Buffer Manager
• Transaction Manager
2. Query Processor
• DDL Interpreter
• DML Compiler
• Query Evaluation Engine
3. Architecture of Database System
• Two Tier Architecture
• Three Tier Architecture
4. Database System Structure Diagram
5. Types of Database users and
Administrators

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Introduction
➢ Database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of
the responsibilities of the overall system.
➢ In Figure 1.6 shows that the functional components of the database
system are,
1. Storage Manager
2. Query Processor
1. Storage Manager:
It is a component of database system that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the
application programs and queries submitted to the system.

Storage manager translates the DML statements into low-

level file system commands.
It is responsibility for the interaction with file manager.
Thus, the storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving
and updating data is the database.
Components of storage manager are,
✓ Authorization & Integrity Manager
Tests for satisfaction of integrity constraints and checks the
authority of users to access data.
✓ Transaction Manager:
It ensures that database remains in a consistent state despite
system failure and the concurrent transaction executions proceed
without conflicting.
✓ File Manager:
It manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data
structures used to represent information stored on disk.
✓ Buffer Manager:
It is responsibility for fetching data from disk storage to main
memory & deciding what data to cache in main memory.

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The storage manager implements several data structure such as,

✓ Data files - Store the database itself.
✓ Data dictionary - Stores the metadata about the structure
of the Database (i.e) Schema of the database.
✓ Indices - It provides fast access to data items.
2. Query processor:
It helps the database system to simplify & facilitate access to data.

Components of query processor are

✓ DDL Interpreter:
Interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in data
dictionary.

✓ DML Compiler:
Translates DML statements into an evaluation plan consisting of
low-level instruction that the query evaluation engine understands.

• It also performs query optimization (i.e) it picks the lowest

cost evaluation plan from among the alternates
✓ Query Evaluation Engine:
• Executes low-level instructions generated by the DML compiler.

Architecture of Database System

• Database systems can be centralized as client –server.
Based on this database applications are portioned into
Figure 1.6
✓ Two Tier architecture
✓ Three Tier architecture

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Figure 1.6: Database System Architecture

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Two-tier architecture:
Application resides at the client machine where it invokes
database system functionality at the server machine through
query language statements.
E.g. client programs using ODBC/JDBC to communicate with a
database.
Three-tier architecture:
Client machine acts as merely a front end and does not contain
any direct database calls. Figure 1.7
The client end communicates with an application server through
forms interface and the application server in turn communicates
with the database system to access data.
E.g. web-based applications & applications built using “middleware”.

Figure 1.7 Two-tier architecture and Three-tier architecture:

Types of Database User & Administrator
People who work with a database can be categorized as
database users or database administrator.
Different types of users are
1. Naive Users
➢ Unsophisticated u s e r s who interact with the system by
invoking one of the application programs that have been
written previously.
➢ The user interface is from interface for naïve users.
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2. Application Programmers
➢ They are computer professionals who write application programs.
➢ Rapid application development tools are tools that enable
an application programmer to construct forms and reports with
minimal programming effort

3. Sophisticated Users
➢ Interact with the system without writing programs.
➢ They form their request using database query language.
4. Specialized Users:
➢ These are sophisticated users who write specialized database
applications that do not fit into traditional data processing
framework
➢ EX: CAD design, audio, video.
5. Database Administrator
➢ A person who has central control of both the data and the
program that accesses those data is called as database
administrator.
➢ The functions of database Administrator
1. Schema Definition:
✓ The Database Administrator creates original database schema
by executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL.
2. Storage structure and Access method definition
3. Schema And Physical Organization Modification
✓ The Database Administrator performs changes to the schema
and physical organization to reflect the changing need of the
organization.
4. Granting of authorization for data access
✓ It grants different types of authorization, so that the
database administrator can regulate which parts of the
database various users can access.

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5. Routine Maintenance
(i) Periodically backing up the database.
(ii) Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for normal
operations.
(iii) Monitoring the jobs running and ensuring that
performance is not degraded.
5. Write Short notes on Introduction to Relational Database.
• A relational database is one which consists of rows & columns.
• A relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both
data & relationship among those data.
• Each table has multiple columns & each column has unique name.
• In record- b a s e d model, the database is structured into fixed
format records of a particular type.
• Each record type defines a fixed number of fields or attributes.
• It is the primary data model for commercial data processing application
• The data is stored in two-dimensional tables (rows and columns).
Refer Figure 1.8
• The data is manipulated based on the relational theory of
mathematics.

Figure 1.8 Relational Database

• Data and relationships are represented by a collection of tables.
• Each table has a number of columns with unique names, e.g.
customer (Refer Table 1.1), account (Refer Table 1.2).
Example:
Name Street City number
Lowery Maple Queens 900
Shiver North Bronx 556
Shiver North Bronx 647
Hodges Sidehill Brooklyn 801
Hodges Sidehill Brooklyn 647
Table 1.1 Customer
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Name Balance
900 55

556 100000

647 105366

801 10533
Table 1.2 Account

6. Explain the Relational Model in detail.

• Relation model definition
• Relational model terminologies
• The relational model has 3 aspects
1. Structural aspect
2. Integrity aspect
3. Manipulative aspect
Relation model definition
➢ It uses a collection of tables to represent both data and relationship
among data.
➢ Each table has multiple columns and each column has a
unique name.
➢ Tables are known as relations, each table contains record, and
each record defines fixed no. of fields (ie) the attribute of the
records type.
➢ It is the most widely used data model.
Relational Model terminologies
1. Attribute: Each column in a Table. Attributes are the
properties which define a relation. e.g., Student_Rollno, NAME,
etc.
2. Tables – In the Relational model the relations are saved in the table
format. It is stored along with its entities. A table has two properties
rows and columns. Rows represent records and columns represent
attributes.

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3. Tuple – It is nothing but a single row of a table, which contains a

single record.

4. Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the

relation with its attributes.
5. Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is
called the degree of the relation.
6. Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
7. Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific
attribute.
8. Relation instance: Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in
the RDBMS system. Relation instances never have duplicate
tuples.
9. Relation key: Every row has one, two or multiple attributes,
which is called relation key.
10. Attribute domain: Every attribute has some pre-defined value and
scope which is known as attribute domain
The relational model has 3 aspects
1. Structural aspect
2. Integrity aspect
3. Manipulative aspect
1. STRUCTURAL ASPECT:
The data in the database is perceived by the user as tables
2. INTEGRITY ASPECT:
The table must satisfy integrity constrains
3. MANIPULATIVE ASPECT:
It includes certain operators like select, Project, join and project for
manipulation of
Tables

SELECT - Extract specified rows from the table

PROJECT - Extracts specified columns from the table
JOIN - Combines two tables into 1 on the basis of common values
in a common Column.

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Consider for ex:

There are 2 tables (i) Emp table (Refer Table 1.3) (ii) Department table (Refer
Table 1.4)
Emp
Emp_no Emp_name Dept_no Salary
E1 Latha D1 40K
E2 Chitra D2 42K
E3 Prabha D3 30K
E4 Vani D4 35K
Table 1.3 Emp
Department
Dept_no Dept_name Budget
D1 Marketing 10M
D2 Development 20M
D3 Research 5M
Table 1.4 Department

SELECT OPERATION:
Select from Department where budget >8M Refer Table 1.5

Dept_no Dept_name Budget

D1 Marketing 10M
D2 Development 20M
Table 1.5 Department

PROJECT OPERATION
Project Department over dept_no, budget Refer Table 1.6

Dept_no Budget
D1 10M
D2 20M
D3 5M

Table 1.6 Department

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JOIN OPERATION:
Join department and emp over dept_no (Refer Table 1.7)

Dept_no Dept_name Budget Emp_no Emp_name Salary

D1 Marketing 10M E1 Latha 40K
D2 Development 20M E2 Chitra 42K
D3 Research 5M E3 Prabha 30K
Table 1.7 Department

7. Explain about various types of keys.

• Keys definition
• Types of Keys
1. Super key
2. Candidate key
3. Primary key
4. Foreign key
5. Referential integrity
Keys definition
Key plays an important role in relational database
It is used for identifying unique rows from table.
It also establishes relationship among tables.
It is the value of the attribute value of an entity such that they
can uniquely identify the entity.
Types of Keys
1. Super key:
It is a set of one or more attributes (columns), that taken
collectively allows us identify uniquely a tuple in the relation.
Super Key is a superset of Candidate key
Example: Reg_no of students’ entity ie a superkey.
2. Candidate key:
The candidate keys in a table are defined as the set of keys that
is minimal and can uniquely identify any data row in the table.

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A candidate key can never be NULL or empty.

Example student_id and phone both are candidate keys for table
Student.
3. Primary key:
It is a key that can uniquely identify each record in a table.
Each table must have a primary key and a primarykey must be
unique.
No part of the primary key can be null.
It is a candidate key which acts as a principal means of
identifying tuples within a relation.
For the table Student we can make the student_id column as the
primary key.
4. Foreign key:
It is a field in the table that is the primary key of another table.

The foreign key is useful in linking together two tables.

Data should be entered in the foreign key column with great care,
as wrongly entered data can invalidate the relationship between
the two tables.

A relation r1 may include among its attributes, the primary key of

another relation r2. This attribute is called foreign key from r1
referencing r2.

R1 – referencing
relation R2 –
referenced relation
5. Referential integrity:
It requires that the values appearing in specified attribute of any
tuple in referencing relation also appear in specified attributes of at
least one tuple in referenced relation.

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8. Explain select, project and Cartesian product operations in

relational algebra with suitable example. (NOV 2016)
Discuss in detail the operators SELECT, PROJECT, UNION with
suitable examples. (APR/MAY-23)
What are the relational algebra operations supported in SQL?
Write the SQL statement for each operation. MAY 2011
What a r e the relational algebra o per a t io n s s u ppo rt ed i n S Q L ?
Write t h e S Q L
statement for each operation.
Explain in detail Relational Algebra. DEC 2011
• Definition
• Fundamental relational algebra operations
1. Unary Operations:
o Select [ ]
o Project [∏]
o Rename [ ]
2. Binary operations:
o Union[U]
o Set Difference[-]
o Cartesian Product[X]
• Additional relational algebra operations
o Set Intersection operation (∩)
o Natural Join Operation ( )

▪ Theta Join ( Θ)
▪ Outer Join
• Left Outer Join
• Right Outer Join
• Full Outer Join
Definition
➢ The relational algebra is a collection of operators that take one
or more relations as their input or operands and returns a
single relation as their output or result.
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➢ Relational algebra is a procedural language consisting of a set of

operators.
➢ Each operator takes one or more relations as its input and
produces one relation as its output.
➢ The seven basic relational algebra operations are Selection,
Projection, Joining, Union, Intersection, Difference and Division.
➢ It is important to note that these operations do not alter the
database. The relation produced by an operation is available to the
user but it is not stored in the database by the operation.
➢ Selection (also called Restriction) The SELECT operator selects
all tuples from some relation, so that some attributes in each
tuple satisfy some condition.

Fundamental Relational Algebra Operations:

1. Unary Operations:
o Select [ ]
o Project [∏]
o Rename [ ]
2. Binary operations:
o Union[U]
o Set Difference [-]
o Cartesian Product[X]
1. Unary Operations:
Select operation: [ ]
➢ The select operation selects tuple that satisfies a given predicate.

➢ It is denoted by <select condition>(R)

➢ EX:
o b_name=”Perryridge”(loan)
o amount>1200(loan)
o b_name=“Perryridge”^amount>loan(loan)

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Project operation [∏]

➢ The project operation selects columns or attributes that satisfy
certain condition.
➢ Duplicate rows are eliminated.
➢ It is denoted by ∏<attribute list>(R)
➢ Ex: Consider loan relation (Refer Table 1.8)

L_no B_name Amt

L-11 A 1000
L-12 B 1500
L-13 C 900
L-14 D 800
L-15 B 1100
Table 1.8 Loan
(i) b_name=”B”(loan) (Refer Table 1.9)

L_no B_name Amt

L-12 B 1500
L-15 B 1100

Table 1.9 Loan

(ii) ∏ loan_no, amount (loan) (Refer table 1.10)

L_no Amt
L-11 1000
L-12 1500
L-13 900
L-14 800
L-15 1100
Table 1.10 Loan
Composition of Relational Operations: (Refer table 1.11)
L_no
∏loan_no( b_name=”B”(loan))
L-12
L-15

Table 1.11 Loan

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Rename operation [ ]

➢ Given a relational algebra expression E, the expression x(E),

returns the result of expression E under the name X.

➢ Example: ( account_bal<d.bal(account x d(account)))

2. Binary operations
The Union Operation [U] (E1 U E2)
The union operations display all the records that appear in either
or both of the two relations.
To perform union operation, two conditions hold
✓ The relation r and s must have same number attributes.

✓ The domains of ith attribute of r and ith attribute of S must be

same for all i.
Ex: Borrower (Refer Table 1.12) Depositor (Refer Table 1.13)

CNAME CNO C_name A_no

A L-103 A A_2
A L-104 B A_3
C L-105 C A_4
E L-106 B A_5
D A_6

Table 1.12 Borrower Table 1.13 Depositor

∏ C_name(borrower) U ∏ C_name(depositor) Refer Table 1.14

C_name
A
B
C
D
E
Table 1.14 From Borrower and Depositor
The values selected are discrete and values are eliminated.

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Set Difference operation (E1-E2):

Allow us to find tuples that are in one relation but are not in
another.
The expressions r-s produces a relation containing those tuples in r,
but not in s.
Example: ∏ C_name(depositor) - ∏ C_name(borrower) Refer Table 1.15

C_name
B
D
Table 1.15 Difference
Two conditions hold
✓ The relation r and s must have same number attributes.

✓ The domains of ith attribute of r and ith attribute of S

must be same for all i.

The Cartesian Product operation (X):

The Cartesian product, allows us to combine information from
any two relations.

It is represented as r1*r2 where r1 and r2 are relations

Borrower: (Refer Table 1.16) Loan:(Refer Table 1.17)

A_no Amt
C_name A_no
L_20 1000
L_21 A L_20
500
B L_21
L_22 1500

Table 1.16 Borrower Table 1.17 Loan

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Example: r=borrowerxloan is

Output (Refer Table 1.18)

C_name Borrower. A_no Loan. A_no Amt

A L_20 L_20 1000
A L_20 L_21 500
A L_20 L_22 1500
B L_21 L_20 1000
B L_21 L_21 500
B L_21 L_22 1500
Table 1.18 Loan and Borrower

Additional Relational Algebra Operations:

o Set Intersection operation ( )

o Natural Join Operation ( )
o Division Operation (÷)
Set Intersection operation (П) (Refer Table 1.19)

r s = r - (r - s) x: ∏ A_no(borrower) ∏ A_no(loan)

L_no
L_20
L_21
Table 1.19 Set Intersection
Natural Join Operation
The natural join forms a Cartesian product of its two arguments,
performs a selection forcing equality on those attributes that appear in
both relation schemas and finally
removes duplicate attributes.
Natural join is a binary operator.
Natural join between two or more relations will result set of all
combination of tuples where they have equal common attribute.
Example: Borrower loan (Refer Table 1.20)

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OUTPUT C_name Borrower. A_no Loan. A_no Amt

A L_20 L_20 1000
B L_21 L_21 500

Table 1.20 Natural Join Operation

Outer join:
➢ It is an extension of join operation to deal with missing information.
➢ It is used to avoid loss of data.
➢ The various types of joins are
(i) Left Outer Join
(ii) Right Outer Join
(iii) Full Outer join
Left Outer Join ( )
In this it takes all the tuples in the left relation that did not
match with any tuple in the right relation, pads the tuples
with NULL for all other attributes from right relation.
EX: Employee (Refer Table 1.21) Pt_Works(Refer Table 1.22)

E_name Street City E_name B_name Salary

Rupesh Mission Pondy Rupesh SBI 50000

Bala Busy Chennai Risha UCO 45000

Risha IG Pondy Hemesh ICICI 47000

Hemesh Nehru Chennai Kavinaya UTI 44000

Table 1.21 Employee Table 1.22 Pt Works

EX: Employee Pt_Works (Refer Table 1.23)

E_name Street City B_name salary

Rupesh Mission Pondy SBI 50000

Risha IG Pondy UCO 45000

Hemesh Nehru Chennai ICICI 47000

Bala Busy Chennai NULL NULL

Table 1.23 Left Outer Join

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Right Outer Join ( )

In this it pads tuples from the right relation that did not match
any from left relation with NULL an adds them to the result of
natural join. Refer Table 1.24
Ex: Employee Pt_works

E_name Street City B_name salary

Rupesh Mission Pondy SBI 50000

Risha IG Pondy UCO 45000

Hemesh Nehru Chennai ICICI 47000

Kavinaya NULL NULL UTI 44000

Table 1.24 Right Outer Join

Full outer join ( )
In this it does both lefter outer join and left outer join operations (Refer
Table 1.25)
Ex: Employee Pt_works

E_name Street City B_name salary

Rupesh Mission Pondy SBI 50000
Risha IG Pondy UCO 45000
Hemesh Nehru Chennai ICICI 47000
Kavinay NULL NULL UTI 44000
a
Bala Busy Chennai NULL NULL
Table 1.25 Full Outer Join

9. Explain the SQL fundamentals in detail. (NOV/DEC 2014,

APR/MAY 2015, APR/MAY 2016) (Or) Describe the six clauses in
the syntax of SQL query and show what types of constructs can
be specified in each six clauses. Which of the six clauses are
required and which are optional? NOV/DEC 2015
Explain about Data Definition Language. APR/MAY 2016

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• Parts of SQL
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
o Definition
o Commands
▪ CreateTable
▪ AlterTable
▪ DropTable
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
o Definition
o Commands
▪ Select
▪ Insert
▪ Delete
▪ Update
3. Data Control Language (DCL)
o Definition
o Commands
▪ Grant
▪ Revoke

4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)

o Definition
o Commands
▪ Commit
▪ Rollback
The SQL fundamentals have several parts
1. Data Definition Language (DDL)
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
3. Data Control Language (DCL)
4. Transaction Control Language (TCL)
1. DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE(DDL)
It is used to create a table, alter the structure of a table and also
drop the table.
DDL specifies the following:
• Schema for each relation
• Domain of values Integrity Constrains
• Set of indices to be maintained for each relation
• Physical storage media.

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DDL Commands are

• Create table
• Alter table
o Add Attribute
o Modify Attribute
o Drop Attribute
• Drop table
• Truncate table
• Desc table
• Rename table

1. CREATE TABLE
It is used to create a table.
Syntax

Create table <tablename> (attributes datatypes);

Example:
Create table account (accno varchar (10), Bname char(15),balance
number, primary key(accno));
2. DROP TABLE
This command is used to delete a table.
Syntax:
drop table <tablename>;
Example:
drop table account;
3. ALTER TABLE –
It is used to add, modify or remove attributes from the table.
• Add
o Syntax:

Alter table <tablename> add (attributes);

o Example: Alter table account add (dept varchar (10));

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• Modify
o Syntax:
Alter table <tablename> modify (attributes);
o Example: Alter table account modify (deptvarchar (20));

• Drop
o Syntax:
Alter table<tablename> drop (attributes);

o Example: Alter table account drop (dept);

TRUNCATE COMMAND
➢ This command is used to delete the records but retain the structure.
Syntax

Truncate table <tablename>;

Example
Truncate table account;

DESC COMMAND
➢ It is used to View the table structure.
Syntax
desc <tablename>;
Example
desc account;

RENAME COMMAND
➢ It is used to Rename a table
Syntax
Rename (old_table_name) to (new_table_name);

Example
Rename account to acc;

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2. DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGE:(DML)

Data manipulation language comprises the SQL statements,
which modify stored data but not the schema or database
objects.

It is used to retrieve and manipulate data in a relational database.

DML Commands are

select
insert
delete
update

INSERT TABLE:
An SQL INSERT statement adds one or more records to any
single table in a relational database.
Syntax1:
insert into table name values (value1, [value2, ... ])
Example: insert into phone_book values ('john doe', '555-1212');

UPDATE TABLE
An SQLUPDATE statement changes the data of one or more
records in a table.

Either all the rows can be updated, or a subset may be chosen using a
condition.

Syntax:
Update table_name set column_name = value [, column_name =value ...]
[where condition]

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Example:

▪ update t set c1 = 1 where c2 ='a'

▪ update t set c1 = 9, c3 = 4 where c2 ='a'

SELECT TABLE:
A SELECT statement retrieves zero or more rows from one or
more database tables or database views.

The SELECT statement has many optional clauses:

✓ FROM
✓ WHERE specifies which rows to retrieve.
✓ GROUP BY groups rows sharing a property so that an
aggregate function can be applied to each group.

✓ HAVING selects among the groups defined by the GROUP BY

clause.
✓ ORDER BY specifies an order in which to return the rows.
Syntax:
select *from<table name> where predicate;
Example:
Table name: book (Refer Table 1.26)

ISBN TITLE PUB_YEAR UNIT_PRICE AUTHOR_NAME PUBLISHER_NAME

1001 Oracle 2004 399 Arora PHI

1002 DBMS 2004 400 Basu Technical

2001 DOS 2003 250 Sinha Nirali

2002 ADBMS 2004 450 Basu Technical

2003 Unix 2000 300 Kapoor SciTech

Table 1.26 book

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Displaying all fields select * from book;

Output (Refer Table 1.27)

ISBN TITLE PUB_YEAR UNIT_PRICE AUTHOR_NAME PUBLISHER_NAME

1001 Oracle 2004 399 Arora PHI

1002 DBMS 2004 400 Basu Technical
2001 DOS 2003 250 Sinha Nirali
2002 ADBMS 2004 450 Basu Technical
2003 Unix 2000 300 Kapoor SciTech

Table 1.27 Records of Book

✓ Displaying selected Fields select publisher_name from book;

Output (Refer Table 1.28)

PUBLISHER_NAME
PHI
Technical
Nirali
Technicalo
SciTech

Table 1.28 Displaying selected Fields

✓ Displaying distinct values

select distinct publisher_name from book;
Output (Refer Table 1.29)

PUBLISHER_NAME
PHI
Technical
Nirali
SciTech

Table 1.29 Displaying distinct values

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✓ Where clause -It is used to select specific rows satisfying given

predicate.
select title from book where pub_year=‟2004‟;
Output (Refer Table 1.30)

TITLE
Oracle
DBMS
ADBMS

Table 1.30 Where clause

✓ Between - Between Comparison operator to specify that a value

be less than or equal to some value and greater than or equal to
some other value. (Refer Table 1.31)

Select title from book where unit_price between 300 and 400;
(Or)
Select title from book where unit_price >=300 and unit_price <=400;
Output

TITLE

Oracle
DBMS
Unix

Table 1.31 Between clause

Order by:
The ORDER BY clause identifies which columns are used to sort the
resulting data, and in which direction they should be sorted (options
are ascending or descending). (Refer Table 1.32)

Example: select title, unit_price from book order by title;

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Output

TITLE UNIT_PRICE

ADBMS 450
DBMS 400
DOS 250
Oracle 399
Unix 300
Table 1.32 Order By

Group By:
The GROUP BY clause is used to group the rows based on
certain criteria.

GROUP BY is often used in conjunction with SQL aggregation

functions or to eliminate duplicate rows from a result set.

The WHERE clause is applied before the GROUP BY clause.

Example:
select publisher_name,sum(unit_price)” TOTAL BOOK AMOUNT”
from book group by publisher_ name; (Refer Table 1.33)

Output

TOTAL BOOK AMOUNT

PUBLISHER_NAME
Nirali 250
PHI 399
SciTech 300
Technical 850

Table 1.33 Group By

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Having:
➢ Having is equivalent to the where clause
➢ It is used to specify the search criteria or search condition
when group by clause is specified.
➢ Example: (Refer Table 1.34)
select publisher_name, sum(unit_price)” TOTAL BOOK AMOUNT”
from book

group by publisher_ name having publisher_ name <>‟PHI‟;

Output Table 1.34 Having

TOTAL BOOK
PUBLISHER_NAME
AMOUNT
Nirali 250
SciTech 300
Technical 850

String operation:
SQL Specifies string by enclosing them in single quotes.

Pattern matching is the commonly used operation

on strings with Operator like Refer Table 1.35
o Percentage (%)-matches any substring
o Underscore (_)-matches any character
Pattern are case sensitive uppercase do not match with the
lowercase

Example:
Select author_name from book where author_name like “Ba%‟;

Output
AUTHOR_NAME
Basu
Table 1.35 String Operation

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Aggregate functions:
It takes collection of values as input and provides a Single value
as output.

The aggregate functions include the following

Average
Average – avg
✓ Minimum – min
✓ Maximum – max
✓ Total –sum
✓ Count – count
➢ The AVG function is used to calculate the average value of the numeric
type.
➢ AVG function returns the average of all non-Null values.
Syntax
AVG () (or ) AVG( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example (Refer Table 1.36)
Select avg(unit_price)” Average Price” from book;
Output
AVERAGE
PRICE
359.8

Table 1.36 Average

Minimum
➢ MIN function is used to find the minimum value of a certain column.
➢ This function determines the smallest value of all selected values of a
column.
Syntax
MIN() (or) MIN( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression)

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Example (Refer Table 1.37)

select max(unit_rice)” Minimum Price” from book;

Output
MINIMUM
PRICE
250
Table 1.37 Minimum
Maximum
➢ MAX function is used to find the maximum value of a certain column.
➢ This function determines the largest value of all selected values of a
column.
Syntax
MAX() (or) MAX( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example (Refer Table 1.37)
select max(unit_price)”Maximum Price” from book;
Output

Maximum
Price
450

Table 1.37 Maximum

Total
➢ Sum function is used to calculate the sum of all selected columns.
➢ It works on numeric fields only.
Syntax
SUM() (or ) SUM( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )
Example (Refer Table 1.38)
select sum(unit_price)”Total” from book;
Output

Total

1799
Table 1.38 Total

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Count
➢ COUNT function is used to Count the number of rows in a database
table.
➢ It can work on both numeric and non-numeric data types.
Syntax
COUNT(*) (or ) COUNT( [ALL|DISTINCT] expression )

Example (Refer Table 1.39)

select count(unit_price)”No of Books” from book;
Output
No of Books
5
Table 1.39 Count
NULL values:
It is used to indicate absence of information about
the value of an attribute.
Example: Select lno from loan where amount is Null;
Set operation:
✓ Union
✓ Intersect
✓ Except
Consider two tables: i) Depositor (customer_name,Account_no)
CUSTOMER_NAME ACCOUNT_NO
John 1001
Sita 1002
Vishal 1003
Ram 1004
Table 1.40 Depositor
ii)Borrower(customer_name,Loan_no) (Refer Table 1.41)
CUSTOMER_NAME LOAN_NO
John 2001
Tonny 2003
Rohit 2004
Vishal 2002
Table 1.41 Borrower
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Union operation:
Union c l a u s e m e r g e s t h e o u t p u t o f t w o o r m o r e q u e r i e s i n t o a
single set of rows and columns.
Example (Refer Table 1.42)
(select customer_name from depositor) union (select customer_name from
Borrower)
Output
CUSTOMER_NAME
John
Sita
Vishal
Ram
Rohit
Tonny
Table 1.42 Union operation

Intersect operation
The intersect clause outputs only rows produced by both the queries
intersected i.e the intersect operation returns common records from
output of both queries.

Example (Refer Table 1.43)

(select customer_name from depositor) intersect (select customer_name from
Borrower)
Output
CUSTOMER_NAME
John
Vishal

Table 1.43 Intersect operation

Except operation:
The except also called as Minus outputs rows that are in first table but not in
second table. (Refer Table 1.44)
Example
(select customer_name from depositor) except (select customer_name from
Borrower)

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Output
CUSTOMER_NAME
John
Sita
Table 1.44 Except operation

DELETE TABLE:
The DELETE statement removes one or more records from a table.

Syntax:
delete from table_name [where condition];
Any rows that match the WHERE condition will be removed from
the table.

If the WHERE clause is omitted, all rows in the table are removed
Example:
• delete from trees where height <80;
• delete from book;

3. DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE (DCL)

A data control language (DCL) is a programming language used to
control access to data stored in a database.
It is a component of Structured Query Language (SQL).
DCL commands include:
o GRANT used to allow specified users to perform specified tasks.
o REVOKE used to cancel previously granted or denied permissions.

The operations for which privileges may be granted to or revoked

from a user or role may include SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE.
1. GRANT

GRANT authorizes one or more users to perform an operation or

a set of operations on an object.
Syntax:

grant <pivilege list > on < object > to < user id >[ with grant option ];

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Description:
• Privilege List – SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, EXECUTE etc.
• Objects – TYPE < Type name >, TABLE < Table name >
• User ID – User ID or Role Name. IT can be replaced by
PUBLIC – meaning all user known to the system.
• WITH GRANT OPTION - Can grant those privileges on
that object to some other users.
Example:
• Grant insert, delete on employee to user1, user2
• Grant select on employee, department to a3 with grant
option;
2. REVOKE:
It used to revoke privileges from users or roles.
Syntax:
revoke <pivilege list > on < object > from < user id>

Description:

• Privilege List – SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE, EXECUTE etc.

• Objects – TYPE < Type name >, TABLE < Table name >
• User ID – User ID or Role Name. IT can be replaced by PUBLIC
– meaning all user known to the system.
Example:
• REVOKE INSERT, DELETE ON EMPLOYEE, DEPARTMENT FROM A2;

4. TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE (TCL)

A Transaction Control Language (TCL) is used to control
transactional processing in adatabase.
A transaction is logical unit of work that comprises one or
more SQL statements, usually a group of Data
Manipulation Language (DML) statements.
• TCL commands include:
COMMIT
➢ The commit command saves all transaction to the database since
the last Commit or rollback command.
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Syntax:
commit
ROLLBACK
➢ The Rollback Command is the Transaction Control Command
Used to undo all changes of a transaction that have not already
been saved to the database.

Syntax:

rollback to savepoint-name;

SAVEPOINT
➢ To divide the transaction into smaller sections.

➢ Save points offer a mechanism to roll back portions of transactions.

Syntax:

savepoint savepoint-name;

Example

1. create table tbl_1(id int);

2. insert into tbl_1(id)values(1);
3. insert into tbl_1(id)values(2);
4. commit;
5. update tbl_1 set id=200 where id=1;
6. savepointid_1upd;
7. update tbl_1 set id=1000 where id=2;
8. rollback toid_1upd;
9. select id fromtbl_1;

11. What is a trigger? What is the need of it in DBMS?

(APRIL-2011)

Triggers:
➢ Trigger is a statement that is executed automatically by the
system as a side effect of a modification to the database.

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Need For Triggers:

➢ It is a useful mechanism for alerting humans or for starting
certain tasks automatically when certain conditions are met
➢ To design a trigger mechanism, we must
✓ Specify the conditions under which the trigger is to be executed.
✓ Specify the actions to be taken when the trigger executed.

➢ Trigger is stored in the database and it is automatically when a

triggering event occurs.

Triggering Events:
➢ Triggering event can be insert, delete or update.
➢ Triggers on update can be restricted to specific attributes.
➢ Values of attributes before and after an update can be referenced.
o Referencing old row as delete and updates
o Referencing new row as inserts and updates
➢ Triggers can be activated before an event, which can serve as extra
constraints.

Syntax:

Create or Replace trigger <trigger name>

Before / After triggering event on <table view>
For each row
When (Condition)
Declare statements
Begin
Executable statements
Exception
End;

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Example:

SQL> create table product_history (pidnumber(5), pname

varchar2(20), sup_name varchar2(20), price number(7,2));
Table Created.

SQL> create table product (pidnumber(5), pname varchar2(20),

sup_name varchar2(20), price number(7,2));
Table Created.

SQL> insert into product values (12, „mobile‟, „nokia‟,2000);

SQL> select * from product_history;

No row selected.

SQL> select * from product;

Pid Pname Sup_name Price

12 Mobile Nokia 2000
Note: Trigger Query

SQL> create or replace Trigger price_history

Before update of price on product
For each row
Begin
Insert into product_history values (:old.pid, :old.pname,
:old.sup_name, :old.price);
End;

Trigger created.
SQL> update product set price = 800 where pid=12;

1 row updated.

SQL> select * from product;

Pid Pname Sup_name Price

12 Mobile Nokia 800

SQL> select * from product_history;

Pid Pname Sup_name Price

12 Mobile Nokia 2000

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13. Explain in detail the embedded and dynamic SQL (or)

Advanced SQL features. DEC 2010 / NOV 2016(NOV 2008)
(APR 2019) (APR/MAY-23) (NOV/DEC 2024)
1. Embedded SQL
• Definition
• Phases
• Example
2. Dynamic SQL
• Definition
• Phases
• Example
EMBEDDED SQL:
A language in which SQL queries are embedded is referred to
as a host language, and the SQL structures permitted in the
host language comprise embedded SQL.
EXEC SQL statement is used to identify embedded SQL request
to the preprocessor
EXEC SQL <embedded SQL statement > END_EXEC
The high- l e v e l language which supports embedding SQL with in it is
also known as host language.
Phases:
✓ Open
✓ Fetch
✓ Close
Example query
o From within a host language, find the names and cities of
customers with more than the variable amount dollars in
some account
o Specify the query in SQL and declare a cursor for it

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EXEC SQL

declare c cursor for

select depositor.customer_name, customer_city

from depositor, customer, account

where depositor.customer_name = customer.customer_name

and depositor account_number = account.account_number

and account.balance> :amount

END_EXEC

The open statement causes the query to be evaluated

EXEC SQL open c END_EXEC
The fetch statement causes the values of one tuple in the
query result to be placed on host language variables.
EXEC SQL fetch c into :cn, :cc END_EXEC
o Repeated calls to fetch get successive tuples in the query result
The close statement causes the database system to delete the
temporary
o relation that holds the result of the query.
EXEC SQL close c END_EXEC

Features of Embedded SQL

1. It is easy to use.
2. It is ANSI/ISO standard programming language
3. It requires less coding.
4. The precompiler can optimize execution time by generating stored
procedures for the embedded SQL Statements.
5. It is identical over different host languages, hence writing
applications using different programming language is quite easy.

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DYNAMIC SQL
Dynamic SQL is a programming technique which Allows
programs to construct and submit SQL queries at run time.
Dynamic SQL statements are not embedded in the source
program but stored as strings of characters that are
manipulated during a program‟s runtime.
The simplest way to execute a dynamic SQL statement is with
an EXECUTE IMMEDIATE statement.
This statement passes the SQL Statement to the DBMS For
compilation and execution.

Phases:
✓ Prepare
✓ Execute

Example
char* sqlprog = “update account
set balance = balance * 1.05
where account_number =?”

EXEC SQL prepare dynprog from:sqlprog;

Char account [10] = “A-101”;
EXEC SQL execute dynprog using: account;

The dynamic SQL program contains a?

which is a place holder for a value that is
provided when the SQL program is
executed. Refer Table 1.45

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S.N STATIC (EMBEDDED) SQL DYNAMIC

O. (INTERACTIVE) SQL

In static SQL how database will be In dynamic SQL, how database

1. accessed is predetermined in the will be accessed is determined
Embedded SQL statement. at run time.
2. It is more swift and efficient. It is less swift and efficient.

SQL statements are SQL statements are

3.
compiled at Compile compiled at Run time.
time.
Parsing; validation, optimization, Parsing, validation,
4.
and generation of optimization, and generation of
application plan are application plan are done at
Done at compile time. run time.
It is generally used for
5. It is generally used for situations situations Where data is
Where data is distributed distributed non- uniformly.
uniformly.

EXECUTE IMMEDIATE, EXECUTE IMMEDIATE,

6.
EXECUTE and EXECUTE
PREPARE statements are not used. and PREPARE statements are
used.
7. It is less flexible. It is more flexible.
Table 1.45 Difference Between Static SQL Vs Dynamic SQL

14.Discuss in detail, the Functions of DBMS. (Nov/Dec 2024)

What is DBMS?

DBMS means Database Management System, which is a tool used to create,

delete or update the database in a very fast and efficient way. It is basically a
software which is used by the database engineers to create or manipulate the
database. For example, MySQL, Oracle, MongoDB etc. It can be based on a relational
or non-relational model.

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Functions of DBMS

DBMS provides several functionalities, which are discussed below:

Data Storage Management

One of the most important tasks for DBMS is to create a database for complex data
and manage the data. It gives relief to the user by creating a structure for the
complex data sets so that users can access it and manipulate them very easily.
Modern database systems not only provide storage for the data but they store and
manage the metadata (data of data) like data procedural rules, validation rules etc.
DBMS also provides performance tuning, which makes accessing data faster and
easier.

Security Management

Security is another aspect which is handled by the Database Management Systems.

Database systems provide a high level of security measures using various security
algorithms to keep the data safe and ensure the data privacy. There are certain
security rules that ensure what data can be accessed from the database and which
user can access it. It also makes sure what operations (read, write, delete) can be
performed on the specific data. It is very important for the organizations where
multi-user databases are required.

Backup and Recovery Management

To keep the data safe and ensure the integrity, the database system provides the
features for backup and recovery management. If the system fails due to some
reason then it recovers the data and keeps the data safe.

Database Access Language and Application Programming Interface

DBMS provides a database access language which is also called a query language.
Query languages are non-procedural languages used to access the database and
manipulate the data. SQL is an example of a query language. The majority of DBMS
vendors provide the support of various query languages to access the data.

Data Dictionary Management

Data dictionary management is also useful functionality provided by the Database

Management System. In the data dictionary, it stores the data and its related
information about its relationship. So, a data dictionary keeps the data structures
and their relationships with other data, so that a programmer is not responsible for
storing the relationship in the database through complex coding. DBMS provides the
data abstraction and removes the dependency of the data from the system.

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Data Transformation and Presentation

DBMS provides the functionality of data transformation, which means programmers

need not worry about the logical and physical representation of the data. DBMS
stores the data in the determined data structure.

For example, if a user asks for the date from a database and he receives it as 14
December 2022, but in the database, it is stored in different columns of month, date
and year.

Multi User Access Control

Multi User Access control is another feature which is provided by the modern
Database Systems. So, more than one user can access the database at the same
time without any problem. This feature makes sure the integrity of the data present
in the database. It also follows the ACID property, so the database will be consistent
while multiple users are accessing it concurrently. It is very useful for the database
of organizations where multiple database engineers are working concurrently.

Data Integrity Management

Database systems provide data integrity management by maximizing the data

consistency and minimizing the data redundancy. The data dictionary is the feature
database system used to store the relationships of the data to keep the data
integrity. Data integrity is needed where a transaction-based database system is
present.

Database Communication Interface

When a user requests data from the database, it uses some environments like
browsers (Chrome or Firefox etc.) to get the data.

15. Discuss about domain integrity. Give an example. (APR/MAY 2024)

Domain Integrity Constraints

o Integrity constraints are a set of rules. It is used to maintain the quality of

information.
o Integrity constraints ensure that the data insertion, updating, and other
processes have to be performed in such a way that data integrity is not
affected.
o Thus, integrity constraint is used to guard against accidental damage to the
database.

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Types of Integrity Constraint Refer Fig 1.9

Fig 1.9 Types of Integrity Constraint

1. Domain constraints

o Domain constraints can be defined as the definition of a valid set of values for
an attribute.
o The data type of domain includes string, character, integer, time, date,
currency, etc. The value of the attribute must be available in the corresponding
domain in given Table 1.46.
Example:

Table 1.46 Domain Constraints

2. Entity integrity constraints

o The entity integrity constraint states that primary key value can't be null.
o This is because the primary key value is used to identify individual rows in
relation and if the primary key has a null value, then we can't identify those
rows.
o A table 1.47 can contain a null value other than the primary key field.

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Example:

Table 1.47 Entity Integrity Constraints

3. Referential Integrity Constraints

o A referential integrity constraint is specified between two tables.

o In the Referential integrity constraints, if a foreign key in Table 1 refers to the
Primary Key of Table 1.47, then every value of the Foreign Key in Table 1.46
must be null or be available in Table 1.48.
Example:

Table 1.48 Referential Integrity Constraints

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4. Key constraints

o Keys are the entity set that is used to identify an entity within its entity set
uniquely.
o An entity set can have multiple keys, but out of which one key will be the
primary key. A primary key can contain a unique and null value in the
relational table 1.49.
Example:

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Table 1.49 key Constraints

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APRIL-MAY 23

PART-A

1.Define foreign key with an example. Q56.Pg 10

2.What is data definition language? Q10.Pg 3

PART-B
1.Explain the database management system architecture with a neat sketch
Q4. Pg 22
2.Outline select and project operations in relational algebra with an
example Q8. Pg 31
3.What is embedded SQL? Explain with an example. Q13.Pg 55

NOV-DEC 23

PART-A
1. Relate the terms database, database management system. Q1,2. Pg 1
2. What is the difference between logical data independence and
physical data independence? Q19.Pg 4

PART-B
1. Discuss the main categories of data models What are then the differences
between the relational model the object model, and XMI, model? Q3. Pg 16

2. Describe the three-schema architecture. Why do we need mappings

between schema levels How do different schema definition language
support this architecture? Q4. Pg 22

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APRIL-MAY 24

PART-A
1. Differentiate File processing system and Database processing system.
Q25.Pg 16
2. List some relational algebra operations. Q65.Pg 14

PART-B
1. What is data model? List its different types. Explain with example. Q3. Pg 20

2. Discuss about domain integrity. Give an example. Q15.Pg 68

NOV-DEC 24
PART-A
1. What is a data model? List the types of data model used. Q24.Pg 6

2. List the aggregate functions supported by SQL. Q44.Pg 10

PART-B
1. Discuss in detail, the functions of DBMS. Q14.Pg 66

2. Explain the various functions of advanced SQL features and embedded SQL
with examples. Q13.Pg 63

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UNIT II
DATABASE DESIGN
Entity-Relationship model – E-R Diagrams – Enhanced-ER Model – ER-to-Relational
Mapping – Functional Dependencies – Non-loss Decomposition – First, Second,
Third Normal Forms, Dependency Preservation – Boyce/Codd Normal Form – Multi-
valued Dependencies and Fourth Normal Form – Join Dependencies and Fifth
Normal Form.
1. What is meant by normalization of data? (Or) What is normalization?
(MAY 2010, 2014)
➢ It is a process of analyzing the given relation schemas based on their
Functional Dependencies (FDs) and primary key to achieve the properties
➢ Minimizing redundancy
➢ Minimizing insertion, deletion and updating anomalies.
2. Define canonical cover or Minimal Cover.
A canonical cover Fc for F is a set of dependencies such that F logically implies
all dependencies in FC and Fc logically implies all dependencies in F. Fc must have
the following properties
3. List the properties of canonical cover.
Fc must have the following properties.
• No functional dependency in Fc contains an extraneous attribute.
• Each left side of a functional dependency in Fc is unique.
4. Explain the desirable properties of decomposition. APR-2019
➢ Lossless-join or non loss decomposition
➢ Dependency preservation
➢ Repetition of information
5. What is first normal form?
➢ It is the process of eliminating duplicate forms from same data and creating
the separate tables for each group of related data and also to identify each
row with a unique column or set of columns.
➢ The domain of attribute must include only atomic (simple, indivisible) values.

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6. What is meant by functional dependencies? (or) Write a note on

functional dependencies. (MAY 2010)
• Functional Dependency is when one attribute determines another attribute in
a DBMS system.
• Functional Dependency plays a vital role to find the difference between good
and bad database design.
• A functional dependency is denoted by an arrow →
• The functional dependency of X on Y is represented by X →Y and X is a
determinant set and Y is a dependent set.
7. What are the uses of functional dependencies?
➢ To test relations to see whether they are legal under a given set of functional
dependencies.
➢ To specify constraints on the set of legal relations.
➢ Functional Dependency avoids data redundancy.
➢ It helps to maintain the quality of data in the database.
➢ It helps to defined meanings and constraints of databases.
➢ It helps to find the facts regarding the database design.
8. Explain trivial dependency.
➢ The Trivial dependency is a set of attributes which are called a trivial if the set
of attributes are included in that attribute.
➢ So, X -> Y is a trivial functional dependency if Y is a subset of X.
9. What are axioms?
➢ Axioms or rules of inference provide a simpler technique for reasoning about
functional dependencies on a relational database.
10. What is meant by computing the closure set of functional dependency?
➢ The closure of F denoted by F+.
➢ It is the set of functional dependencies logically implied by a given set F.
➢ The closure set of functional dependency can be computed using basic three
rules which are also called as Armstrong Axioms.
➢ These are as follows: Reflexivity, Augmentation, and Transitivity.

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11. What is 2NF?

➢ A relation schema R is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-prime attribute A in
R is fully functionally dependent on primary key (i.e) All attributes are fully
dependent on primary key.

➢ A relation is in 2NF if it contains no repeating groups and no partial key

functional dependencies.
12. What is a Prime attribute?
➢ An attribute, which is a part of the candidate key is known as a prime
attribute.
➢ Example:
{rollno} is a candidate key and hence rollno is a prime attribute and name,
city, phoneno are non prime attributes.
13. What is a non-Prime attribute?
➢ An attribute, which is not a part of candidate key is known as a non Prime
attribute. (or)
➢ Attributes of the relation which does not exist in any of the possible
candidate keys of the relation, such attributes are called non prime
attributes.
➢ Non prime attributes also called as non-key attributes.
➢ Example:
{rollno} is a candidate key and hence rollno is a prime attribute and name,
city, phoneno are non-prime attributes.

14. What is partial functional dependency?

➢ Partial dependency means that a non prime attribute is functionally dependent
on part of a candidate key.
➢ A functional dependency X->Y is a partial dependency
✓ if Y is functionally dependent on X and
✓ Y can be determined by any proper subset of X.

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15. What is 3NF? (DEC 2010) (Apr/May 24)

A relation is in 3NF if,
➢ It contains no repeating groups
➢ It is in the Second Normal form. (i.e. it does not have partial functional
dependency.
➢ It doesn't have transitive dependency.
16. What is transitive dependency?
➢ A functional dependency is said to be transitive if it is indirectly formed by two
functional dependencies.
➢ If a → b & b → c, then according to axiom of transitivity, a → c. This is
a transitive functional dependency.
Example:

X -> Z is a transitive dependency if the following three functional dependencies

hold true:

• X->Y
• Y does not ->X
• Y->Z

17. What is BCNF? (Apr/May 24) (Nov/Dec 24)

➢ BCNF (Boyce Codd Normal Form) is the advanced version of 3NF.
➢ A table is in BCNF if every functional dependency X->Y, X is the super key of
the table.
➢ For BCNF, the table should be in 3NF, and for every FD. LHS is super key.
18. What is multivalued dependency?
➢ Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are
independent of each other but, both depend on a third attribute.
➢ A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are
dependent on a third attribute that's why it always requires at least three
attributes.
➢ For example: Consider a bike manufacture company, which produces two
colors (Black and white) in each model every year.

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19. What is trivial multivalued dependency?

➢ A multivalued dependency X→Y in r is called as trivial multivalued dependency
if
• y is a subset of X
• XUY=R.
20. What is non trivial multivalued dependency?
➢ A multivalued functional dependency that satisfies the condition y is a subset
of X, XUY=R.is called as non trivial functional dependency.
21. What is 4NF?
➢ A relation schema R is in 4NF with a set of functional dependencies F if for
every non-trivial multivalued dependency X→Y in f+, X is a super key of R.
➢ A relation will be in 4NF if it is in Boyce Codd normal form and has no multi-
valued dependency.
➢ For a dependency A → B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B exist,
then the relation will be a multi-valued dependency.

22. What is Trivial Join Dependency?

A join dependency specified on a relation schema R is a trivial join
dependency if one of schema R in join dependency is equal to R
23. What is 5NF?
➢ A relation schema R is in 5NF, if and only of every nontrivial join dependency
that is satisfied by R is implied by the candidate keys of R, if and only if each
of A, B…. Z is a super key of R.
➢ The database is said to be in 5NF if -
i) It is in 4th Normal Form
ii) If we can decompose table further to eliminate redundancy and
anomalies and when we rejoin the table, we should not be losing the
original data or get a new record (join Dependency Principle)
24. What is a super key?
➢ It is a set of one or more attributes, that taken collectively allows us identify
uniquely a tuple in the relation.
➢ Super Key is a superset of Candidate key
➢ Example: Reg_no of student’s entity is a superkey.

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25. What are the ways to choose the functional dependency?

➢ To test relations to see whether they are legal under a given set of
functional dependencies.
➢ If a relation r is said to be legal under a g set of fune dependencies F, use say
that r satisfies F.
➢ To satisfy constraints on set of legal relations
➢ If a relation on schema R satisfies the set of functional dependency F then it
means that F holds on R.
26. What is a closure of functional dependency?
Given a relation schema R a functional dependency f on R is logically implied
by a set of functional dependencies F on R, if every relation instance r(R) that
satisfies F also satisfies f
27. What are the Armstrong Axioms available?
The Armstrong axioms consist of the following rules
Reflexivity rule:
If α is set of attributes and β c α, then α->β holds.
Augmentation rule:
If α->β holds, and γ is a set of attributes, then γα -> γβ holds.
Transitivity rule:
If α->β, β->γ holds, then α->γ holds addition rules.
Union rules:
If α->β, α->γ, α->βγ holds.
Decomposition rule:
If α->βγ, holds then α->β, α->γ holds.
Pseudo transitivity rules:
If α->β, and γβ->δ, holds αγ-. δ holds
28. What is a closure of attribute set?
➢ It is the set of all attributes functionally determined by α under a set F of
functional dependencies; the closure of α under F.
➢ The input is a set F of functional dependencies and set α of attributes.

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29. What is an extraneous attribute?

An attribute of function dependency is said to be extraneous, if we remove it
without changing the closure of set of functional dependency
30. What are the goals of relational database design?
To generate set of relational schemas that allows us to store information
with unnecessary redundancy and allows us to retrieve information easily.
31. What are the pitfalls of relational database design?
• Repetition of information
• Inability to store certain data
32. What is Reflexivity rule?
If α is set of attributes and β c α, then α->β holds.
33. What is Augmentation rule?
If α->β holds, and γ is a set of attributes, then γα -> γβ holds.
34. What is Transitivity rule?
If α->β, β->γ holds, then α->γ holds addition rules.
35. What is Union rule?
If α->β, α->γ, α->βγ holds.
36. What is Decomposition rule?
If α->βγ, holds then α->β, α->γ holds.
37. What is a Pseudo transitivity rule?
If α->β, and γβ->δ, holds αγ-. δ holds
38. Define irreducible sets of dependencies. (NOV/DEC 2010)
➢ A functional depending sets S is irreducible if the set has the following three
properties:
o Each right set of a functional dependency of S contains only one attribute.
o Each left set of a functional dependency of S is irreducible. It means reducing
one attribute from left set will change the content of S (S will lose some
information).
o Reducing any functional dependency will change the content of S.
➢ Sets of Functional Dependencies (FD) with these properties are also called
canonical or minimal.

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39. What is meant by lossless-join decomposition or loss less join?

(APL/MAY 2011)
➢ Decomposition must be lossless. It means that the information should not get
lost from the relation that is decomposed.
➢ It gives a guarantee that the join will result in the same relation as it was
decomposed.

40. What is the need for Normalization? (MAY/JUNE 2013)

➢ Minimizing redundancy
➢ Minimizing insertion, deletion and updating anomalies.
41. Define the terms i) Entity set ii) Relationship set. (Apr/May-24)
Entity set: The set of all entities of the same type is termed as an entity set.
Relationship set: The set of all relationships of the same type is termed as a
Relationship set.
42. Define weak and strong entity sets.
• Weak entity set: entity set that do not have key attribute of their own are
called weak entity sets.
• Strong entity set: Entity set that has a primary key is termed a strong entity
set
43. What does the cardinality ratio specify?
➢ Mapping cardinalities or cardinality ratios express the number of entities to
which another entity can be associated.
➢ Mapping cardinalities must be one of the following:
o One to one
o One to many
o Many to one
o Many to many
44. What is a weak entity? Give Example. Nov/Dec 2016
In a relational database, a weak entity is an entity that cannot be uniquely
identified by its attributes alone; therefore, it must use a foreign key in conjunction
with its attributes to create a primary key. The foreign key is typically a primary
key of an entity it is related to.

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45. What are the desirable properties of decomposition? Apr/May 2017

➢ Decomposition is the process of breaking down in parts or elements.
➢ It replaces a relation with a collection of smaller relations.
➢ It breaks the table into multiple tables in a database.
➢ If there is no proper decomposition of the relation, then it may lead to problems
like loss of information.
➢ The properties of Decomposition,
1. Lossless Decomposition
2. Dependency Preservation
3. Lack of Data Redundancy

46. Distinguish between key and super key. Apr/May 2017

1. Super key:
➢ It is a set of one or more attributes, that taken collectively allows us
identify uniquely a tuple in the relation.
➢ Super Key is a superset of Candidate key.
➢ Example: Reg_no of student’s entity is a superkey.
2. Primary key:
➢ It is a candidate key which acts as a principal means of identifying
tuples within a relation.
47. What is the difference between strong entity and weak entity?

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48. What is the significance of "participation role name" in the

description of relationship types?
➢ Each entity type that participates in a relationship type plays a particular role
in the relationship.
➢ It necessary to use role names in the description of relationship types, in
some cases the same entity type participates more than once in relationship
type in different roles.
➢ In such cases the role names become essential for distinguishing the meaning
of each participation. Such relationship types are called recursive
relationships.

49.'Boyce-Codd normal form is found to be stricter than third

normal form'. Justify the statement.

Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF) was proposed as a simpler form of 3NF, but it
was found to be stricter than 3NF. That is, every relation in BCNF is also in 3NF;
however, a relation in 3NF is not necessarily in BCNF.

50. Define single valued and multi valued attributes. (Nov/Dec 2024)
Single valued & multi valued attribute:
1. Single valued attribute:
➢ The attribute that has single value for a particular entity is called single
valued attribute.

➢ Ex: student_id – refers to only one student.

2. Multivalued attributes:

➢ The attribute that has a set of values for a specific entity is called
multivalued attributes.

➢ Ex: phone_number.

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PART-B
1. Explain the Entity Relationship Model. (APRIL/MAY 2010) (Nov/Dec
2010) (May/June 2012)

• Introduction
▪ Basic Concepts of ER Model
o Entity
o Entity Sets
o Relationship Set
o Attributes
▪ Constraints
o Mapping cardinalities
o Participation constraints
o Keys
▪ Entity Relationship Diagram –Notations
▪ Extended E-R Features
o Specialization
o Generalization
o Constraints on generalization
o Attribute inheritance
o
Introduction
➢ The E-R model is a high-level data model it distinguishes between basic
object called entities and relationship among those objects.
Basic Concepts of ER Model
➢ Entity

➢ Entity sets

➢ Relationship sets

➢ Attributes

Entity
➢ Entity: It is a thing or object in the real world that is distinguishable
from other objects.

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➢ An entity has a set of properties and the values for some set of
properties may uniquely identify an entity.

➢ Ex: Person is an entity and person id– uniquely identifies that person.

Entity Sets:
➢ Entity set: An entity set is a set of entity of same type that share same
properties or attributes in Table 2.1.
➢ Ex: Student - represents the set of all students in the university.

Roll no S_name
101 John
102 Peter
301 Saran
405 Michael
Table 2.1 Entity Set
Types of Entity Set
1. Strong Entity Set
➢ An entity set that has a primary key is called strong entity set
2. Weak Entity Set
➢ An entity set that does not have a primary key is called weak entity set
3. Identifying or Owner Entity set
➢ Weak entity set must be associated with another entity set called
identifying or owner entity set.
Relationship Set
➢ Relationship: Association among several entities.

➢ Relationship set: A relationship set is a of relationships of same type.

Attributes
➢ An attribute of an entity set is a function that maps from the entity set into
a domain.
➢ For each attribute, there is a set of permitted value set of that attribute.
➢ Types of attributes:
✓Simple and composite
✓Single value and multivalued

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✓Derived
✓Descriptive
Simple & composite attributes:
1. Simple attributes:
➢ Attributes that cannot be divided into subparts are called simple
attributes
➢ Ex: S.no is a simple attribute.
2. Composite attribute:
➢ Attribute that can be divided into subparts are called as composite
attributes.
➢ Ex: name -first _name, last_name

Single valued & multi valued attribute:

3. Single valued attribute:
➢ The attribute that has single value for a particular entity is called single
valued attribute.

➢ Ex: student_id – refers to only one student.

4. Multivalued attributes:

➢ The attribute that has a set of values for a specific entity is called
multivalued attributes.

➢ Ex: phone_number.

Derived attributes:

➢ The value of this type of attribute can be derived from the values of other
related attributes or entities.
Example: DOB - base or stored attribute

Age - derived attribute

Descriptive attributes:
➢ The attribute present in the relationship is called as descriptive
attribute.

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EX: 1 ER diagram with descriptive attribute in Fig 2.1

Dat
aee

Teacher adviso Student

r
Fig 2.1 ER diagram
NULL value
➢ The attribute takes a NULL value, when an entity does not have a value for it
in Fig 2.2.
Ex: ER diagram with composite, multivalued and derived attributes

Fig 2.2 ER diagram

C_name & address - Composite attribute
Street - Component attribute
Phone-number - multi-valued attribute
Age - Derived attribute
CONSTRAINTS
➢ Mapping cardinalities
➢ Participation constraints
➢ keys

Mapping cardinalities:
➢ A mapping cardinality is a data constraint that specifies how many
entities an entity can be related to in a relationship set.

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➢ Types of mapping cardinalities are

✓ one to one
✓ one to many
✓ many to one
✓ many to many
➢ Consider a binary relationship set R on entity sets A and B.

➢ There are four possible mapping cardinalities in this case:

1. One-To-One (MAY/JUNE 2013)

➢ An entity in A is related to at most one entity in B, and an entity in B is
related to at most one entity in A.

➢ Example: there is one project manager who manages only one project in
Fig 2.3.

Project manager Handles

Project
1 1
Fig 2.3 One-To-One
2.One-To-Many

➢ An entity in A is related to any number of entities in B, but an

entity in B is related to at most one entity in A.

➢ Example: one customer places order at a time in Fig 2.4.

Customer places Order

1 *

Fig 2.4 One-To-Many

3. Many-To-One
➢ An entity in A is related to at most one entity in B, but an entity in B is
related to any number of entities in A.
➢ Example: Many Students take a Computer Science Course in Fig 2.5.

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Computer Science
Students * Takes 1
Course

Fig 2.5 Many-To-One

4. Many-To-Many
➢ An entity in A is related to any number of entities in B, but an entity in B is
related to any number of entities in A.
➢ Example: Many teachers can teach many students in Fig 2.6

Students
Teachers teaches

Fig 2.6 Many-To-Many

Participation Constraints
1. Total Participation:
➢ The participation of an entity set E in a relationship set R is said to be
total, if every entity in E participates in at least one relationship
in R

➢ Example:

Fig 2.7 Total Participation

➢ Double Line indicates that from loan to borrower, each loan must have
atleast one associated customer in Fig 2.7

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2. Partial Participation:
➢ If only some entities in E participate in relationship in R, then the participation
of entity E in relationship R is said to be partial in Fig 2.8 & Fig 2.9

Instructor Advisor Students

Fig 2.8 Partial Participation

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM - SYMBOLS

Links attributes to entity set & to entity set to relationship

EX 1: ER Diagram corresponding to Customer & Loan

Cname Loan_no Amount

C_id

CStreet

Borrower Loan
Customer

Fig 2.9 ER Diagram

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2. EXPLAIN IN DETAIL ABOUT ENHANCED E-R MODLEL

• Specialization
• Generalization
• Attribute inheritance
• Aggregation
Specialization

• The process of designating sub groupings within an entity set is called

specialization.

• This is a top-down process.

• The symbol used for specialization/generalization is

• Ex: Specializations of person allow us to distinguish among persons

according to whether they are employee or customers.
• Specialization is defined by a triangle component ISA .it stands for
customer is a person.
• ISA can also refer as a super class-subclass relationship in Fig
2.10.

Fig 2.10 Specialization

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Generalization:

• The process of making super class from subclasses is called Generalization.

• It is a containment relationship that exists between a higher-level entity set

and one or more lower-level entity set. To create a generalization, the
attribute must be given in common name.

• This is a Bottom-up process in Fig 2.11.

• Super class: An Entity type that represents a general concept at high level is
called Super class.

• Sub Class: An Entity type that represents a specific concept at lower levels is
called sub class.

Fig 2.11 Generalization

Constraints on generalization
Constraint1:
▪ Condition defined
▪ User defined
Condition defined
➢ In lower-level entity sets, membership is evaluated on the basis of
whether or not an entity satisfies an explicit condition or predicate.

➢ Entities that satisfy account type= ―saving‖, belong to low level entity
saving account.

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➢ Entities that satisfy account type =‖checking‖ belongs to low level entity set
checking account.

➢ Since the lower-level entities are evaluated on the basics of same attribute
it is called as attribute defined.
User defined:
➢ Not constrained by a membership condition.

➢ Database user assign entities to a given entity set.

Constraint 2:
▪ Disjoint
▪ Overlapping
Disjoint:
➢ A disjoint ness constrains that an entity belongs to no longer one low level
entity set.
➢ Ex: Account entities satisfy only one condition either a saving account or
checking account, but cannot be both.
Overlapping:
➢ The same entity may belong to more than one lower-level entity set within
a single generalization.
➢ Ex: Generalization applied to customer & employee leads to higher level
entity set person.
Constraint 3:

Total generalization or specialization:

• Each higher-level entity set must belong to a lower-level entity set.

Partial generalization or specialization:

• Some higher-level entity set may not belong to any lower-level entity set.

Attribute Inheritance:
• The attributes of higher-level entity are said to be inherited by lower-level
entity set.

• Ex: Customer & employee inherit the attributer of a person.

Aggregation
• Aggregation is a process when relation between two entities is treated as
a single entity.

• The limitation of ER model is that it cannot express relationships among

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relationship. One alternative for representing the relationship is to create

a quaternary relationship

• Aggregation is an abstraction through which relationship is treated

as higher level entities in Fig 2.12 & Fig 2.13
Example: ER diagram with redundant relationship

Job

Employee Work Branch

On

Manages

Manager
Fig 2.12 redundant relationship
EXAMPLE: ER diagram with Aggregation

Job

Employee Work Branch

on

Manages

Manager

Fig 2.13 Aggregation

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3. Construct an ER diagram for hospital with a set of patients and a set of

medical doctors. Associated with each patient a log of the various tests
and examinations conducted.
➢ Patients are treated in a single ward by the doctors assigned to them.
Usually, each patient will be assigned a single doctor, but in rare cases
they will have two.
➢ Healthcare assistants also attend to the patients; a number of these are
associated with each ward.
➢ Initially the system will be concerned solely with drug treatment. Each
patient is required to take a variety of drugs a certain number of times per
day and for varying lengths of time.
➢ The system must record details concerning patient treatment and staff
payment. Some staff are paid part time and doctors and care assistants
work varying amounts of overtime at varying rates (subject to grade).
➢ The system will also need to track what treatments are required for which
patients and when and it should be capable of calculating the cost of
treatment per week for each patient (though it is currently unclear to what
use this information will be put).
How do we start an ERD?
• Define Entities: these are usually nouns used in descriptions of the system,
in the discussion of business rules, or in documentation; identified in the
narrative (see highlighted items above).
• Define Relationships: these are usually verbs used in descriptions of the
system or in discussion of the business rules (entity ______ entity); identified
in the narrative (see highlighted items above).
• Add attributes to the relations: these are determined by the queries, and
may also suggest new entities, e.g. grade; or they may suggest the need for
keys or identifiers in Fig 2.14.

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What questions can we ask?

o Which doctors work in which wards?
o How much will be spent in a ward in a given week?
o How much will a patient cost to treat?
o How much does a doctor cost per week?
o Which assistants can a patient expect to see?
o Which drugs are being used?
o Add cardinality to the relations
o This flexibility allows us to consider a variety of questions such as:
o Which beds are free?
o Which assistants work for Dr. X?
o What is the least expensive prescription?
o How many doctors are there in the hospital?
o Which patients are family related?

Fig 2.14 ER diagram

Examples of ER diagrams

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a. Draw an ER diagram describing theatre in Fig 2.15.

Fig 2.15 describing theatre

b. Construct an ER diagram for a mechanic shop that repairs a car in Fig
2.16.

Fig 2.16 ER diagram for a mechanic shop

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c. Draw an ER diagram for creating and delivery of project in Fig 2.17.

Fig 2.17 ER diagram for creating and delivery of project

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d. Construct an ER diagram for purchase an item using credit card in Fig

2.18.

Fig 2.18 ER diagram for purchase an item using credit card

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E. Entity Relationship Diagram and schematic for Books in Fig 2.19.

Fig 2.19 Entity Relationship Diagram and schematic for Books.

4. Explain the concept of functional dependency in detail.

Define a functional dependency. List and discuss the six inference rules
for functional dependencies. Give relevant examples. DEC 2011
What are the pitfalls in relational database design? With a suitable
example, explain the role of functional dependency in the process of
normalization. MAY 2011
Explain the concept of functional dependency in detail. (DEC 2011)
(APR 2019) (Apr/May 2024) (Nov/Dec-24)

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Functional dependencies:

• Functional Dependency is when one attribute determines another attribute in

a DBMS system.
• Functional Dependency plays a vital role to find the difference between good
and bad database design.
• A functional dependency is denoted by an arrow →
• The functional dependency of X on Y is represented by X →Y and X is a
determinant set and Y is a dependent set.
• Given a relation R, a set of attributes X in R is said to functionally
determine another attribute Y, also in R, (written X → Y) if and only if each X
value is associated with exactly one Y value.

Rules of Functional Dependencies

Below given are the three most important rules for Functional Dependency:
• Reflexive rule
If X is a set of attributes and Y is subset of X, then X holds a value of Y.
• Augmentation rule
When x -> y holds, and c is attribute set, then ac -> bc also holds. That is
adding attributes which do not change the basic dependencies.
• Transitivity rule
This rule is very much similar to the transitive rule in algebra if x -> y holds
and y -> z holds, then x -> z also holds. X -> y is called as functionally that
determines y.

Types of Functional Dependencies

• Multivalued dependency
• Trivial functional dependency
• Non-trivial functional dependency
• Transitive dependency

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Multivalued dependency
➢ Multivalued dependency occurs when two attributes in a table are
independent of each other but, both depend on a third attribute.
➢ A multivalued dependency consists of at least two attributes that are
dependent on a third attribute that's why it always requires at least three
attributes.
➢ Example: Suppose there is a bike manufacturer company which produces
two colors(white and black) of each model every year in Table 2.2.

BIKE_MODEL MANUF_YEAR COLOR

M2011 2008 White

M2001 2008 Black

M3001 2013 White

M3001 2013 Black

M4006 2017 White

M4006 2017 Black

Table 2.2 Multivalued dependency

➢ These two columns can be called as multivalued dependent on BIKE_MODEL.
➢ The representation of these dependencies is shown below:
1. BIKE_MODEL → → MANUF_YEAR
2. BIKE_MODEL → → COLOR
Trivial functional dependency
➢ The Trivial dependency is a set of attributes which are called a trivial if the set
of attributes are included in that attribute in Table 2.3.
➢ So, X -> Y is a trivial functional dependency if Y is a subset of X.
➢ For example:

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Emp_id Emp_name

AS555 Harry

AS811 George

AS999 Kevin
Table 2.3 Trivial functional dependency
Consider this table with two columns Emp_id and Emp_name.
{Emp_id, Emp_name} -> Emp_id is a trivial functional dependency as Emp_id is a
subset of {Emp_id,Emp_name}.

Non trivial functional dependency

➢ Functional dependency which also known as a nontrivial dependency occurs
when A->B holds true where B is not a subset of A in Table 2.4.
➢ In a relationship, if attribute B is not a subset of attribute A, then it is
considered as a non-trivial dependency.

Company CEO Age

Microsoft Satya Nadella 51

Google Sundar Pichai 46

Apple Tim Cook 57

Table 2.4 Non trivial functional dependency

Example:
(Company} -> {CEO} (if we know the Company, we know the CEO name) But CEO
is not a subset of Company, and hence it's non-trivial functional dependency.

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Transitive dependency:
A transitive is a type of functional dependency which happens when t is indirectly
formed by two functional dependencies in Table 2.5.

Example:

Company CEO Age

Microsoft Satya Nadella 51

Google Sundar Pichai 46

Alibaba Jack Ma 54

Table 2.5 Transitive dependency

{Company} -> {CEO} (if we know the company, we know its CEO's name)
{CEO} -> {Age} If we know the CEO, we know the Age
Therefore, according to the rule of rule of transitive dependency:
{Company} -> {Age} should hold, that makes sense because if we know the
company name, we can know his age.
Extraneous attributes
An attribute of a functional dependency is said to be extraneous if we can remove it
without changing the closure of the set of functional dependencies.
Canonical cover:
➢ A canonical cover of a set of functional dependencies F such that ALL the
following properties are satisfied:
➢ F logically implies all dependencies in FC.
➢ FC logically implies all dependencies in F.
➢ No functional dependency in FC contains an extraneous attribute.
➢ Each left side of a functional dependency in FC is unique. That is, there are no
two dependencies and in such that.

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5. Explain in detail about non-loss decomposition. (Nov/Dec 2017)

Decomposition (Apr/May-24)
➢ Decomposition is the process of breaking down in parts or elements.
➢ It replaces a relation with a collection of smaller relations.
➢ It breaks the table into multiple tables in a database.
➢ It should always be lossless, because it confirms that the information in the
original relation can be accurately reconstructed based on the decomposed
relations.
➢ If there is no proper decomposition of the relation, then it may lead to
problems like loss of information.

The properties of Decomposition,

1. Lossless Decomposition
2. Dependency Preservation (Apr/May-24)
3. Lack of Data Redundancy
1. Nonloss decomposition (or) Lossless joins
➢ Decomposition must be lossless. It means that the information should not get

lost from the relation that is decomposed.

➢ It gives a guarantee that the join will result in the same relation as it was
decomposed.

To check for lossless join decomposition using FD set, following conditions

must hold:
1. Union of Attributes of R1 and R2 must be equal to attribute of R. Each
attribute of R must be either in R1 or in R2.
Att(R1) U Att(R2) = Att(R)

2. Intersection of Attributes of R1 and R2 must not be NULL.

Att(R1) ∩ Att(R2) ≠ Φ

3. Common attribute must be a key for at least one relation (R1 or R2)
Att(R1) ∩ Att(R2) -> Att(R1) or Att(R1) ∩ Att(R2) -> Att(R2)

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Example-
Consider the following relation R( A , B , C )- in Table 2.6

A B C

1 2 1

2 5 3

3 3 3

Table 2.6 R (A, B, C)

Consider this relation is decomposed into two sub relations R1(A, B) and R2(B, C)-

The two sub relations are- Table 2.7 & Table 2.8

A B

1 2

2 5

3 3

Table 2.7 R1( A , B )

B C

2 1

5 3

3 3

Table 2.8 R2( B , C )

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Now, let us check whether this decomposition is lossless or not.

For lossless decomposition, we must have-
R1 ⋈ R2 = R
Now, if we perform the natural join ( ⋈ ) of the sub relations R1 and R2 , we get in
Table 2.9

A B C

1 2 1

2 5 3

3 3 3
Table 2.9 R1 ⋈ R2 = R

➢ This relation is same as the original relation R. Thus, we conclude that the
above decomposition is lossless join decomposition.

2. Dependency Preservation
➢ Dependency is an important constraint on the database.
➢ Every dependency must be satisfied by at least one decomposed table.
➢ If {A → B} holds, then two sets are functional dependent. And, it becomes
more useful for checking the dependency easily if both sets in a same relation.
➢ This decomposition property can only be done by maintaining the functional
dependency.
➢ In this property, it allows to check the updates without computing the natural
join of the database structure.
3. Lack of Data Redundancy
➢ Lack of Data Redundancy is also known as a Repetition of Information.

➢ The proper decomposition should not suffer from any data redundancy.
➢ The careless decomposition may cause a problem with the data.
➢ The lack of data redundancy property may be achieved by Normalization
process.

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6. What is Normalization? Explain the properties that decomposition should

posses. (MAY 2007) (APR-2019) (Apr/May-24)

Normalization:

➢ Normalization of data is a process of analyzing the given relation schema

based on their functional dependencies and primary keys to achieve the
desirable properties of
✓ Minimizing redundancy
✓ Minimizing the insertion, deletion & update anomalies.
➢ This can be achieved by decomposition.
➢ Decomposition should possess 2 desirable properties
• Lossless join (or) non additive join
• Functional dependency preservation.
Prime Attribute:
Any attribute of relation schema R, I s called as prime attribute, if it is a
member of some candidate key of R.
Non prime Attribute:
Any attribute of relation schema R, is called as non-prime attribute, if it is not a
member of any candidate key.
Candidate key:
➢ If a relation schema has more than one key, then each key is called as a
candidate key.
• The data in the database can be considered to be in one of a number of
normal forms.
1. 1st Normal Form
2. 2nd Normal Form
3. 3rd Normal Form
4. Boyce/Codd Normal Form
5. 4th Normal Form
6. 5th Normal Form

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7. Explain First Normal Form (1 NF) with a suitable Example. (MAY/JUNE

2012)
First Normal Form

➢ It is the process of eliminating duplicate forms from same data and creating
the separate tables for each group of related data and also to identify each
row with a unique column or set of columns.
➢ The table has repeating groups; it is called an unnormalized table in Table
2.10.
➢ Relational databases require that each row only has a single value per
attribute, and so a repeating group in a row is not allowed.
➢ A relation is in first normal form if it meets the definition of a relation:
1. Each attribute (column) value must be a single value only.
2. All values for a given attribute (column) must be of the same type.
3. Each attribute (column) name must be unique.
4. No two tuples (rows) in a relation can be identical.
o Example:

Table 2.10 unnormalized table

We re-arrange the relation (table 2.11) as below, to convert it to 1 Normal Form in

Table 2.11 First Normal Form

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Summary: 1NF
• A relation is in 1NF if it contains no repeating groups
• To convert an unnormalised relation to 1NF either
• Flatten the table and change the primary key or
• Decompose the relation into smaller relations, one for the repeating groups
and one for the non-repeating groups.
• Remember to put the primary key from the original relation into both new
relations.
• This option is liable to give the best results.

8. Explain Second Normal Form (2 NF) with a suitable Example. (MAY/JUNE

2012)
Second Normal Form

➢ A relation is in 2NF if and only if, it is in 1NF and every non-key attribute is
fully functionally dependent on the whole key (primary key). (i.e) All
attributes are fully dependent on primary key.

➢ A relation is in 2NF if it contains no repeating groups and no partial key

functional dependencies.

➢ To convert a relation with partial functional dependencies to 2NF. Create a

set of new relations:
o One relation for the attributes is fully dependent upon the key.
o One relation for each part of the key that has partially dependent
attributes.

➢ A relation is in second normal form (2NF) if its non-prime attributes are fully
functionally dependent on primary key.

➢ A relation is in second normal form if it is free from partial-key dependencies

Prime attribute − an attribute, which is a part of the prime-key, is known
as a prime attribute.

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Non-prime attribute − an attribute, which is not a part of the prime-key,

is said to be a non-prime attribute.
➢ Types of functional dependency,
o Full functional dependency
o Partial functional dependency
➢ Full functional dependency:
o A functional dependency P → Q is fully functional dependency if removal
of any attribute A Form P means that the dependency does not hold any
more.
o Example:
If AD → C, is fully functional dependency, then we cannot remove A or
D. i.e. C is fully functional dependent on AD. If we are able to remove A
or D, then it is not fully functional dependency.
➢ Partial functional dependency:
o A functional dependency P → Q is partial functional dependency if
removal of any attribute A from P means that the dependency still holds
in Table 2.12.
Example: TEACHER table

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT TEACHER_AGE

25 Chemistry 30

25 Biology 30

47 English 35

83 Math 38

83 Computer 38

Table 2.12 TEACHER TABLE

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In the given table, non-prime attribute TEACHER_AGE is dependent on

TEACHER_ID which is a proper subset of a candidate key. That's why it
violates the rule for 2NF.

➢ To convert the given table 2.13 & table 2.14 into 2NF, we decompose it into
two tables:

TEACHER_DETAIL table:

TEACHER_ID TEACHER_AGE

25 30

47 35

83 38

Table 2.13 TEACHER_DETAIL

TEACHER_SUBJECT table:

TEACHER_ID SUBJECT

25 Chemistry

25 Biology

47 English

83 Math

83 Computer
Table 2.14 TEACHER_SUBJECT
Summary: 2NF
➢ A relation is in 2NF if it contains no repeating groups and no partial key
functional dependencies.
➢ Rule: A relation in 1NF with a single key field must be in 2NF

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➢ To convert a relation with partial functional dependencies to 2NF. Create a

set of new relation.
➢ One relation for the attributes that are fully dependent upon the key
➢ One relation for each part of the key that has partially dependent attributes.

9. Explain Third Normal Form (3 NF) with a suitable Example. (MAY/JUNE

2012) (Apr/May-24)
Third Normal Form
➢ The third normal form let us first discuss the concept transitive dependency,
super key and candidate key.

Concept of Transitive Dependency

➢ A functional dependency is said to be transitive if it is indirectly formed by two
functional dependencies.
➢ For example -
X -> Z is a transitive dependency if the following functional dependencies hold
true:
X->Y
Y->Z
Concept of Super key and Candidate Key
➢ Super key: A super key is a set or one of more columns (attributes) to
unique identify rows in a table.
➢ Candidate key: The minimal set of attributes which can uniquely identify a
tuple known as candidate key.
➢ For example, consider following Table 2.15

Reg ID RollNo Sname

101 1 AAA
102 2 BBB
103 3 CCC
104 4 DDD
Table 2.15 Transitive Dependency

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Super keys
• {RegID}
• {RegID, RollNo}
• {RegID, Sname}
• {RollNo, Sname}
• {RegID, RollNo, Sname}
Candidate Keys
• {RegID}
• {RollNo}
Third Normal Form
➢ A table is said to be in the Third Normal Form when,
i) It is in the Second Normal form. (i.e. it does not have partial functional
dependency
ii) It doesn't have transitive dependency.
Or in other words 3NF can be defined as:
➢ A table is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and for each functional dependency x-> y at
least one of the following conditions holds:
i) X is a super key of table
ii) Y is a prime attribute of table in Table 2.16
➢ For example: Consider following table Student _details as follows -

sid sname zipcode cityname state

1 AAA 11111 Pune Maharashtra

2 BBB 22222 Surat Gujarat
3 CCC 33333 Chennai Tamilnadu
4 DDD 44444 Jaipur Rajastan
5 EEE 55555 Mumbai Maharashtra
Table 2.16 Student _details
Here
Super keys: {sid},{sid,sname},{sid,sname,zipcode}, [sid.zipcode.cityname] ...
and so on.

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Candidate keys: {sid}

Non-Prime attributes: {sname,zipcode,cityname,state}
The dependencies can be denoted as
sid-c-sname
sid-e-zipcode
zipcode->cityname
cityname->state
The above denotes the transitive dependency. Hence above table is not in 3NF.
We can convert it into 3NF as follows Tables 2.17:
Student
sid sname zip code
1 AAA 11111
2 BBB 22222
3 CCC 33333
4 DDD 44444
5 EEE 55555
Table 2.17 Student
ZIP
zipcode cityname state
11111 Pune Maharashtra
22222 Surat Gujarat
33333 Chennai Tamilnadu
44444 Jaipur Rajasthan
55555 Mumbai Maharashtra
Table 2.17 ZIP
Summary: 3NF
• A relation is in 3NF if it contains no repeating groups, no partial functional
dependencies, and no transitive functional dependencies.
• T converts a relation with transitive functional dependencies to 3NF, remove
the attributes involved in the transitive dependency and put them in a new
relation.

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• Rule: A relation in 2NF with only one non-key attribute must be in 3NF
• In a normalized relation a non-key field must provide a fact about the key,
the whole key and nothing but the key.
• Relations in 3NF are sufficient for most practical database design problems.
However, 3NF does not guarantee that all anomalies have been removed.

10. Explain Boyce/Codd Normal Form (BCNF) with a suitable Example.

(MAY/JUNE 2012) (Apr/May-24)
Boyce/Codd Normal Form (BCNF)
• Boyce and Codd Normal Form is a higher version of the Third Normal form.
This form deals with certain type of anomaly that is not handled by 3NF.
• A 3NF table which does not have multiple overlapping candidate keys is
said to be in BCNF.
• For a table to be in BCNF, following conditions must be satisfied:
i) R must be in 3rd Nohnal Form
ii) For each functional dependency ( X ~ Y ), X should be a super Key. In
simple words if Y is a prime attribute then X cannot be non prime attribute.
For example - Consider following table that represents that a Student
enrollment for the course-
Enrollment Table
sid course Teacher
1 C Ankita
1 Java Poonam
2 C Ankita
3 C++ Supriya
4 C Archana
Table 2.18 Enrollment Table
From above table 2.18 following observations can be made:
• One student can enroll for multiple courses. For example, student with sidel
enroll for C as well as Java.
• For each course, a teacher is assigned to the student.

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• There can be multiple teachers teaching one course, for example course C car
taught by both the teachers namely - Ankita and Archana.
• The candidate key for above table can be (sid,course), because using these
columns we can find
• The above table holds following dependencies
 (sid, course)->Teacher
 Teacher->course
• The above table is not in BCNF because of the dependency teacher-s-course.
that the teacher is not a super key or in other words, teacher is a non p
attribute and course is a prime attribute and non-prime attribute derives the p
attribute.
• To convert the above table to BCNF we must decompose above table into Stu
and Course tables

Student

sid Teacher
1 Ankita
1 Poonam
2 Ankita
3 Supriya
4 Archana

Table 2.19 Student

Course
Teacher course
Ankita C
Poonam Java
Ankita C
Supriya C++
Archana C
Table 2.19 Course
Now the tables 2.19 is in BCNF

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11. Explain the concept of Multivalued dependency and Fourth Normal

Form (4NF). (MAY/JUNE 2012) (Apr/May-24)

Concept of Multivalued Dependencies

• A table is said to have multi-valued dependency, if the following conditions
are true,
1. For a dependency A -7 B, if for a single value of A, multiple values of B
exists, then the table may have multi-values dependency.
2. Also, a table should have at-least 3 columns for it to have a multi-valued
dependency.
3. And, for a relation R(A,B,C}, if there is a multi-valued dependency
between,
A and B, then B and C should be independent of each other.
If all these conditions are true for any relation(table), it is said to have multi-
valued dependency.
• In simple terms, if there are two columns A and B - and for column A if
there are
multiple values of column B then we say that MVD exists between A and B
• The multivalued dependency is denoted by →→
• If there exists a multivalued dependency, then the table is not in 4th
normal form.
• For example: Consider following table 2.20 for information about student

Student

sid Course Skill

1 C English
C++ German
2 Java English
French
Table 2.20 Student

Here sid =1 leads to multiple values for courses and skill. Following table
2.21 shows this

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sid Course Skill

1 C English

1 C++ German

1 C German

1 C++ English

2 Java English
2 Java French

Table 2.21 Course and Skill

Here sid and course are dependent but the Course and Skill are
independent. The multivalued dependency is denoted as:
sid →>Course
sid →> Skill
Fourth Normal Form

Definition: For a table to satisfy the Fourth Normal Form, it should satisfy
the following two conditions:
1) It should be in the Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF).
2) And, the table should not have any multi-valued dependency.
For example: Consider following student relation which is not in 4NF as it cont
'
multivalued dependency.

Student Table

sid Course Skill

1 C English
1 C++ German
1 C German
1 C++ English
2 Java English
2 Java French
Table 2.22 Student Table
Now to convert the above table 2.22 to 4NF we must decompose the table
into follows two tables.

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Student course table key: sid, course)

sid Course
1 C
1 C++
2 Java
Table 2.23 Student course table
Student skill table:
Key Skill
:
1 English
(sid,
1 German
skill
2
)id English
2 French

Table 2.24 Student skill table

Thus, the table 2.23 & Table 2.24 in 4th normal form.

12. Explain Join Dependency and Fifth Normal Form (5 NF). (MAY 2013)

Join Dependency and Fifth Normal Form (5NF)

Concept of Fifth Normal Form

The database is said to be in 5NF if -
i) It is in 4th Normal Form
ii) If we can decompose table further to eliminate redundancy and
anomalies and when we rejoin the table, we should not be losing the
original data or get a new record (join Dependency Principle)

The fifth normal form is also called as project join normal form.
For example - Consider following table 2.25

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Seller Company Product

Rupali Godrej Cinthol
Sharda Dabur Honey
Sharda Dabur HairOil
Sharda Dabur Rosewater
Sunil Amul Icecrearn
Sunil Britania Biscuits
Table 2.25 Seller, Company, Product
Here we assume the keys as {Seller, Company, Product}
The above table has multivalued dependency as
Seller→>{Company, Product}. Hence table is not in 4th Normal Form. To
make the above table in 4th normal form we decompose above table into two
tables as 2.26 & 2.27

Seller _Company

Seller Company
Rupali Godrej
Sharda Dabur
Sunil Amul
Sunil Britania
Table 2.26 Seller _Company

Seller product

Seller Product
Rupali Cinthol
Sharda Honey
Sharda HairOil
Sharda RoseWater
Sunil Icecream
Sunil . Biscuits

Table 2.27 Seller_product

The above table is in 4th Normal Form as there is no multivalued

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dependency. But it not in 5th normal form because if we join the above two
table we may get table 2.28

Selle I Company I Product

r
Rupal Godrej I Cinthol
i
Shard Dabur Honey
a
Shard Dabur HairOil
a
Shard Dabur Rosewater
a
------ - ..•. ------- ------
Sunil Amul Icecream
Sunil Amul Biscuits
I
Sunil Britania Icecream
Sunil Britania Biscuits

newly added records

Table 2.28 4th Normal Form

j three tables
To avoid the above problem, we can decompose the tables into
2.29 as Seller Company, Seller_Product, and Company Product table
Seller, Company
Seller Company
Rupali Godrej
Sharda Dabur
Sunil Amul
Sunil Britania

Table 2.29 Seller, Company

Seller_Product
Seller Product
Rupali Cinthol
Sharda Honey
Sharda HairOil
Sharda RoseWater
Sunil Icecream
Sunil Biscuit
Table 2.29 Seller_Product

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Company_Product
Company Product
Godrej Cinthol
Dabur Honey
Dabur HairOil
Dabur RoseWater
Amul Icecream
Britania Biscuit
Table 2.30 Company_Product

Thus, the table 2.30 in in 5th normal form.

13.Discuss in detail the steps involved in the ER to relational mapping

in the process of relational database design.
• ER Model, when conceptualized into diagrams, gives a good overview of
entity-relationship, which is easier to understand.
• ER diagrams can be mapped to relational schema, that is, it is possible
to create relational schema using ER diagram.
• It cannot import all the ER constraints into relational model, but an
approximate schema can be generated.
• There are several processes and algorithms available to convert ER
Diagrams into Relational Schema.
• ER diagrams mainly comprise of −
✓ Entity and its attributes
✓ Relationship, which is association among entities.
Mapping Entity
An entity is a real-world object with some attributes in Fig 2.20.

Fig 2.20 Mapping Entity

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Mapping Process (Algorithm)

• Create table for each entity.
• Entity's attributes should become fields of tables with their respective data
types.
• Declare primary key.

Mapping Relationship
A relationship is an association among entities in Fig 2.21.

Fig 2.21 Mapping Relationship

Mapping Process

Create table for a relationship.

• Add the primary keys of all participating Entities as fields of table with their
respective data types.
• If relationship has any attribute, add each attribute as field of table.
• Declare a primary key composing all the primary keys of participating entities.
• Declare all foreign key constraints.

Mapping Weak Entity Sets

A weak entity set is one which does not have any primary key associated with it in
Fig 2.22.

Fig 2.22 Mapping Weak Entity Sets

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Mapping Process

• Create table for weak entity set.

• Add all its attributes to table as field.
• Add the primary key of identifying entity set.
• Declare all foreign key constraints.

Mapping Hierarchical Entities

ER specialization or generalization comes in the form of hierarchical entity sets in
Fig 2.23.

Fig 2.23 Mapping Hierarchical Entities

Mapping Process
• Create tables for all higher-level entities.
• Create tables for lower-level entities.
• Add primary keys of higher-level entities in the table of lower-level entities.
• In lower-level tables, add all other attributes of lower-level entities.
• Declare primary key of higher-level table and the primary key for lower-level
table.
• Declare foreign key constraints.

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14. Consider the following relational schemes for a library database: Book
(Title, Author, Catalog_no, Publisher, Year, Price) Collection (Title,
Author, Catalog_no) the following are functional dependencies:
(i) Title Author Catalog_no
(ii) Catalog_no→ Title Author Publisher Year
(iii) Publisher Title Year → Price
(iv) Assume (Author Title) is the key for both schemes. Apply the
appropriate normal form for Book and Cancellation? (Apr/may 2024)
Answer:
Table Collection is in BCNF as there is only one functional dependency “Title Author
–> Catalog_no” and {Author, Title} is key for collection. Book is not in BCNF
because Catalog_no is not a key and there is a functional Dependency “Catalog_no
–> Title Author Publisher Year”. Book is not in 3NF because non-prime attributes
(Publisher Year) are transitively dependent on key [Title, Author]. Book is
in 2NF because every non-prime attribute of the table is either dependent on the
key [Title, Author], or on another non-prime attribute.

Therefore, the correct answer is Book is in 2NF and Collection is in 3NF

15. Construct an ER diagram for Election Commission for online voting

system as per the information in the system: Voters' details,
candidates and the political party they belong or independent type,
vote casted, winner of any particular election- area. (Nov/Dec 2024)

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16. Consider the following relational schemas: Employee (empno, name,

office, age) Books (ISBN, title, author, publisher) Borrow (empno,
ISBN, issuedate) Write relational algebra queries for the following:
(i) Find the names of employees who have borrowed a book published
by “Springer”.
(ii) Find the names of employees who have borrowed more than five
different books published by “PHI”.
(iii) For each publisher, find the names of employees who have
borrowed more than five books of that publisher. (Nov/Dec 2024)
Relational Algebra Queries
(i) Find the names of employees who have borrowed a book published by
“Springer”.
π(name) (Employee ⨝ (π(empno, ISBN) (σ(publisher='Springer') (Books)) ⨝
Borrow))
(ii) Find the names of employees who have borrowed more than five different books
published by “PHI”.
π(name) ((Employee ⨝ Borrow) ÷ π(ISBN) (σ(publisher='PHI') (Books)) >5)
(iii) For each publisher, find the names of employees who have borrowed more than
five books of that publisher.
π(publisher, name) ((Employee ⨝ Borrow) ÷ π(ISBN, publisher) (Books) >5)
17. Consider a relation with schema R(A, B, C, D) and FD's AB -> C, C -> D,
and D -> A.
a) What are all the nontrivial FD's that follow from the given FD's? You
should restrict yourself to FD's with single attributes on the right
side. b) What are all the keys of R?
c) What are all the super keys for R that are not keys?
a) The restriction in the question is the functional dependencies with one attribute
on the right-hand side should be considered, and all FDs given in the question
have only one attribute. Hence all three FDs should be considered.
• AB → C is a nontrivial dependency. Since C cannot determine A and B.
• C → D is a nontrivial dependency. Since D cannot determine C.
• D → A is a trivial dependency. Since D → A and C → D leads to C → A and AB
→ C and C → A lead to AB → A which is clearly a trivial dependency.
b) AB, BC, and BD are the keys to the given relation
• (AB)+ = ABCD
• (BC)+ = ABCD
• (BD)+ = ABCD
c) The Super keys that are not keys are
• ABC
• ABCD
• BCD
• ABD

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APRIL/MAY-2023
PART-A
1.What is a derived attribute? Give examples. Q52 Pg 12
2.What is fuctional dependency? Give examples Q6 Pg 2
PART-B
1.Elaborate on first normal form, second normal form and third normal form with
examples. Q7,8,9 Pg40
2.Explain Boyce Codd normal form, fourth normal form and fifth normal form with
Examples. Q10,11,12 Pg52
PART C
1. Consider the following relations: Q10, Pg52
EMPLOYEE
ENO NAME DOB GENDER DCODE
12345 HAMEN 24-MAR-2001 M 201
12346 VINI 12-MAR-2001 F 202
12347 ANI 11-JAN-1999 F
12348 PETER 14-FEB-2001 M

DEPARTMENT
DCODE DNAME
201 COMPUTER SC
202 INFN SC
203 CIVIL
204 MECHANICAL

The Primary Key of each relation is underlined. Outline Cartesian product, equi join,
left outer join, right outer join and full outer join operations in relational algebra.
Illustrate the above relational algebra operation with the EMPLOYEE and
DEPARTMENT relations.

2. A Company is organized into departments. Each Department has employees

working in it. The attributes of department include department number and
department name. The attributes of employee include employee number, employee
name, date of birth, gender, date of joining, designation, and basic pay. Each
department has a manager managing it. There are also supervisors in each
department who supervise a set of employees. Each department controls a number
of projects. The attributes of project include project code and project name. A
project is controlled only by one department. An employee can work in any number
of distinct projects on a day. The date and employee worked, in time and out time

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has to be kept track. The company also keeps track of the dependents of each
employee. The attributes of dependent include dependent name, date of birth,
gender and relationship with the employee.
(i) Model an Entity Relationship diagram for the above scenario (7)
(ii) Map the entity relationship diagram you have modeled to relations (8) Q4c,
Pg29

NOV/DEC-2023
PART-A
1. Define functional dependency. Q6 Pg2
2. Transform the following ER diagram into a relational schema diagram.
(Partial Participation Diagram)

Book (ISBN, Title, Edition)

Chapter (Number, Title)
Chapter-primary key

PART-B
1. Consider the following schemas. The primary key for each relation is denoted by
the underlined attribute Q7, Pg40
LIVES (Person- name, street, city)
WORKS (Person-name company name, salary)
LOCATED-IN (Company-name, city)
MANAGES (Person-name, manager-name)
Write relational algebra expressions for the following queries:
(i) Find the name of all employees (ie, persons) who work for the City Bank
company (which is a specific
company in the database).
(ii) Find the name and city of all employees who work for City Bank.
(iii) Find the name, Street and city of all employees who work for City Bank and
earn more than $10,000.
(iv) Find all employees who live in the same city as the company they work for

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(v) Find all persons who do not work for City Bank.
(vi) Find the second largest salary earned by the employee.

2. Consider the relation for car dealership given below. Q9 Pg43

Dealership (Uniqueid. Customer-name, Purchase, Address, Newsfeed. Supplier,
Price)
Normalize the table so that all resulting tables are in 3NF stating the definitions
of various normal forms.
PARTC
1. Construct an E-R diagram for university database with the following information:
Q4,Pg29
Professors have an SSN (Social Security Number), a name, an age, a rank,
and a research speciality. Projects have a project number, a sponsor name, a
starting date, an ending date and a budget. Graduate students have an SSN,
a name, an age, and a degree program Example M.S or Ph.D. Each project is
managed by one professor. Each project is worked by one or more
professors, Professors can manage and/or work on multiple projects. Each
project is worked by one or more graduate students (known as the projects
research Assistants)
When graduate students work on a project, a professor must supervise their
work on the project. Graduate students can work on multiple projects; in this
case they can have a different supervisor for each one.
Departments have a department number, a department name and a main
office. Departments have a professor who runs the department. Professors
works in one or more departments, and for each department that they work
in a time percentage is associated with their job Graduate, students have a
major department in which they are working on their degree. Each graduate
student has another, more senior graduate student (known as student
advisor) who advises him or her on what courses to take.
Design/Draw an ER diagram that captures the full information about the
university. Use only the basic ER model, here, that is, entities, relationships,
and attributes. Be sure to indicate any key and participation constraints with
underlines and arrows.

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APRIL/MAY-2024
PART-A
1. Define Entity, Relationship and attributes in ER model. Q41 Pg 8
2. Why BCNF is preferred over 3NF? Q15, Q17 Pg 4

PART-B
1. What is normalizations? List its benefits and explain briefly about 3NF, 4NF and
BCNF with suitable example. Q6, 9, 10, 11 Pg 35
2. Illustrate functional dependency with an example. (6) Q4 Pg 27
3. Discuss about dependency preservation. Q5 Pg 34

PART-C
1. Consider the following relational schemes for a library database: Book (Title,
Author, Catalog_no, Publisher, Year, Price) Collection (Title, Author, Catalog_no)
the following are functional dependencies:
(i) Title Author Catalog_no
(ii) Catalog_no→ Title Author Publisher Year
(iii) Publisher Title Year → Price
(iv) Assume (Author Title) is the key for both schemes. Apply the appropriate
normal form for Book and Cancellation? Q14 Pg 53

NOV/DEC-2024
PART-A
1. Define single valued and multi valued attributes. Q50 Pg 10
2. What is BCNF? Q17 Pg 4

PART-B
1. Construct an ER diagram for Election Commission for online voting system as per
the information in the system: Voters' details, candidates and the political party
they belong or independent type, vote casted, winner of any particular election-
area. Q15 Pg 53

2. Illustrate how preserve to Functional Dependencies during decomposition

Q4 Pg 27

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PART-C
1. Consider the following relational schemas: Employee (empno, name, office, age)
Books (ISBN, title, author, publisher) Borrow (empno, ISBN, issuedate) Write
relational algebra queries for the following:
(i) Find the names of employees who have borrowed a book published by
“Springer”.
(ii) Find the names of employees who have borrowed more than five different
books published by “PHI”.
(iii) For each publisher, find the names of employees who have borrowed more
than five books of that publisher. Q16 Pg 54

2. Consider a relation with schema R(A, B, C, D) and FD's AB -> C, C -> D, and
D -> A.
a) What are all the nontrivial FD's that follow from the given FD's? You should
restrict yourself to FD's with single attributes on the right side.
b) What are all the keys of R?
c) What are all the superkeys for R that are not keys? Q17 Pg 54

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UNIT III - TRANSACTIONS

Transaction Concepts – ACID Properties – Schedules – Serializability – Transaction
support in SQL – Need for Concurrency – Concurrency control –Two Phase Locking-
Timestamp – Multiversion – Validation and Snapshot isolation– Multiple Granularity
locking – Deadlock Handling – Recovery Concepts – Recovery based on deferred and
immediate update – Shadow paging – ARIES Algorithm
PART – A

1. What are the ACID properties? (Nov/Dec 2020 & Apr/May 2021)
A - Atomicity
C - Consistency
I - Isolation
D - Durability
It is a set of properties that guarantee database transactions are processed reliably.
2. What are two pitfalls of lock-based protocols? (APRIL/MAY-2011)
● Deadlock
● Starvation

3. What is transaction? (APRIL/MAY-2010)

● Collections of operations that form a single logical unit of work are called
transactions.
● A program contains statements of the form begin transaction and end
transaction.
● The transaction consists of all operations executed between the begin
transaction and end transaction

4. What are the two statements regarding transaction?

The two statements regarding transaction of the form:
• Begin transaction
• End transaction
5. What are the properties of transaction? (Apr/May 2024)
• Consistency
• Isolation
• Durability
• Atomicity

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6. What is recovery management component?

Ensuring durability is the responsibility of a software component of the base system
called the recovery management component.
7. When is a transaction rolled back?
● Any changes that the aborted transaction made to the database must be
undone.
● Once the changes caused by an aborted transaction have been undone, then
the transaction has been rolled back.
8. What are the states of transaction? (Apr/May 2019)
The states of transaction are
● Active
● Partially committed
● Failed
● Aborted
● Committed
● Terminated
9. List out the statements associated with a database transaction.
● Commit work
● Rollback work
10. What is a shadow copy scheme?
• It is simple, but efficient, scheme called the shadow copy schemes.
• It is based on making copies of the database called shadow copies that one
transaction is active at a time.
• The scheme also assumes that the database is simply a file on disk.
11. Give the reasons for allowing concurrency control. (Nov/Dec 2024)
The reasons for allowing concurrency are if the transactions run serially, a short
transaction may have to wait for a preceding long transaction to complete, which can
lead to unpredictable delays in running a transaction. So concurrent execution
reduces the unpredictable delays in running transactions.

12. What is average response time?

The average response time is that the average time for a transaction to be
completed after it has been submitted.

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13. What are the two types of serializability?

The two types of serializability are
• Conflict serializability
• View serializability
14. Define lock.
Lock is the most common used to implement the requirement is to allow a
transaction to access a data item only if it is currently holding a lock on that item.
15. What are the different modes of lock?
The modes of lock are:
• Shared
• Exclusive
16. Define deadlock.
Neither of the transaction can ever proceed with its normal execution. This situation
is called deadlock.
17. Define the phases of two-phase locking protocol. (NOV/DEC 2011)
(MAY/JUNE 2013)
● Growing phase: a transaction may obtain locks but not release any lock.
● Shrinking phase: a transaction may release locks but may not obtain any new
locks.
18. Define upgrade and downgrade.
● It provides a mechanism for conversion from shared lock to exclusive lock is
known as upgrade.
● It provides a mechanism for conversion from exclusive lock to shared lock is
known as downgrade.
19. What is a database graph?
The partial ordering implies that the set D may now be viewed as a directed acyclic
graph, called a database graph.
20. What are the two methods for dealing deadlock problem?
The two methods for dealing deadlock problem are deadlock detection and deadlock
recovery.

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21. What is a recovery scheme?

An integral part of a database system is a recovery scheme that can restore the
database to the consistent state that existed before the failure.
22. What are the two types of errors?
The two types of errors are:
• Logical error
• System error
23. What are the storage types?
The storage types are:
• Volatile storage
• Nonvolatile storage
24. Define blocks.
The database system resides permanently on nonvolatile storage, and is partitioned
into fixed-length storage units called blocks.
25. What is meant by Physical blocks?
The input and output operations are done in block units. The blocks residing on the
disk are referred to as physical blocks.
26. What is meant by buffer blocks?
The blocks residing temporarily in main memory are referred to as buffer blocks.
27. Name the four conditions for deadlock. (Apr/May 2023) (Nov/Dec 2024)
There are four primary conditions for the deadlock:
Mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, and circular wait
28. What is meant by log-based recovery?
The most widely used structures for recording database modifications is the log. The
log is a sequence of log records, recording all the update activities in the database.
There are several types of log records.
29. What are uncommitted modifications?
The immediate-modification technique allows database modifications to be output to
the database while the transaction is still in the active state. Data modifications
written by active transactions are called uncommitted modifications.
30. Define shadow paging.
An alternative to log-based crash recovery technique is shadow paging. This
technique needs fewer disk accesses than do the log-based methods.

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31. Define page.

The database is partitioned into some number of fixed-length blocks, which are
referred to as pages.
32. What is current page table and shadow page table?
The key idea behind the shadow paging technique is to maintain two-page tables
during the life of the transaction: the current page table and the shadow page table.
Both the page tables are identical when the transaction starts.
The current page table may be changed when a transaction performs a write
operation.
33. What are the drawbacks of shadow-paging technique?
• Commit Overhead
• Data fragmentation
• Garbage collection
34. Define garbage collection.
Garbage may be created also as a side effect of crashes. Periodically, it is necessary
to find all the garbage pages and to add them to the list of free pages. This process
is called garbage collection.
35. What is strict two-phase locking protocol and rigorous two-phase locking
protocol? (MAY/JUNE 2012)
● In strict two-phase locking protocol, all exclusive mode locks taken by a
transaction is held until that transaction commits.
● Rigorous two-phase locking protocol requires that all locks be held until the
transaction commits.
36. How the time stamps are implemented?
• Use the value of the system clock as the time stamp. That is a transaction’s time
stamp is equal to the value of the clock when the transaction enters the system.
• Use a logical counter that is incremented after a new timestamp has been
assigned; that is the time stamp is equal to the value of the counter.
37. What are the time stamps associated with each data item?
• W-timestamp (Q) denotes the largest time stamp if any transaction that executed
WRITE (Q) successfully.

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• R-timestamp (Q) denotes the largest time stamp if any transaction that executed
READ (Q) successfully.
38. What are the facilities available in SQL for Database recovery?
(MAY/JUNE 2010)
● SQL support for transaction, and hence for transaction-based recovery.

● Most executable “SQL statements are guaranteed to be atomic.

● SQL provides direct analogs of BEGIN TRANSACTION, COMMIT, and ROLLBACK

called START TRANSACTION, COMMIT WORK, and ROLLBACK WORK, here
is the syntax for START TRANSACTION.

39. What are the benefits and disadvantages do strict two-phase locking
provide?
Benefits:
• Transaction only read values of committed transaction
• No cascaded aborts.
Disadvantages:
• Limited concurrency
• Deadlocks
40. List the two commonly used Concurrency Control techniques.
• Two phased Locking
• Time stamp-based ordering
41. List the SQL statements used for transaction control.
• Commit, Roll back, Savepoint.
42. What is shadow paging?
• An alternative to log-based crash recovery technique is shadow paging.
• This technique needs fewer disk accesses than do the log-based methods. Here
is divided into pages that can be stored anywhere in the disk. In order to
identify the location of a give page we use page table.
43. List the properties that must be satisfied by the transaction.
• Atomicity
• Consistency reservation
• Isolation
• Durability or permanency

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44. What are the types of transparencies that a distributed database must
support?
1. Location transparency
2. Fragmentation transparency
3. Replication transparency
45. What are the three kinds of intent locks?
• Intent Exclusive
• Intent shared
• Shared-Intent Exclusive
46. Define serializability. (Apr/May 2023)
Serializability is a property of a system describing how different process
operate on shared data A system is serializable if its result is the same as if the
operations were executed in some sequential order, meaning there is no overlap in
execution.
47. How will you handle deadlock during two transactions in database?
(Apr/May 2024)
To handle a deadlock between two database transactions, the best
approach is to design your transactions to minimize the possibility of
deadlocks by consistently accessing resources in the same order, keeping
transactions short, using appropriate isolation levels, and implementing retry
logic in your application code to automatically handle deadlocks when they
occur; if a deadlock is detected, analyze the situation to identify the involved

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PART – B

1. Explain in detail about transactions. (Nov/Dec 2021) (Apr/May 2023)

Collections of operations (processes) that form a single logical unit of work are
called transactions. (or) Transaction is an executing program that forms a logical
unit of database processing.
⮚ A transaction includes one or more database access operations. These can
include insertion, deletion, modification or retrieval operations.
⮚ The database operation can be embedded within an application or can be
specified by high level query language.
⮚ These operations executed between the begin transaction and end
transaction.

Transactions access data using two operations:

✔ read(X)- which transfers the data item X from the database to a local
buffer belonging to the transaction that executed the read operation.
✔ write(X)- which transfers the data item X from the local buffer of the
transaction that executed the write back to the database.

In a real database system, the write operation does not automatically result in the
immediate update of the data on the disk;
⮚ The write operation may be temporarily stored in memory and executed on
the disk later. For now, however, we shall assume that the write operation
updates the database immediately.
⮚ A transaction must be in one of the following states is shown in Fig 3.1.

✔ Active
✔ Partially committed
✔ Failed
✔ Aborted
✔ Committed

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Active
✔ In this state, the transaction is being executed.
✔ This is the initial state of every transaction.

Partially Committed
When a transaction executes its final operation, it is said to be in a partially
committed state.

Fig.3.1 Transaction states

Failed
A transaction is said to be in a failed state if any of the checks made by the database
recovery system fails. A failed transaction cans no longer proceed further.

Aborted
If any of the checks fails and the transaction has reached a failed state, then the
recovery manager rolls back all its write operations on the database to bring the
database back to its original state where it was prior to the execution of the
transaction. Transactions in this state are called aborted.
The database recovery module can select one of the two operations after a
transaction aborts.
✔ Re-start the transaction
✔ Kill the transaction

Committed
If a transaction executes all its operations successfully, it is said to be
committed.

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Example:

Let Ti be a transaction that transfer money from account A (5000) to account B. The
transaction can be defined as

Ti:
read (A)
A: = A – 5000 (withdraw from A)
write (A); (update A)
read (B) (deposit B)
B: = B + 5000
write (B) (update B)

2. Explain in detail about properties of transaction (ACID Properties).

(Nov/Dec 2020 & Apr/May 2021, Apr/May 2023) (Nov/Dec 2022, 2024)
ACID property:
A - Atomicity
C - Consistency
I - Isolation
D - Durability
It is a set of properties that guarantee database transactions are processed
reliably.
Example: Ti-read(A);
A:=A-50;
write(A);
read(B);

B:=B+50;
Write(B);
ATOMICITY:
Either all operation of the transaction is reflected properly in the database, or
none are.

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● This all-or-none properly referred to as atomicity.

● Atomicity is handled by Transaction Management Component.

Example:
Consider before execution of transaction Ti, A=1000 and B=2000.

Suppose during the execution of transaction Ti , a failure occurs after the write(A)
operation but before write (B) operation the values of A & B reflected in the
database are A=950, B=2000 is an inconsistent state.

● Ensure that such inconsistent are not visible in database.

● To ensure atomicity, the database keeps track of the old values of any
data. This information is written to file called log.

● If the transaction does not complete its execution, the database system
restores the old values from the log.
● Responsibility
● Ensuring the atomicity is the responsibility of the database system
particularly recovery system.
CONSISTENCY:
Execution of the transaction in isolation (i.e.) with no other transaction
executing in parallel preserves the consistency.

Example:
The consistency requirement is the sum of A and B be unchanged by the execution
of transaction.

● If the database is consistent before the execution of transaction, the

database remains consistent after the execution of transaction.
Responsibility:
● Responsibility is the application programmer who codes the
transaction

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ISOLATION:
Even though multiple transactions may execute concurrently, the system
guarantees that for every pair of transaction Ti and Tj it appears to Ti that either Tj
finished execution before Ti started execution or after Ti finished.
● Each transaction in unaware of other transaction executing
concurrently in the system.
Example:
Consider the database is temporarily in consistent while the transaction to transfer
funds from A to B is executing with the deducted total written toB.

● A way to avoid this problem is to execute the transaction serially (i.e.)

one after another.
● Responsibility:
● Ensuring Isolation property is the responsibility of concurrent control
component.

DURABILITY:
After a transaction completes successfully, the changes made to the database
persists, even if there are system failures.
● Durability ensures that Updates carried out by the transaction have been written
to disk before the transactions completes.
o Responsibility:
● Ensuring Durability is the responsibility of a component called the recovery
management.

3. Explain in detail about Schedule and its types with example.

The objective of concurrency control protocol is to schedule transactions in such

a way as to avoid any interference between them.

● Schedule is a sequence of the operation by a set of concurrent

transactions that preserves the order of the operations in each of the
individual transactions.

● A schedule for a set of transactions must consist of all instructions of those

transactions.

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● It Must preserve the order in which the instructions appear in each

individual transaction.

● Serial schedule is a schedule where the operation of each transaction is

executed consecutively without any interleaved operation from other
transactions.

● A Schedule S is said to be serializable if it is equivalent to serial schedule.

● In a serial schedule, the transaction is performed in serial order (i.e.,) if T1

and T2 are transaction, serial order would be T1 followed by T2 or T2
followed by T1.

● Non serial schedule is a schedule where the operations from a set of

concurrent transaction are interleaved.

Serializable schedule (Nov/Dec 2021):

The serializability of schedules is used to find non-serial schedules that allow the
transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one another.

● It identifies which schedules are correct when executions of the transaction

have interleaving of their operations.

● A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result of

its transactions executed serially.

Example: 1

Non serial schedule S1:

T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(y)
write(y)

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Non serial schedule S2:

T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(x)
read(y)
write(x)
write(y)
read(y)
write(y)

Serial schedule S3:

T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
● If a set of transaction executed concurrently, the schedule is correct if it
produces the same results as some serial execution such a schedule is
called serializable.
● Schedule S3 is a serial schedule and, since S1 and S2 are equivalent to S3,
S1 and S2 are serializable schedule.
4. Brief explanation about serializability and its types. (Apr/May 2019)
(Apr/May-2024)
Serializability is the classical concurrency scheme.
● It ensures that a schedule for executing concurrent transactions is
equivalent to one that executes the transactions serially in some order.
● Serializable schedule if a schedule is equivalent to some serial schedule,
then that schedule is called Serializable schedule.
● The object of serializability is to find on serial schedules that allow
transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one another,
and there by produce a database state that could be produced by a serial
execution.

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Example: 1
Non serial schedule S1
T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(y)
write(y)

Non serial schedule S2

T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(x)
read(y)
write(x)
write(y)
read(y)
write(y)

Serial schedule S3
T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)

If a set of transaction executed concurrently, the schedule is correct if it produces

the same results as some serial execution such a schedule is called serializable,
● Schedule S3 is a serial schedule and, since S1 and S2 are equivalent to S3, S1
and S2 are serializable schedule.
● Types of serializability:
1. Conflict serializable.
2. View serializable

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Conflict serializability:

A schedule S is conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a serial schedule.

Conflict instruction:

Instructions Ii and Ij of transactions Ti and Tj respectively are conflict, if and only if

there exist some item Q accessed by Ii and Ij and at least one of these instructions
have write Q.
Cases to consider:
● Ii = read(Q), Ij=read(Q)
Order of Ii and Ij does not matter, since the same value of Q is read.
● Ii= read(Q) , Ij = write(Q)
If Ii comes before Ij then Ti does not read the value of Q written by Tj. If Ij
comes before Ii, then Ti reads the value of Q that is written by Tj. Conflict
occurs and it results in inconsistency problem.
● Ii =write(Q), Ij=read(Q)
Conflict occurs and results in uncommitted dependency problem.
● Ii=write(Q), Ij= write(Q)
● Since both instructions are write operation, the order of these instructions does
not affect either Ti or Tj. However, the value obtained by the next read(Q)
instruction of S is affected.

Example conflicting instructions S1

T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(y)
write(y)

The write (x) instruction of T1 conflicts with the read (x) instruction of T2.
❖ However, the write (x) instruction of T2 does not conflict with the read (y)
instruction of T1, because the two instructions access different data items.

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❖ If a schedule S can be transformed into a schedule S’ by a series of swaps of

non-conflicting instruction, then S and S’ are conflict equivalent.
❖ Swap the read (y) instruction of T1 with the read (x) instruction of T2.

❖ Swap the write (y) instruction of T1 with the write (x) instruction of T2.

❖ Swap the write (y) instruction of T1 with the read (x) instruction of T2.

The final result of these swaps is a serial schedule S2

T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
The concept of conflict equivalence leads to the concept of conflict serializability.
● A schedule S is conflict serializable, if it is conflict equivalents to a serial
schedule.
● Thus, schedule S2 is conflict serializable, since it is conflict equivalent to the
serial schedule S1.
View serializability:
A schedule S is view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.The
schedule S and S’ are said to be view equivalent if the following conditions met:

1. For each data item x, if transactions T1 reads the initial value of x in schedule
S, then transaction T1 must, in schedule S’, also read the initial value of x.

2. For each data item x, if transaction T1 executes read (x) in schedule S, and if
that value was produced by a write(x) operation executed by transaction T2,
then the read(x) operation of transaction T1 must, in schedule S, also read the
value of x that was produced by the same write (x) operation of transaction
T2.

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3. For each data item, x, the transaction that performs the final write(x)
operation in schedule S must perform the final write(x) operation in schedule
S’.
Example: Schedule1
T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)
read(x)
write(x)
read(y)
write(y)

Schedule2
T1 T2
read(x)
write(x)
read(x)
read(y) write(x)
write(y)
read(y)
write(y)

⮚ Schedule 1 is view equivalent to schedule2, because the value of A and B read

by transaction T2 were produced by T1 in both schedules.

⮚ The concept of the view equivalent leads to the concept of view serializability.

⮚ A schedule S is view serializable if it is viewing equivalent to a serial

schedule.
Test for serializability:
Serializability is tested by the use of precedence graph G(V, E) where V -> vertex
and E -> Edge.

The set of all edges Ti->Tj exists if and only if these three conditions must hold

● Ti executes read Q before Tj executes write Q

● Ti executes write Q before Tj executes read Q

● Ti executes write Q before Tj executes write Q

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If the precedence graph has no cycles, it is conflict serializable is shown in fig 3.2

If the precedence graph has cycles, it is not conflict serializable is shown in fig 3.3

Example 1:

Fig. 3.2 Conflict Serializable

Read(A)
A: =A-50
Write(A)
Read(B)
B: =B-50
Write(B)

Example 2:

Fig. 3.3 Non-Conflict Serializable

T1 T2
Read(A)
A:=A-50
Read(A)
Temp=A*0.1
A:=A-temp
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(A) B:=B+temp
Read(B) Write(B)
B:=B+50
Write(B)

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5. Briefly explain about concurrency and its problems. (APRIL/MAY 2010)

CONCURRENCY:

Concurrency allows many transactions to access the same database at the same
time. Process of managing simultaneous execution of transactions in a shared
database, to ensure the serializability of transactions, is known as concurrency
control.
● Process of managing simultaneous operations on the database without having
them interferes with one another.
● Prevents interference when two or more users are accessing database
simultaneously and at least one is updating data.
● Although two transactions may be correct in themselves, interleaving of
operations may produce an incorrect result.
Need for Concurrency:

A major objective in developing a database is to enable many users to access shared

data concurrently.
● Concurrent access is relatively easy if all users are only reading data, as there
is no way that they can interfere with one another.
● However, when two or more users are accessing the database simultaneously
and at least one is updating data, there may be interference that can result in
inconsistencies.
● Simultaneous execution of transactions over a shared database can create
several data integrity and consistency problems (or) In concurrency
transaction, it faces three Concurrency Problems:

✔ The lost update problem

✔ The uncommitted dependency problem (or) temporary update

problem

✔ The inconsistent analysis problem (or) incorrect summary problem

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The lost update problem:

This problem occurs when two transactions that access the same database items
have their operations interleaved in a way that makes the value of some database
item incorrect. Successfully completed update is overridden by another user.

The transaction details shown in fig 3.4.

❖ Transaction A retrieves some tuple t at time t1;

❖ Transaction B retrieves that same tuple t at time t2;

❖ Transaction A updates the tuple at time t3 and transaction B updates the same
tuple at time t4.

❖ So, Transaction A’s update is lost at time t4, because transaction B overwrites
it without even looking at it.

Fig 3.4 Transaction A loses an update at time t4

The Uncommitted Dependency problem (or) temporary update problem:-

This problem occurs when one transaction updates a database item and then the
transaction fails for some reason. The updated item is accessed by another
transaction before it is changed back to its original value.
● Occurs when one transaction can see intermediate results of another
transaction before it has committed.
● The uncommitted dependency problem arises if one transaction is allowed
to retrieve and update a tuple that has been updated by another
transaction but not yet committed by that other transaction.

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● There is possibility that it never will be committed but will be rolled back, so
first transaction will have seen some data that no longer exists.

Fig 3.5: Transaction A becomes dependent on an uncommitted change

at time t2
In the above Figure 3.5 shows

❖ Transaction A sees an uncommitted update, also called an uncommitted

change at time t2. That update is then undo at time t3.

❖ Transaction A is therefore operating on a false assumption, that tuple t has the

value seen at time t2, whereas in fact it has whatever value it had prior to
time t1.

❖ Transaction A might produce an incorrect result.

❖ The rollback of transaction B might be due to no fault of B. it might for

example the system crash.

Fig 3.6: Transaction A updates uncommitted change at time t2, and

loses that update at time t3.

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In the above Figure 3.6 shows

● The transaction A becomes dependent on an uncommitted change at time

t2, but it actually loses an update at time t3, because rollback at time t3
because the rollback at time t3 causes tuple t to be restored to its value
prior to time t1.

● This is another version of the last update problem.

The inconsistent Analysis problem (or) incorrect summary problem:

If one transaction is calculating an aggregate summary function on a number of
records while other transactions are updating some of these records, the aggregate
function may calculate some values before they are updated and others after they
are updated. The transaction details showed in fig 3.7.

● It occurs when transaction reads several values but second transaction

updates some of them during execution of first.

● The transaction A and B operating on account (ACC) tuples. Transaction A

is summing account balances. Transaction B is transferring an amount 10
from account 3 to account 1.

● The result produced by A, 110 is incorrect. If A were to go on to write that

result back into the database, it would actually leave the database in an
inconsistent state.

● A has seen an inconsistent state of the database and has therefore

performed an inconsistent analysis. Since B commits all its updates before
A sees ACC3.

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Fig 3.7: Transaction A performs an inconsistent analysis

A Closer Look:
The operations in concurrency point of view are database retrievals and database
updates. The transaction is consisting of sequence of such operations (BEGIN
TRANSACTION and COMMIT or ROLLBACK).
A and B are concurrent transaction. The Problems can occur if A and B want to read
or write the same database object, say tuple t.
There are four possibilities:
● RR- A and B want read same tuple t. Read cannot interface with each other so
there is no problem in this case.
● RW- A read t and then B wants to write t. If B is allowed to perform its write,
inconsistent analysis is affected by RW conflict.
The B does perform its write and a then reads t again, it will see a value difference
from what it saw before, state of affairs referred to as non-repeatable read, it
causes RW conflicts.
▪ WR: A writes t and then B wants to read it. If B is allowed to perform its
read then the uncommitted dependency problem can arise. The
uncommitted dependencies are caused by WR conflicts.
▪ WW: A writes t and B wants to write t. If B is allowed to perform its write,
then the lost problem can arise, the lost updates are caused by WW
conflicts. Example: B write, if it is allowed, is said to be dirty write.

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6. Explain in detail about locking protocols with an example. (Nov/Dec

2019) (Apr/May-2024)
Locking Protocol:
In concurrency system, such kind of control mechanism is clearly needed to ensure
that concurrent transactions do not interfere with each other. This concurrency
control mechanism called locking.

● Locking is a procedure used to control concurrent access to data when one

transaction is accessing the database, a lock may deny access to other
transaction to prevent incorrect results.

● One way to ensure isolation is to require that data items be accessed in a

mutually exclusive manner.

● The most common method used to implement this requirement is to allow a

transaction to access a data item only if it is currently holding a lock on that
item.

● Each transaction in the system follows a set of rules, called a locking

protocol, indicating when a transaction may lock and unlock each of the
data items.

● Locking protocols restrict the number of possible schedules. The set of all
such schedules is a proper subset of all possible serializable schedules.

Data items can be locked in two modes:

1) Shared Mode

⮚ If a transaction Ti has obtained a shared-mode lock on item Q, then Ti

can read, but cannot write.

⮚ It is denoted by S.

2) Exclusive

⮚ If a transaction Ti has obtained an exclusive-mode lock on item Q, then

Ti can both read and write Q.

⮚ It is denoted by X

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A transaction requests a shared lock on data item by executing the lock-S(Q)

instruction. Similarly, a transaction requests an exclusive lock through the lock-
X(Q) instruction. A transaction can unlock a data item Q by the unlock(Q)
instruction.

● To access a data item, transaction Ti must first lock that item. If the data
item is already locked by another transaction in an incompatible mode, the
concurrency-control manager will not grant the lock until all incompatible
locks held by other transactions have been released.

● Thus, Ti is made to wait until all incompatible locks held by other

transactions have been released.

Given a set of lock modes, we can define a compatibility function on them as

follows:

⮚ Let A and B represent arbitrary lock modes. Suppose that a transaction Ti

requests a lock of mode Aon item Q on which transaction Tj(Ti=Tj) currently
holds a lock of mode B.

⮚ If transaction Ti can be granted a lock on Q immediately, in spite of the

presence of the mode Block, then we say mode A is compatible with mode B.
Such a function can be represented conveniently by a matrix.

⮚ The compatibility relation between the two modes of locking appears in the
matrix Figure 3.8. An element comp (A, B) of the matrix has the value true if
and only if mode is compatible with mode B.

S X

S True False

X False False

Fig 3.8 Locking Matrix

Consider again the banking example. Let A and B be two accounts that are accessed
by transactions T1 and T2.

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T1: lock-X(B);

read(B);

B: =B −50;
write(B);
unlock(B);
lock-X(A);
read(A);
A: =A + 50;
write(A);
unlock(A).
T2: lock-S(A);
read(A);
unlock(A);
lock-S(B);
read(B);
unlock(B);
display(A+B).

● Transaction T1 transfers $50 from account B to account A.

● Transaction T2 displays the total amount of money in accounts A and B—that
is, the sum A+ B.
● Suppose that the values of accounts A and B are $100 and $200, respectively.
If these two transactions are executed serially, either in the orderT1, T2or the
orderT2, T1, then transaction T2will display the value $300.
● If, however, these transactions are executed concurrently, then schedule 1. In
this case, transaction T2 displays $250, which is incorrect. The reason for this
mistake is that the transaction T1unlocked data item B too early, as a result of
which T2saw an inconsistent state.

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Suppose now that unlocking is delayed to the end of the transaction. Trans-action
T3corresponds to T1 with unlocking delayed. Transaction T4corresponds to T2with
unlocking delayed.

Transaction T3(transaction T1with unlocking delayed).

T3: lock-X(B);
read(B);
B: =B −50;
write(B);
lock-X(A);
read(A);
A: =A + 50;
write(A);
unlock(B);
unlock(A).

Transaction T4(transaction T2with unlocking delayed).

T4: lock-S(A);
read(A);
lock-S(B);
read(B);
display(A+B);
unlock(A);
unlock(B).

Consider the partial schedule of T3 and T4. Since T3 is holding an exclusive-mode

lock on T4 is requesting a shared-mode lock on B, T4is waiting for T3to unlock B.
Similarly, since T4 is holding a shared-mode lock on A and T3 is requesting an
exclusive-mode lock on A, T3 is waiting for T4 to unlock A. Thus, we have arrived at
a state where neither of these transaction scan ever proceeds with its normal
execution. This situation is called deadlock.

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7. Explain Two phase locking protocol & it types in detail. (Apr-May-23)

The protocol that ensures serializability is called two phase locking protocol. Two-
phase locking protocol needs that each transaction issue lock and unlock requests
in two phases:
✔ Growing phase. A transaction may obtain locks, but may not release
any lock.
✔ Shrinking phase. A transaction may release locks, but may not obtain
any new locks.
Initially, a transaction is in the growing phase. The transaction acquires locks as
needed. Once the transaction releases a lock, it enters the shrinking phase, and it
can issue no more lock requests.
Example: T3: lock-X(B);
Read(B);
B=B-50;
Write(B);
Lock-X(A);
Read(A);
A=A+50;
Write(A);
Unlock(B); Unlock(A)
Advantages
• The two-phase locking protocol ensures conflict serializability.
• In any transaction the point in the schedule where the transaction has
obtained its final lock is called the lock point of the transactions.
Disadvantages
• Two-phase locking does not ensure freedom from deadlock.
• Cascading rollback may occur under two-phase locking.
Types of two-phase locking:
● Strict two-phase locking.
● Rigorous two-phase locking.

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Strict two-phase locking

Strict two-phase locking is a locking method used in concurrent systems.

Cascading schedule: In this schedule one transaction is dependent on another

transaction. So, if one has to rollback then the other has to rollback.
cascading rollbacks can be avoided by a modification of two-phase locking called the
strict two-phase locking protocol.

This two-phase locking protocol requires not only that locking be two phases
(Growing phase and Shrinking phase), but also that all exclusive-mode locks taken
by a transaction be held until that transaction commits. This is called strict two-
phase locking protocol.

The rules of Strict 2PL are:

✔ If a transaction T wants to read/write an object, it must request a

shared/exclusive on the object.

✔ All the exclusive locks held by transaction T are released when T

commits (and not before)

Rigorous two-phase locking

Another variant of two-phase locking is the rigorous two-phase locking protocol,

which requires that all locks be held until the transaction commit.

If lock conversion is allowed then two type of conversion lock is available

✔ Upgrading locks: It provides a mechanism for conversion from shared

lock (read lock) to exclusive lock (write lock) is known as upgrading
lock.

✔ Downgrading lock: It provides a mechanism for conversion from

exclusive lock (write lock) to shared lock (read lock) is known as
downgrade.

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8) Explain about Timestamp Ordering Algorithm for Concurrency Control:

A timestamp is a unique identifier created by the DBMS to identify a transaction.

Typically, timestamp values are assigned in the order in which the transactions are
submitted to the system, so a timestamp can be thought of as the transaction start
time. We will refer to the timestamp of transaction T as TS(T).

The Timestamp Ordering Algorithm for Concurrency Control:

A schedule in which the transactions participate is then serializable, and the only
equivalent serial schedule permitted has the transactions in order of their timestamp
values. This is called timestamp ordering (TO).

The algorithm associates with each database item X two timestamp (TS) values:

1. read_TS(X). The read timestamp of item X is the largest timestamp among all
the timestamps of transactions that have successfully read item X—that is,
read_TS(X) = TS(T), where T is the youngest transaction that has read X
successfully.

2. write_TS(X). The write timestamp of item X is the largest of all the

timestamps of transactions that have successfully written item X—that is,
write_TS(X) = TS(T), where T is the youngest transaction that has written X
successfully. Based on the algorithm, T will also be the last transaction to write item
X.
● read_item(X) or a write_item(X) operation, the basic TO algorithm compares
the timestamp of T with read_TS(X) and write_TS(X) to ensure that the
timestamp order of transaction execution is not violated. If this order is
violated, then transaction T is aborted and resubmitted to the system as a new
transaction with a new timestamp.
● If T is aborted and rolled back, any transaction T1 that may have used a value
written by T must also be rolled back. Similarly, any transaction T2 that may
have used a value written by T1 must also be rolled back, and so on. This
effect is known as cascading rollback.

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The concurrency control algorithm must check whether conflicting operations violate
the timestamp ordering in the following two cases:

1. Whenever a transaction T issues a write_item(X) operation, the following check is

performed:

a. If read_TS(X) > TS(T) or if write_TS(X) > TS(T), then abort and roll back T and
reject the operation. This should be done because some younger transaction with a
timestamp greater than TS(T)—and hence after T in the timestamp ordering—has
already read or written the value of item X before T had a chance to write X, thus
violating the timestamp ordering.

b. If the condition in part (a) does not occur, then execute the write_item(X)
operation of T and set write_TS(X) to TS(T).

2. Whenever a transaction T issues a read_item(X) operation, the following check is

performed:
a. If write_TS(X) > TS(T), then abort and roll back T and reject the operation.This
should be done because some younger transaction with timestamp greater than
TS(T)—and hence after T in the timestamp ordering—has already written the value
of item X before T had a chance to read X.
b. If write_TS(X) ≤ TS(T), then execute the read_item(X) operation of T and set
read_TS(X) to the larger of TS(T) and the current read_TS(X).

Strict Timestamp Ordering (TO). A variation of basic TO called strict TO ensure

that the schedules are both strict (for easy recoverability) and (conflict) serializable.
In this variation, a transaction T issues a read_item(X) or write_item(X) such that
TS(T) > write_TS(X) has its read or write operation delayed until the transaction T′
that wrote the value of X (hence TS(T′) = write_TS(X)) has committed or aborted.

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9. Explain about Multiversion Concurrency Control Techniques.

These protocols for concurrency control keep copies of the old values of a data item
when the item is updated (written); they are known as multiversion concurrency
control because several versions (values) of an item are kept by the system.
● When a transaction requests to read an item, the appropriate version is
chosen to maintain the serializability of the currently executing schedule.
● One reason for keeping multiple versions is that some read operations that
would be rejected in other techniques can still be accepted by reading an older
version of the item to maintain serializability.
● When a transaction writes an item, it writes a new version and the old
version(s) of the item is retained. Some multiversion concurrency control
algorithms use the concept of view serializability rather than conflict
serializability.

Multiversion Technique Based on Timestamp Ordering

In this method, several versions X1, X2, … , Xk of each data item X are maintained.
For each version, the value of version Xi and the following two timestamps
associated with version Xi are kept:

1.read_TS(Xi). The read timestamp of Xi is the largest of all the

timestamps of transactions that have successfully read version Xi.

2. write_TS(Xi). The write timestamp of Xi is the timestamp of the

transaction that wrote the value of version Xi.

Multiversion Two-Phase Locking Using Certify Locks

In this multiple-mode locking scheme, there are three locking modes for an item—
read, write, and certify—instead of just the two modes (read, write).
● Hence, the state of LOCK(X) for an item X can be one of read-locked, write-
locked, certify-locked, or unlocked. In the standard locking scheme, with only
read and write locks a write lock is an exclusive lock. We can describe the
relationship between read and write locks in the standard scheme is shown in
fig 3.9.

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Fig 3.9 Lock compatibility tables.

(a) Lock compatibility table for read/write locking scheme.
(b) Lock compatibility table for read/write/certify locking scheme.

Validation-Based (Optimistic) Concurrency Control:

In this scheme, updates in the transaction are not applied directly to the database
items on disk until the transaction reaches its end and is validated.

● During transaction execution, all updates are applied to local copies of the
data items that are kept for the transaction. At the end of transaction
execution, a validation phase checks whether any of the transaction’s
updates violate serializability.

● Certain information needed by the validation phase must be kept by the

system. If serializability is not violated, the transaction is committed and the
database is updated from the local copies; otherwise, the transaction is
aborted and then restarted later.

There are three phases for this concurrency control protocol:

1. Read phase. A transaction can read values of committed data items from the
database. However, updates are applied only to local copies (versions) of the data
items kept in the transaction workspace.

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2. Validation phase. Checking is performed to ensure that serializability will not be

violated if the transaction updates are applied to the database.

3. Write phase. If the validation phase is successful, the transaction updates are
applied to the database; otherwise, the updates are discarded and the transaction is
restarted.

The optimistic protocol we describe uses transaction timestamps and also requires
that the write_sets and read_sets of the transactions be kept by the system.
Additionally, start and end times for the three phases need to be kept for each
transaction.

● The write_set of a transaction is the set of items it writes, and the read_set is
the set of items it reads.
● In the validation phase for transaction Ti, the protocol checks that Ti does not
interfere with any recently committed transactions or with any other
concurrent transactions that have started their validation phase.

The validation phase for Ti checks that, for each such transaction Tj that is either
recently committed or is in its validation phase, one of the following conditions
holds:

1. Transaction Tj completes its write phase before Ti starts its read phase.
2. Ti starts its write phase after Tj completes its write phase, and the read_set of Ti
has no items in common with the write_set of Tj.
3. Both the read_set and write_set of Ti have no items in common with the
write_set of Tj, and Tj completes its read phase before Ti completes its read phase.
When validating transaction Ti against each one of the transactions Tj, the first
condition is checked first since (1) is the simplest condition to check.

● Only if condition 1 is false is condition 2 checked, and only if (2) is false is

condition 3—the most complex to evaluate—checked.

● If any one of these three conditions holds with each transaction Tj, there is no
interference and Ti is validated successfully.

● If none of these three conditions holds for any one Tj, the validation of
transaction Ti fails (because Ti and Tj may violate serializability) and so Ti is
aborted and restarted later because interference with Tj may have occurred.

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Concurrency Control Based on Snapshot Isolation:

The basic definition of snapshot isolation is that a transaction sees the data items
that it reads based on the committed values of the items in the database snapshot
(or database state) when the transaction starts.

● Snapshot isolation will ensure that the phantom record problem does not
occur, since the database transaction, or, in some cases, the database
statement, will only see the records that were committed in the database at
the time the transaction started.

● Any insertions, deletions, or updates that occur after the transaction starts will
not be seen by the transaction.

● In addition, snapshot isolation does not allow the problems of dirty read and
non-repeatable read to occur.

● In this scheme, read operations do not require read locks to be applied to the
items, thus reducing the overhead associated with two-phase locking.

● However, write operations do require write locks. Thus, for transactions that
have many reads, the performance is much better than 2PL.

Temporary version store (tempstore):

When writes do occur, the system will have to keep track of older versions of the
updated items in a temporary version store, with the timestamps of when the
version was created.

● This is necessary so that a transaction that started before the item was written
can still read the value (version) of the item that was in the database snapshot
when the transaction started.

● To keep track of versions, items that have been updated will have pointers to
a list of recent versions of the item in the tempstore, so that the correct item
can be read for each transaction.

● The tempstore items will be removed when no longer needed, so a method to

decide when to remove unneeded versions will be needed.

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● Variations of this method have been used in several commercial and open-
source DBMSs, including Oracle and PostGRES.

● Variations of snapshot isolation (SI) techniques, known as serializable

snapshot isolation (SSI), have been proposed and implemented in some of
the DBMSs that use SI as their primary concurrency control method.

10. Explain about Granularity of Data Items and Multiple Granularity

Locking. (Nov/Dec-2024) (Apr/May-2024)

All concurrency control techniques assume that the database is formed of a number
of named data items. A database item could be chosen to be one of the following:

■ A database record
■ A field value of a database record
■ A disk block
■ A whole file
■ The whole database
Granularity Level Considerations for Locking

The size of data items is often called the data item granularity. Fine granularity
refers to small item sizes, whereas coarse granularity refers to large item sizes.
Several tradeoffs must be considered in choosing the data item size.

● First, notice that the larger the data item size is, the lower the degree of
concurrency permitted. For example, if the data item size is a disk block, a
transaction T that needs to lock a single record B must lock the whole disk
block X that contains B because a lock is associated with the whole data item
(block).

● Now, if another transaction S wants to lock a different record C that happens

to reside in the same disk block X in a conflicting lock mode, it is forced to
wait.

● If the data item size was a single record instead of a disk block, transaction S
would be able to proceed, because it would be locking a different data item
(record).

● On the other hand, the smaller the data item size is, the more the number of
items in the database. Because every item is associated with a lock, the

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system will have a larger number of active locks to be handled by the lock
manager.

● More lock and unlock operations will be performed, causing a higher overhead.
In addition, more storage space will be required for the lock table.

● For timestamps, storage is required for the read_TS and write_TS for each
data item, and there will be similar overhead for handling a large number of
items.

Multiple Granularity Level Locking

Since the best granularity size depends on the given transaction, it seems
appropriate that a database system should support multiple levels of granularity,
where the granularity level can be adjusted dynamically for various mixes of
transactions.

Figure 3.10 shows a simple granularity hierarchy with a database containing two
files, each file containing several disk pages, and each page containing several
records.

• This can be used to illustrate a multiple granularity level 2PL protocol, with
shared/exclusive locking modes, where a lock can be requested at any level.

• However, additional types of locks will be needed to support such a protocol

efficiently.

Fig.3.10. A granularity hierarchy for illustrating multiple granularity

level locking.

Consider the following scenario, which refers to the example in Figure 3.10.

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● Suppose transaction T1 wants to update all the records in file f1, and T1
requests and is granted an exclusive lock for f1. Then all of f1’s pages (p11
through p1n)—and the records contained on those pages—are locked in
exclusive mode.

● This is beneficial for T1 because setting a single file-level lock is more efficient
than setting n page level locks or having to lock each record individually.

● Now suppose another transaction T2 only wants to read record r1nj from page
p1n of file f1; then T2 would request a shared record-level lock on r1nj.

● However, the database system (that is, the transaction manager or, more
specifically, the lock manager) must verify the compatibility of the requested
lock with already held locks.

● One way to verify this is to traverse the tree from the leaf r1nj to p1n to f1 to
db. If at any time a conflicting lock is held on any of those items, then the lock
request for r1nj is denied and T2 is blocked and must wait. This traversal
would be fairly efficient.

● To make multiple granularity level locking practical, additional types of locks,

called intention locks, are needed.

● The idea behind intention locks is for a transaction to indicate, along the path
from the root to the desired node, what type of lock (shared or exclusive) it
will require from one of the node’s descendants.

There are three types of intention locks:

1. Intention-shared (IS) indicates that one or more shared locks will be requested
on some descendant node(s).

2. Intention-exclusive (IX) indicates that one or more exclusive locks will be

requested on some descendant node(s).

3. Shared-intention-exclusive (SIX) indicates that the current node is locked in

shared mode but that one or more exclusive locks will be requested on some
descendant node(s)

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Fig 3.11 Lock compatibility matrix for multiple granularity locking

The compatibility table of the three intention locks, and the actual shared and
exclusive locks, is shown in Figure 3.11.

The multiple granularity locking (MGL) protocol consists of the following rules:

1. The lock compatibility must be adhered to.

2. The root of the tree must be locked first, in any mode.
3. A node N can be locked by a transaction T in S or IS mode only if the parent
node N is already locked by transaction T in either IS or IX mode.
4. A node N can be locked by a transaction T in X, IX, or SIX mode only if the
parent of node N is already locked by transaction T in either IX or SIX mode.
5. A transaction T can lock a node only if it has not unlocked any node (to
enforce the 2PL protocol).
6. A transaction T can unlock a node, N, only if none of the children of node N are
currently locked by T.

● Rule 1 simply states that conflicting locks cannot be granted. Rules 2, 3, and 4
state the conditions when a transaction may lock a given node in any of the
lock modes.

● Rules 5 and 6 of the MGL protocol enforce 2PL rules to produce serializable
schedules.

Basically, the locking starts from the root and goes down the tree until the node that
needs to be locked is encountered, whereas unlocking starts from the locked node
and goes up the tree until the root itself is unlocked.

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consider the following three transactions:

1. T1 wants to update record r111 and record r211.
2. T2 wants to update all records on page p12.
3. T3 wants to read record r11j and the entire f2 file.

Fig.3.12 Lock operations to illustrate a serializable schedule.

Figure 3.12 shows a possible serializable schedule for these three transactions.
Only the lock and unlock operations are shown.
● The notation <lock_type>(<item>) is used to display the locking operations in
the schedule. The multiple granularity level protocol is especially suited when
processing a mix of transactions that include (1) short transactions that access
only a few items (records or fields) and (2) long transactions that access
entire files.
● In this environment, less transaction blocking and less locking overhead are
incurred by such a protocol when compared to a single-level granularity
locking approach.

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11.Explain about deadlock, deadlock prevention, detection, and recovery.

(Nov/Dec 2020 & Apr/May 2021)

Deadlock

Deadlock is a situation in which two or more transactions are in a simultaneous wait

state, each of them waiting for one of the others to release a lock before it can
proceed.

⮚ A system is in a deadlock state if there exists a set of transactions such that

every transaction in the set is waiting for another transaction in the
set.

⮚ Here exists a set of waiting transactions {T0, T1………...Tn} such that T0 is

waiting for a data item that T1 holds and T1 is waiting for a data item
and that T2 holds and Tn-1 is waiting for a data item that Tn holds and Tn is
waiting for a data item that T0 holds.

⮚ The below figure 3.13 shows a deadlock involving two transactions, but
deadlocks involving three, four or more transactions are also possible.

⮚ However, the deadlock never does involve more than two transactions in
practice.

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Fig 3.13 An example of deadlock

If a deadlock occurs, the system detects it and breaks it. Breaking the deadlock
involves choosing the deadlocked transactions as the victim (injured) and rolling it
back, thereby releasing its locks and allowing some other transaction to proceed.

The victim has failed and been rolled back through no fault of its own. Some
systems automatically restart such a transaction from beginning.

Deadlock Handling:

There are three general techniques for handling deadlock:

✔ Timeouts
✔ Deadlock prevention
✔ Deadlock detection and recovery
Timeouts:

A transaction that requests a lock will wait for only a system defined period of time.
If the lock has not been granted within this period, the lock request times out. In
this case, the DBMS assumes the transaction may be deadlocked, even though it
may not be, and it aborts and automatically restarts the transaction.

Deadlock prevention:

Two approaches for deadlock prevention

1) Ensures that no cyclic waits can occur by ordering the requests for locks,
or requiring all locks to be acquired together.
2) Performs transaction rollback instead of waiting for a lock

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Scheme 1:
1. Requires each transaction locks all its data items before it begins
execution.
2. Either all are locked in one step or none are locked.

Disadvantage of Scheme 1:
1. It is often hard to predict, before the transaction begins, what data
items need to be locked.
2. Data item utilization may be very low, since many of the data items may
be locked but unused for a long time.

Scheme 2:
Impose an ordering of all data items and to require that a transaction lock data
items only in a sequence consistent with the ordering.

⮚ The approach to prevent deadlocks is to use preemption and transaction

rollbacks.
⮚ In preemption, when a transaction T2 requests a lock that transaction T1
holds, the lock granted to T1 may be preempted by rolling back of T1 and
granting of lock to T2. We assign a unique timestamp to each transaction.

Two different deadlock prevention schemes using timestamps include

● Wait-die
● Wound-wait
Wait-die:

It is non-preemptive technique.
When a transaction Ti requests a data item currently held by Tj , Ti is allowed to
wait only if it has a timestamp smaller than that of tj (ie Ti is older thanTj).
Otherwise, Ti is rolled back.

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Example:
⮚ Suppose that transaction T22, T23, T24 have timestamps 5, 10 and 15
respectively.
⮚ If T22 requests a data item held by t23, then T22 will wait.
⮚ If T24 requests a data item held by T23, then T24 will be rolled back.

Wound-wait:
⮚ It is a preemptive technique.
⮚ When transaction Ti requests a data item currently held by Tj, Ti is allowed to
wait only if it has time a time stamp larger than that of Tj (ie) (Ti is younger
than Tj). Otherwise, Tj is rolled back. (Tj is wounded by TI)

Example:
⮚ If T22 requests a data item held T23, then data item will be preempted from
T23 and T23 will be rolled back.
⮚ If T24 requests data item held by T23, then T23 will wait.
Table 3.1 shows the Difference between Wait -Die and Wound - Wait

Table 3.1-Difference between Wait -Die and Wound - Wait

Deadlock detection and Recovery:

To recover from the deadlock, the system must

⮚ Maintain information about the current allocation of data items to
transactions.

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⮚ Provide an algorithm that uses this information to determine whether the

system has entered to a deadlock state.
⮚ Recover from deadlock when the detection algorithm determines that a
deadlock exists.

Deadlock detection:
⮚ It can be described precisely in terms of a directed graph called a wait for
graph.
⮚ Graph consists of a pair G (V, E) where V is a set of vertices and E is set of
edges. Each element in set E of edges is an ordered pair Ti->Tj.
⮚ If Ti->Tj is in E, then there is a directed edge from transaction Ti to implying
that transaction Ti is waiting for transaction Tj to release a data item that it
needs.
⮚ When transaction Ti requests a data item currently being held by transaction
Tj, then edge Ti->Tj is inserted in the wait for graph.
⮚ This edge is removed only when transaction Tj is no longer holding a data item
needed by transaction Ti.
⮚ A deadlock exists in the system if and only if the wait-for graph contains a
cycle.
⮚ Each transaction involved in the cycle is said to be deadlocked.

Fig. 3.14 – Transactions without deadlock

● Transaction T25 is waiting for transaction T26 and T27.
● Transaction T27 is waiting for T26.
● Transaction T26 is waiting for T25.
Since the graph has no cycle, the system is not in deadlock state is shown in above
fig 3.14.

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Suppose the transaction T28 is requesting an item held by T24.

⮚ The edge T28->T27 is added to wait for graph, resulting in new system state.
⮚ The graph contains the cycle. T26 🡪T28🡪 T27 🡪 T26
⮚ Simplifying that transactions T26, T27, T28 are all deadlocked is shown in fig
3.15.

Fig. 3.15 – Transactions with deadlock

If deadlock occur frequently, then the detection algorithm should be invoked more
frequently than usual.
2. Deadlock recovery:
When a detection algorithm determines that a deadlock exists, the system
must recover from deadlock.
Actions need to be taken:
• Select a victim:
● Given a set of deadlocked transaction determine which transaction to roll
back to break the deadlock.
● We should roll back the transactions that will incur the maximum cost.
Many factors determine the cost of rollback.
● Transaction execution time.
● No. of data items used by the transaction.
● More no. of data items needed by the transaction to complete.
● No. of transactions involved in rollback.
Starvation: If the transaction never completes its designated task, thus there is
Starvation.

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12. Explain in detail about recovery and its types. (Nov/Dec 2019)

RECOVERY:

DBMS is responsible for making sure that either

⮚ All operations in transaction are completed successfully and the
changes are recorded permanently in the database.
⮚ The DBMS must not permit some operations of a transaction T to be
applied to the DB while others of T are not.
Failures Type Generally classified as Transaction Failure, System Failure and Media
Failure

TRANSACTION RECOVERY:

Reasons for a transaction fail in the middle of execution:

A computer failure (System crash) – media failures

A transaction or system error: logical program error

✔ Some operation in transaction may cause it to fail, such as integer
overflow or divide by zero.
✔ May occur because of erroneous parameter values
✔ Logical programming
✔ User may interrupt during execution
Load error or exception conditions detected by the transaction: no data for
the transaction
✔ During transaction execution, conditions may occur that necessitate
cancellation of the transaction
✔ Ex. Data for the transaction may not found
✔ Exception should be programmed (not be considered failure)
Concurrency control enforcement: by concurrency control method
✔ The concurrency control method may decide to abort the transaction,
✔ Because of violent serializability
✔ Because several transactions are in state of deadlock

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Disk failure, physical problems and catastrophe: ex. Power failure, fire,
overwrite disk

Transaction states and additional Operation:

For recovery purpose, the system needs to keep track of when the transaction

✔ starts,
✔ terminates and
✔ commits or aborts.

The recovery manager keeps track of the followings

✔ Begin_transaction: mark the beginning of transaction execute
✔ Read or write: specified operations on the database item that executes
as part of transaction
✔ End_transaction: specifies that operations have ended and marks the
end of execution (Necessary to check)
■ The change can be committed
■ Or whether the transaction has to aborted
✔ Commit_Transaction: successful end (will not undo)
✔ Rollback: unsuccessful end (undone)
⮚ State of Transaction
✔ Active, the initial state; the transaction stays in this state while it is
executing.
✔ Partially committed, after the final statement has been executed
✔ Failed, after the discovery that normal execution can no longer proceed.
✔ Aborted, after the transaction has been rolled backed and the database
has been restored to its state prior to the start of transaction.
✔ Committed, after successful completion is shown in fig 3.16.

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Fig 3.16 State of a transaction

1. The transaction has committed only if it has entered the committed state.
2. The transaction has aborted only if it has entered the aborted state.
3. The transaction is said to have terminated if has either committed or
aborted.

The System Log:

✔ The system maintain log by keep track of all transactions that affect the
database.
✔ Log is kept on Disk.
✔ Effected only by disk or catastrophic failure
✔ Keep Log records
Log records:
T is transaction ID
✔ (Start_transaction, T) start transaction
✔ (Write_item, T, X, old_value, new_value) transaction write/update item x
✔ (Read_item, T, X) transaction read item X
✔ (Commit, T) complete operation of T
✔ (Abort, T) terminate transaction T
✔ Log file keep track
✔ System fail occur
✔ Restart system, system will recovery
■ Redo transaction that already commit
■ Undo no commit transaction

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SYSTEM RECOVERY:

⮚ The system must be prepared to recover from local failures such as overflow
exception and also from global failure such as power outage.

⮚ A local failure affects only the transaction which the failure has occurred, but
global failure affects all the transactions in progress at the time of the failure.

The global failure falls into two broad categories.

o System failures (e.g. power outage): which affect all transactions

currently in progress but do not physically damage the database. A
system failure is sometimes called a soft crash.

o Media failures (e.g., head crash on the disk), which do cause

damage to the database or some portion; affect at least those
transactions currently using that portion. A media failure is sometimes
called hard crash.

Fig 3.17 Five transaction categories

⮚ The key point regarding system failure is that the contents of main memory
are lost.

⮚ The particular state of any transaction that was in progress at the time of the
failure is therefore no longer known;
o A transaction not successfully completed and so much is undone – i.e.,
rolled back – when the system restarts.
o A transaction successfully completed and so much is redo certain
transactions at restart time.

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o Example: The Five transaction is shown in fig 3.17.

▪ Transactions of T1 completed prior to time tc.
▪ Transaction of T2 started prior to time tc and completed after time tc
and before tf.
▪ Transaction of T3 also started prior to time tc but did not complete by
time tf.
▪ Transaction of T4 started after time tc and completed before tf.
▪ Finally transaction of T5 also started after time tc but did not
complete by time tf.

It should be clear that when the system is restarted. Transactions of types T3 and
T5 must be undone, and transactions of types T2 and T4 must be redone.
Transactions T1 do not enter into restart process at all because their updates were
forced to the database at time tc as part of the did point process.

At restart time, the system first goes through the following procedure

1. Start with two lists of transactions, the undo and Redo list
2. Set the undo list equal to the list of all transactions given in the most the
checkpoint and redo list to empty
3. If BEGIN TRANSACTION log record is found for transaction T,addT the
UNDO list.
4. If a COMMIT log record is found for transaction T, move T from the list to
the REDO.
5. When the end of the log is reached, the undo and redo list identify.
Transaction T3 and T5 must be undo. Transaction T2 and T4 are redo

⮚ The Restoring database to correct state by redoing work is sometimes called

forward recovery.

⮚ The restoring database to correct state by undoing work is sometimes called

backward recovery.
Finally, all such recovery is complete, and then the system is ready to accept new
work.

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MEDIA RECOVERY:
A media failure is a failure such as a disk head crash or a disk controller failure, in
which some portion of the database has been physically destroyed.

⮚ Recovery from such a failure basically involves reloading the database from a
backup copy and then using the log to redo all transactions that completed
since that backup copy was taken.

⮚ There is no need to undo transactions that were still in progress at the time of
the failure, since by definition all updates of such transactions have been
undone anyway.

13. Explain about Recovery Techniques Based on Immediate Update.

When a transaction issues an update command, the database on disk can be

updated immediately, without any need to wait for the transaction to reach its
commit point. Notice that it is not a requirement that every update be applied
immediately to disk; it is just possible that some updates are applied to disk before
the transaction commits.

Figure 3.18 An example of recovery using deferred update with concurrent

transactions.
(a) The READ and WRITE operations of four transactions.
(b) System log at the point of crash.

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• Provisions must be made for undoing the effect of update operations that have
been applied to the database by a failed transaction. This is accomplished by
rolling back the transaction and undoing the effect of the transaction’s
write_item operations is shown in fig 3.18.

• Therefore, the UNDO-type log entries, which include the old value of the
item, must be stored in the log. Because UNDO can be needed during
recovery, these methods follow a steal strategy for deciding when updated
main memory buffers can be written back to disk.

Theoretically, we can distinguish two main categories of immediate update

algorithms:

1. If the recovery technique ensures that all updates of a transaction are recorded in
the database on disk before the transaction commits, there is never a need to REDO
any operations of committed transactions. This is called the UNDO/NO-REDO
recovery algorithm.

In this method, all updates by a transaction must be recorded on disk before the
transaction commits, so that REDO is never needed. Hence, this method must utilize
the steal/force strategy for deciding when updated main memory buffers are
written back to disk.

2. If the transaction is allowed to commit before all its changes are written to the
database, we have the most general case, known as the UNDO/REDO recovery
algorithm. In this case, the steal/no-force strategy is applied.

This is also the most complex technique, but the most commonly used in practice.

● When concurrent execution is permitted, the recovery process again depends

on the protocols used for concurrency control.

● The procedure RIU_M (Recovery using Immediate Updates for a Multiuser

environment) outlines a recovery algorithm for concurrent transactions with
immediate update (UNDO/REDO recovery).

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● Assume that the log includes checkpoints and that the concurrency control
protocol produces strict schedules—as, for example, the strict two-phase
locking protocol does.

● That a strict schedule does not allow a transaction to read or write an item
unless the transaction that wrote the item has committed. However, deadlocks
can occur in strict two-phase locking, thus requiring abort and UNDO of
transactions.

Procedure RIU_M (UNDO/REDO with checkpoints).

1. Use two lists of transactions maintained by the system: the committed

transactions since the last checkpoint and the active transactions.
2. Undo all the write_item operations of the active (uncommitted) transactions,
using the UNDO procedure. The operations should be undone in the reverse of the
order in which they were written into the log.
3. Redo all the write_item operations of the committed transactions from the log, in
the order in which they were written into the log, using the REDO procedure defined
earlier.

The UNDO procedure is defined as follows:

Procedure UNDO (WRITE_OP).

• Undoing a write_item operation write_op consists of examining its log entry

[write_item, T, X, old_value, new_value] and setting the value of item X in the
database to old_value, which is the before image (BFIM).

• Undoing a number of write_item operations from one or more transactions

from the log must proceed in the reverse order from the order in which the
operations were written in the log.

In NO-UNDO/REDO procedure, step 3 is more efficiently done by starting from the

end of the log and redoing only the last update of each item X.Whenever an item is
redone, it is added to a list of redone items and is not redone again.

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14) Explain about Shadow Paging.

Shadow paging considers the database to be made up of a number of fixed size disk
pages (or disk blocks)—say, n—for recovery purposes. A directory with n entries is
constructed, where the ith entry points to the ith database page on disk.

● The directory is kept in main memory if it is not too large, and all references—
reads or writes—to database pages on disk go through it.
● When a transaction begins executing, the current directory—whose entries
point to the most recent or current database pages on disk—is copied into a
shadow directory.
● The shadow directory is then saved on disk while the current directory is used
by the transaction. During transaction execution, the shadow directory is
never modified.
● When a write_item operation is performed, a new copy of the modified
database page is created, but the old copy of that page is not overwritten.
Instead, the new page is written
elsewhere on some previously unused disk block.
● The current directory entry is modified to point to the new disk block, whereas
the shadow directory is not modified and continues to point to the old
unmodified disk block.

Fig 3.19 illustrates the concepts of shadow and current directories. For pages
updated by the transaction, two versions are kept. The old version is referenced by
the shadow directory and the new version by the current directory.

Fig 3.19 An example of shadow paging

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The modified database pages are discarded from the current directory. The state of
the database before transaction execution is available through the shadow directory,
and that state is recovered by reinstating the shadow directory.

● The database thus is returned to its state prior to the transaction that was
executing when the crash occurred, and any modified pages are discarded.
Committing a transaction corresponds to discarding the previous shadow
directory.

● Since recovery involves neither undoing nor redoing data items, this technique
can be categorized as a NO-UNDO/NO-REDO technique for recovery.

● In a multi-user environment with concurrent transactions, logs and

checkpoints must be incorporated into the shadow paging technique. One
disadvantage of shadow paging is that the updated database pages change
location on disk.

● This makes it difficult to keep related database pages close together on disk
without complex storage management strategies. Furthermore, if the directory
is large, the overhead of writing shadow directories to disk as transactions
commit is significant. A further complication is how to handle garbage
collection when a transaction commits.

● The old pages referenced by the shadow directory that have been updated
must be released and added to a list of free pages for future use.

● These pages are no longer needed after the transaction commits. Another
issue is that the operation to migrate between current and shadow directories
must be implemented as an atomic operation.

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15) Explain about the ARIES Recovery Algorithm. (Apr/May-23)

The ARIES algorithm is an example of a recovery algorithm used in database

systems. It is used in many relational database-related products of IBM.

ARIES uses a steal/no-force approach for writing, and it is based on three

concepts:

1. The write-ahead logging, repeating history during redo, and logging changes
during undo.
2. The second concept, repeating history, means that ARIES will retrace all actions
of the database system prior to the crash to reconstruct the database state when
the crash occurred. Transactions that were uncommitted at the time of the crash
(active transactions) are undone.
3.The third concept, logging during undo, will prevent ARIES from repeating the
completed undo operations if a failure occurs during recovery, which causes a
restart of the recovery process.
The ARIES recovery procedure consists of three main steps:
● Analysis
● REDO and
● UNDO.
The Analysis step identifies the dirty (updated) pages in the buffer and the set of
transactions active at the time of the crash. The appropriate point in the log where
the REDO operation should start is also determined.

The REDO phase actually reapplies updates from the log to the database.
Generally, the REDO operation is applied only to committed transactions. However,
this is not the case in ARIES.

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The actual buffers may be lost during a crash, since they are in main memory.
Additional tables stored in the log during checkpointing (Dirty Page Table,
Transaction Table) allow ARIES to identify this information.

Finally, during the UNDO phase, the log is scanned backward and the operations of
transactions that were active at the time of the crash are undone in reverse order.
The information needed for ARIES to accomplish its recovery procedure includes the
log, the Transaction Table, and the Dirty Page Table. Additionally, checkpointing is
used. These tables are maintained by the transaction manager and written to the log
during checkpointing.

● In ARIES, every log record has an associated log sequence number (LSN)
that is monotonically increasing and indicates the address of the log record on
disk. Each LSN corresponds to a specific change (action) of some transaction.

A log record is written for any of the following actions:

● Updating a page (write), committing a transaction (commit), aborting a

transaction (abort), undoing an update (undo), and ending a transaction
(end).

In addition to the log, two tables are needed for efficient recovery:
The Transaction Table and the Dirty Page Table, which are maintained by the
transaction manager.

● The Transaction Table contains an entry for each active transaction, with
information such as the transaction ID, transaction status, and the LSN of the
most recent log record for the transaction.

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● The Dirty Page Table contains an entry for each dirty page in the DBMS
cache, which includes the page ID and the LSN corresponding to the earliest
update to that page.
Checkpointing in ARIES consists of the following:

Writing a begin_checkpoint record to the log, writing an end_checkpoint record to

the log, and writing the LSN of the begin_checkpoint record to a special file.

● This special file is accessed during recovery to locate the last checkpoint
information.
● With the end_checkpoint record, the contents of both the Transaction Table
and Dirty Page Table are appended to the end of the log.

Figure 3.20 An example of recovery in ARIES.

(a) The log at point of crash.
(b) The Transaction and Dirty Page Tables at time of checkpoint.
(c) The Transaction and Dirty Page Tables after the analysis phase.

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Consider the recovery example shown in Figure 3.20. There are three
transactions:

● T1, T2, and T3. T1 updates page C, T2 updates pages B and C, and T3
updates page A. Figure 3.20(a) shows the partial contents of the log, and
Figure 3.20(b) shows the contents of the Transaction Table and Dirty Page
Table.

● Now, suppose that a crash occurs at this point. Since a checkpoint has
occurred, the address of the associated begin_checkpoint record is retrieved,
which is location 4. The analysis phase starts from location 4 until it reaches
the end.

● The end_checkpoint record contains the Transaction Table and Dirty Page
Table in Figure 3.20(b), and the analysis phase will further reconstruct these
tables. When the analysis phase encounters log record 6,a new entry for
transaction T3 is made in the Transaction Table and a new entry for page A is
made in the Dirty Page Table.

● After log record 8 is analyzed, the status of transaction T2 is changed to

committed in the Transaction Table.

● Figure 3.20(c) shows the two tables after the analysis phase.

16. Explain about Transaction Support in SQL.

A single SQL statement is always considered to be atomic—either it completes
execution without an error or it fails and leaves the database unchanged.

● With SQL, there is no explicit Begin_Transaction statement. Transaction

initiation is done implicitly when particular SQL statements are encountered.

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● However, every transaction must have an explicit end statement, which is

either a COMMIT or a ROLLBACK.

• Every transaction has certain characteristics attributed to it. These

characteristics are specified by a SET TRANSACTION statement in SQL.

The characteristics are the access mode, the diagnostic area size, and the
isolation level.

• The access mode can be specified as READ ONLY or READ WRITE. The
default is READ WRITE, unless the isolation level of READ UNCOMMITTED is
specified in which case READ ONLY is assumed. A mode of READ WRITE
allows select, update, insert, delete, and create commands to be executed. A
mode of READ ONLY, as the name implies, is simply for data retrieval.

• The diagnostic area size option, DIAGNOSTIC SIZE n, specifies an integer

value n, which indicates the number of conditions that can be held
simultaneously in the diagnostic area. These conditions supply feedback
information (errors or exceptions) to the user or program on the n most
recently executed SQL statement.

• The isolation level option is specified using the statement ISOLATION LEVEL
<isolation>, where the value for <isolation> can be READ UNCOMMITTED,
READ COMMITTED, REPEATABLE READ, or SERIALIZABLE.15 The default
isolation level is SERIALIZABLE, although some systems use READ
COMMITTED as their default. The use of the term SERIALIZABLE here is based
on not allowing violations that cause dirty read, unrepeatable read, and
phantoms.

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IN SERIALIZABLE, then one or more of the following three violations may occur:

1. Dirty read. A transaction T1 may read the update of a transaction T2, which has
not yet committed. If T2 fails and is aborted, then T1 would have read a value that
does not exist and is incorrect.
2. Nonrepeatable read. A transaction T1 may read a given value from a table. If
another transaction T2 later updates that value and T1 reads that value again, T1
will see a different value.
3. Phantoms. A transaction T1 may read a set of rows from a table, perhaps based
on some condition specified in the SQL WHERE-clause. Now suppose that a
transaction T2 inserts a new row r that also satisfies the WHERE-clause condition
used in T1, into the table used by T1.

• The record r is called a phantom record because it was not there when T1
starts but is there when T1 ends. T1 may or may not see the phantom, a row
that previously did not exist. If the equivalent serial order is T1 followed by
T2, then the record r should not be seen;
• But if it is T2 followed by T1, then the phantom record should be in the result
given to T1. If the system cannot ensure the correct behavior, then it does not
deal with the phantom record problem.

Fig 3.21. Possible Violations Based on Isolation Levels as Defined in SQL

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Fig 3.21 summarizes the possible violations for the different isolation levels. An
entry of Yes indicates that a violation is possible and an entry of No indicates that it
is not possible. READ UNCOMMITTED is the most forgiving, and SERIALIZABLE is the
most restrictive in that it avoids all three of the problems mentioned above.
A sample SQL transaction might look like the following:
EXEC SQL WHENEVER SQLERROR GOTO UNDO;
EXEC SQL SET TRANSACTION
READ WRITE
DIAGNOSTIC SIZE 5
ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;
EXEC SQL INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE (Fname, Lname, Ssn, Dno, Salary)
VALUES ('Robert', 'Smith', '991004321', 2, 35000);
EXEC SQL UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET Salary = Salary * 1.1 WHERE Dno = 2;
EXEC SQL COMMIT;
GOTO THE_END;
UNDO: EXEC SQL ROLLBACK;
THE_END: ...;
The above transaction consists of first inserting a new row in the EMPLOYEE table
and then updating the salary of all employees who work in department 2. If an error
occurs on any of the SQL statements, the entire transaction is rolled back. This
implies that any updated salary (by this transaction) would be restored to its
previous value and that the newly inserted row would be removed.

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APR/MAY-23
PART-A
1. Define serializability. Q46 pg.8
2. Name the four conditions for deadlock. Q27 pg.5

PART-B
1. What is a transaction? list and explain ACID properties with an example.
Q1,2 pg.9
2. Outline the two-phase locking protocol with an example. Q7 pg.28
3. What is recovery? Outline the steps in the algorithm for recovery and isolation
Exploiting semantics (ARIES) algorithm with an example Q15 pg.55

NOV/DEC-23
PART-A
1. State ACID Properties. Q1 pg.1

PART-B
1. Explain the concepts of serial, non-serial and conflict-serialızable schedules with
examples. Q4 pg.14

2. What is the two-phase locking protocol? How does it guarantee serializability?

Explain with an example. Q7 pg.27

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APR/MAY 2024
PART-A
1. List the properties of transactions. Q5 pg.1

2. How will you handle deadlock during two transactions in database? Q47 pg.7

PART-B
1. Demonstrate conflict serializability and view serializability. Q4 pg.14

2. Discuss in detail about Multiple Granularity. (7) Q10 pg.37

3. Explain different types of locks. (6) Q6 pg.25

NOV/DEC 2024
PART-A
1. State the need for concurrency control. Q11 pg.2

2. Give an example for deadlock situation. Q27 pg.4

PART-B
1. Write briefly about the states and desirable properties on transactions in a
database. Q2 pg.10

2. Describe multiple granularity locking with an example. Q10 pg.37

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UNIT IV - IMPLEMENTATION TECHNIQUES:
RAID – File Organization – Organization of Records in Files-Data
Dictionary Storage-Column Oriented Storage – Indexing and Hashing –
Ordered Indices – B+ tree Index Files – B tree Index Files – Static
Hashing –Dynamic Hashing – Query Processing Overview – Algorithms
for SELECT and JOIN operations– Query optimization using Heuristics
and Cost Estimation.
2-Marks
1.What are the advantages and disadvantages of indexed sequential
file? MAY-2011
The advantage of ordering records in a sequential file according to a
key is that you can then search the file more quickly. If you know the key
value that you want, you can use one of the relatively fast searches.
The disadvantage is that when you insert, you need to rewrite at least
everything after the insertion point, which makes inserts very expensive
unless they are do neat the end of the file.

2.What is database tuning? MAY-2011

Database tuning describes a group of activities used to optimize and
homogenize the performance of a database. It usually overlaps with
query tuning, but refers to design of the database files, selection of the
database management system (DBMS), operating system and CPU the
DBMS runs on.

3. Give the measures of quality of a disk.

1. Capacity
2. Access time
3. Seek time
4. Data transfer rate
5. Reliability
6. Rotational latency time.

4. Compare sequential access devices versus random access devices

with an example.
Sequential access Random access
devices devices
Must be accessed from the It is possible to read data
beginning from any location
Ex: tape storage Ex: tape storage
Access to data is much slower Access to data is faster
Cheaper than disk Expensive when compared
with disk

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5. What are the types of storage devices?

1. Primary storage
2. Secondary storage
3. Tertiary storage.

6. State the storage device hierarchy. (Nov/Dec-20)

1. Cache
2. Main memory
3. Flash memory
4. Magnetic disk
5. Optical disk
6. Magnetic tapes.

7. What are called jukebox systems?

Jukebox systems contain a few d rives and numerous disks that can
be loaded into one of the drives automatically.

8. What is called remapping of bad sectors?

If the controller detects that a sector is damaged when the disk is
initially formatted, or when an attempt is made to write the sector, it can
logically map the sector to a different physical location.
9. Define access time.
Access time is the time from when a read or write request is issued to
when data transfer begins.
10. Define seek time.

The time for repositioning the arm is called the seek time and it
increases with the distance that the arm is called the seek time.

11. Define average seek time.

The average seek time is the average of the seek times, measured over
a sequence of random requests.

12. Define rotational latency time.

The time spent waiting for the sector to be accessed to appear under
the head is called the rotational latency time.

13. Define average latency time.

The average latency time of the disk is one-half the time for a full
rotation of the disk.

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14. What is meant by data-transfer rate?

The data-transfer rate is the rate at which data can be retrieved from
or stored to the disk.

15. What is meant by mean time to failure?

The mean time to failure is the amount of time that the system could
run continuously without failure.

16. What are a block and a block number?

A block is a contiguous sequence of sectors from a single track of one

platter. Each request specifies the address on the disk to be referenced.
That address is in the form of a block number.

17. What are called journaling file systems?

File systems that support log disks are called journaling file systems.

18. What is the use of RAID? (MAY/June 2013)

A variety of disk-organization techniques, collectively called redundant

arrays of independent disks are used to improve the performance and
reliability.

19. Explain how reliability can be improved through redundancy.

• The simplest approach to introducing redundancy is to duplicate every

disk. This technique is called mirroring or shadowing. A logical disk
then consists of two physical disks, and write is carried out on both the
disk.

• If one of the disks fails the data can be read from the other. Data will
be lost if the second disk fails before the first failed disk is repaired.

20. What is called mirroring?

The simplest approach to introducing redundancy is to duplicate every

disk. This technique is called mirroring or shadowing.

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21. What is called mean time to repair?

The mean time to failure is the time it takes to replace a failed disk
and to restore the data on it.

22. What is called bit-level striping?

Data striping consists of splitting the bits of each byte across multiple
disks. This is called bit-level striping.

23. What is called block-level striping?

Block level striping stripes blocks across multiple disks. It treats the
array of disks as a large disk, and gives blocks logical numbers.

24. What are the two main goals of parallelism?

Load –balance multiple small accesses, so that the throughput of such

access’s increases. Parallelize large accesses so that the response time of
large accesses is reduced.

25. What are the factors to be taken into account when choosing a
RAID level?
• Monetary cost of extra disk storage requirements.
• Performance requirements in terms of number of I/O operations
• Performance when a disk has failed.
• Performances during rebuild.

26. What is meant by software and hardware RAID systems?

RAID can be implemented with no change at the hardware level, using

only software modification. Such RAID implementations are called
software RAID systems and the systems with special hardware support
are called hardware RAID systems.

27. Define hot swapping.

Hot swapping permits the removal of faulty disks and replaces it by

new ones without turning power off. Hot swapping reduces the mean time
to repair.

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28. Which level of RAID is best? Why?

RAID level 1 is the RAID level of choice for many applications with
moderate storage requirements and high I/O requirements. RAID 1
follows mirroring and provides best write performance.

29. Distinguish between fixed length records and variable length

records.

Fixed length records

Every record has the same fields and field lengths are fixed.
Variable length records
File records are of same type but one or more of the fields are of
varying size.

30. What are the ways in which the variable-length records arise in
database Systems?
• Storage of multiple record types in a file.
• Record types that allow variable lengths for one or more fields.
• Record types that allow repeating fields.

31. Explain the use of variable length records.

• They are used for Storing of multiple record types in a

file.
• Used for storing records that have varying lengths for
one or more fields.
• Used for storing records that allows repeating fields.

32. What is the use of a slotted-page structure and what is the

information present in the header?

The slotted-page structure is used for organizing records within a

single block. The header contains the following information.
• The number of record entries in the header.
• The end of free space
• An array whose entries contain the location and size of each
record.

33. What are the two types of blocks in the fixed –length
representation?
Define them.

• Anchor block: Contains the first record of a chain.

• Overflow block: Contains the records other than those that are
the first record of a chain.
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34. What is known as heap file organization?

In the heap file organization, any record can be placed anywhere in the
file where there is space for the record. There is no ordering of records.
There is a single file for relation.

35. What is known as sequential file organization?

In the sequential file organization, the records are stored in sequential

order, according to the value of a “search key” of each record.

36. What is hashing file organization?

In the hashing file organization, a hash function is computed on some

attribute of each record. The result of the hash function specifies in which
block of the file the record should be placed.

37. What is known as clustering file organization?

In the clustering file organization, records of several different relations

are stored in the same file.

38. What is an index?

An index is a structure that helps to locate desired records of a relation

quickly, without examining all records.

39. What are the two types of ordered indices? DEC 2009
• Primary index
• Secondary index
• Clustered index

40. What are the types of indices?

• Ordered indices – Search keys are stored in sorted order.
• Hash indices – Search keys are distributed uniformly across
buckets using hash function.

41. What are the techniques to be evaluated for both ordered indexing
and hashing? (Nov/Dec-20)
• Access types
• Access time
• Insertion time
• Deletion time
• Space overhead.

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42. What is known as a search key?

An attribute or set of attributes used to look up records in a file is

called a search key.

43. What is a primary index?

A primary index is an index whose search key also defines the

sequential order of the file.

44. What are called index-sequential files?

The files that are ordered sequentially with a primary index on the
search key are called index-sequential files.

45. What are the two types of indices?

• Dense index
• Sparse index

46. What are called multilevel indices?

Indices with two or more levels are called multilevel indices.

47. What are called secondary indices?

Indices whose search key specifies an order different from sequential

order of the file are called secondary indices. The pointers in secondary
index do not point directly to the file. Instead, each points to a bucket
that contains pointers to the file.

48. What are the disadvantages of index sequential files?

The main disadvantage of the index sequential file organization is that

performance degrades as the file grows. This degradation is remedied by
reorganization of the file.

49. What is a B+ Tree index?

A B+ Tree index takes the form of a balanced tree in which every path
from the root of the root of the root of the tree to a leaf of the tree is of
the same length.

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50. What is B-Tree?

A B-tree eliminates the redundant storage of search-key values .It

allows search key values to appear only once.

51. What is hashing?

Hashing allows us to find the address of a data item directly by

computing a hash function on the search key value of the desired record.

52. How do you create index in SQL?

We create index by he creates index command.

Create index <index name> on <relation name> (<attribute list>)

53. Distinguish between static hashing and dynamic hashing.

Static hashing

Static hashing uses a hash function in which the set of bucket adders is
fixed. Such hash functions cannot easily accommodate databases that
grow larger over time.

Dynamic hashing

Dynamic hashing allows us to modify the hash function dynamically.

Dynamic hashing copes with changes in database size by splitting and
coalescing buckets as the database grows and shrinks.

54. What is a hash index?

A hash index organizes the search keys, with their associated pointers,
into a hash file structure.

55. What can be done to reduce the occurrences of bucket overflows in

a hash file organization?

To reduce bucket overflow the number of bucket is chosen to be

(nr/fr)*(1+d).
We handle bucket overflow by using
• Overflow chaining (closed hashing)
• Open hashing

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56. Differentiate open hashing and closed hashing.

Closed hashing (overflow chaining)

If a record must be inserted in to a bucket b, and b is already full, the

system provides an overflow bucket for b, and inserts the record in to the
overflow bucket. If the overflow bucket is also full, the system provides
another overflow bucket, and so on. All the overflow buckets of a given
bucket are chained together in a linked list, overflow handling using linked
list is known as closed hashing.
Open hashing

The set of buckets is fixed, and there are no overflow chains. Instead, if a
bucket is full, the system inserts records in some other bucket in the initial
set of buckets.

57. What is linear probing?

Linear probing is a type of open hashing. If a bucket is full the system

inserts records in to the next bucket that has space. This is known as linear
probing.

58. What is called query processing?

Query processing refers to the range of activities involved in extracting

data from a database.

59. What are the steps involved in query processing? (APR/MAY-24)

The basic steps are:

• Parsing and translation
• Optimization
• Evaluation

60. What is called an evaluation primitive?

A relational algebra operation annotated with instructions on how to

evaluate is called an evaluation primitive.

61. Use of query optimization. (Nov/Dec-24)

Query optimization refers to the process of finding g the lowest –cost

method of evaluating a given query.

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62. What is called a query –execution engine?

The query execution engine takes a query evaluation plan, executes that
plan, and returns the answers to the query.

63. How do you measure the cost of query evaluation?

The cost of a query evaluation is measured in terms of a number of

different resources including disk accesses, CPU time to execute a query,
and in a distributed database system the cost of communication.
64. List out the operations involved in query processing.

• Selection operation
• Join operations.
• Sorting.
• Projection
• Set operations
• Aggregation.

65. What are called as index scans?

Search algorithms that use an index are referred to as index scans.

66. What is called as external sorting?

Sorting of relations that do not fit into memory is called as external

sorting.
67. Explain nested loop join.
Nested loop join consists of a pair of nested for loops.
Example: r| | s
T s r is the outer relation and s is the inner relation.
68. What is meant by block nested loop join?

Block nested loop join is the variant of the nested loop join where every
block of the inner relation is paired with ever y block of the outer
relation. Within each pair of blocks ever y tuple in one block is paired with
every tuple in the other blocks to generate all pairs of tuples.

69. What is meant by hash join?

In the hash join algorithm a hash function h is used to implement

partition tuples of both relations.
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70. What is called as recursive partitioning?

The system repeats the splitting of the input until each partition of the
build input fits in the memory. Such partitioning is called recursive
partitioning.

71. What is called as an N-way merge?

The merge operation is a generalization of the two-way merge used by

the standard in-memory sort-merge algorithm. It merges N runs, so it is
called an N-way merge.

72. What is known as fudge factor?

The number of partitions is increased by a small value called the fudge

factor, which is usually 20 percent of the number of hash partitions
computed.

73. What are ordered indices? DEC-2011

Ordered Indices is a type of index in which search keys are stored in

sorted order.

74. Distinguish between sparse index and dense index. DEC-2011,

Apr/May 2019
Dense Index:
• An index record appears for every search key value in file.
• This record contains search key value and a pointer to the actual
record.
Sparse Index:
• Index records are created only for some of the records.
• To locate a record, we find the index record with the largest search
key value, less than or equal to the search key value we are looking
for.
• We start at that record pointed to by the index record, and proceed
along the pointers in the file (that is, sequentially) until we find the
desired record.

75. What is the difference between primary index and secondary

index? MAY- 2010
Primary index:

• In a sequentially ordered file, the index whose search key specifies

the sequential order of the file. Also called clustering index.
• The search key of a primary index is usually but not necessarily the
primary key. An index structure that is defined on the ordering field

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Secondary index:
• An index whose search key specifies an order different from the
sequential order of the file. Also called non-clustering index.

76. Define the terms fragmentation and replication, in terms of where

data is stored.
Fragmentation:
The system partitions the relation into several fragments and stores each
fragment at a different site.

Replication:
The system maintains several identical copies of the relation and stores
each replica at a different site.

77. What are structured data types? What are collection types, in
particular? DEC-2008

Sets are instances of collection types. Other instances of collection types

include arrays and multi sets.

78. What is the drawback of flash memory? DEC-2010

Disadvantages:
a) Flash memory cells have a limited number of write and erase
cycles before failing.
b) Most flash drives do not have a write-protection mechanism
c) Smaller size devices, such as flash drives make them easier to
lose
d) Currently costs a lot more per gigabyte than traditional hard
drives for large storage capacities.

79. Draw the structure of a typical node of a B+ tree and explain

briefly.

B+ tree considers all the keys in nodes except the leaves as dummies. All
keys are duplicated in the leaves. This has the advantage that is all the
leaves are linked together sequentially; the entire tree may be scanned
without visiting the higher nodes at all.

80. Draw the structure of a typical node of a B+ tree and explain

briefly.

B+ tree considers all the keys in nodes except the leaves as dummies. All
keys are duplicated in the leaves. This has the advantage that is all the
leaves are linked together sequentially; the entire tree may be scanned
without visiting the higher nodes at all.

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81. What can be done to reduce the occurrences of bucket overflows in

a hash file organization? DEC-2007
• To reduce the occurrence of overflows
• Choose the hash function more carefully, and make better estimation of
the relation size.
• If the estimated size of the relation is n, and the number of records per
block is fr, allocate (n/fr)*(1+d) buckets instead of (nr/fr) buckets.
• Here d is a fudge factor, typically around 0.2. Some space is wasted.

82. How does a B tree differ from B+ tree? Why is a B+ tree usually
preferred as an access structure to a data file? (NOV/DEC-2024)
✓ A B tree of order m (maximum number of children for each node) is a
tree which satisfies:
✓ Every node has at most m children.
✓ Every node (except root) has at least m⁄2 children.
✓ The root has at least two children if it is not a leaf node.
✓ All leaves appear in the same level, and carry information.
✓ non-leaf node with k children contains k−1 keys.
✓ In a B+ tree, in contrast to a B-tree, all records are stored at the leaf
level of the tree, only keys are stored in interior nodes.
✓ Advantage of B+ trees over B trees is they allow you to in pack more
pointers to other nodes by removing pointers to data, thus increasing
the fanout and thus decreasing the depth of the tree.
✓ In B tree we have to traverse the whole tree structure to get result
while it is easier to search in B+ tree as the leaves form a linked list.
✓ Since the internal nodes in B+ tree contain only pointers(index) to the
keyvalues it very useful in implementing Indexed Sequential files.
✓ We can traverse easily in B+ tree using the indices to reach the
required key.

83. Describe flash memory. MAY-2010

➢ Flash memory is an electronic non-volatile computer storage device

that can be electrically erased and reprogrammed.

➢ Flash memory was developed from EEPROM (electrically erasable

programmable read-only memory). There are two main types of flash
memory, which are named after the NAND and NOR logic gates.

84. Mention all the operation of files. (Apr/May 2019)

Various file operations are
1. Creation of file
2. Insertion of data
3. Deletion of data
4. Searching desired data from a file.

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85. Which Cost Components Contribute to Query Execution?

The cost of query evaluation can be measured in terms of a number of

different resources,
✓ Disk accesses
✓ CPU time to execute a query
✓ Cost of communication
✓ Number of block transfers from disk.

86.What is hash based indexing? (Apr/May 2024)

Hash-based indexing is a database management system technique that

maps search keys to buckets to improve query performance. It's often
used in in-memory databases like Redis.

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PART-B
1. Briefly explain RAID and RAID levels.
• RAID stands for Redundant array of independent disks.
• It is a way of storing the same data in different places on
multiple hard disks to protect data in the case of a drive failure.
• RAID storage uses multiple disks in order to provide fault
tolerance, to improve overall performance, and to increase
storage capacity in a system.
• RAID allows you to store the same data redundantly (in
multiple paces) in a balanced way to improve overall
performance.

Synopsis:
1. RAID 0 - Striped disk array without fault tolerance
2. RAID 1: (Mirroring and duplexing)
3. RAID 2: (Error-correcting coding)
4. RAID 3: (Bit-interleaved parity)
5. RAID 4: (Dedicated parity drive)
6. RAID 5: (Block interleaved distributed parity)
7. RAID 6: (Independent data disks with double parity)

RAID 0: (Striped disk array without fault tolerance)

• It also known as a stripe set or striped volume splits
("stripes") data evenly across two or more disks, without parity
information (equivalence)as in Fig 4.1.
• RAID 0 provides no fault tolerance or redundancy, the
failure of one drive will cause the entire array to fail; as a
result of having data striped across all disks, the failure will
result in total data loss.
• RAID 0 is normally used to increase performance.

Fig 4.1 RAID 0

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RAID 1: (Mirroring and duplexing)

• RAID 1 consists of an exact copy (or mirror) of a set of data on
two or more disks; a classic RAID 1 contains two disks.
• This configuration offers striping (splits) or spanning (Both
sides) and no parity information of disk space across multiple
disks.
• Data is mirrored on all disks belonging to the array, and the
array can only be as big as the smallest member disk.

RAID 2: (Error-correcting coding)

• It consists of bit-level striping with dedicated Hamming-code as in
Fig 4.2.
• This configuration uses striping across disks, with some
disks storing error checking and correcting information.
• All disk spindle rotation is synchronized and data is
striped such that each sequential bit is on a different drive.
• Hamming code offered little advantage so it is rarely
implemented and not currently used.

Fig 4.2 RAID 2

RAID 3: (Bit-interleaved parity)
• It provides byte-level striping with a dedicated parity disk as in Fig
4.3.
• This is cannot service or process on multiple requests
simultaneously or concurrently.
• Data are spread across all disks in array and it will reside in the same
location.
• If we are going to perform any I/O operation, then every
disk usually requires synchronized spindles.

Fig 4.3 RAID 3

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RAID 4: (Dedicated parity drive)

• It consists of block-level striping with a dedicated parity disk as in
Fig 4.4.
• It provides a good performance of random reads, while the
performance of random writes is low due to the need to write
all parity data to a single disk.
• In this one, read/write operation does not have to spread
across all data drives. As a result, more I/O operations can be
executed in parallel.
• This level that provided no significant advantages so it is
rarely implemented and not currently used.

Fig 4.4 RAID 4

RAID 5: (Block interleaved distributed parity)
• It consists of block-level striping with distributed parity as in Fig 4.5.
• It requires that all drives but one be present to operate.
• This results in excellent performance and good fault tolerance
• RAID 5 requires at least three disks.
• Level 5 is one of the most popular implementations of RAID.

Fig 4.5 RAID 5

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RAID 6: (Independent data disks with double parity)

• This is simply extending RAID 5 by adding another parity block;
thus, it uses block - level striping with two parity blocks distributed
across all member disks as in Fig 4.6.
• Double parity provides fault tolerance up to two failed drives.
• Any form of RAID that can continue to execute read and write
requests to all of a RAID array's virtual disks in the presence of any
two concurrent disk failures.

Fig 4.6 RAID 6

2. Explain in details about file system organization and their

type with suitable diagram. (Apr/May 2024)
• A file is a collection or set of data elements (ordered or
unordered) stored on storage media like computer and
other devices in in fig 4.7(a).
• A system software or computer program (Text Editor)
is responsible for managing a file (reading,
processing, deleting, etc.).

Fig 4.7(a) Types of file

organization Types of file organization as:
1) Sequential file organization:
• Records in sequential files can be read or written only sequentially
in Fig 4.7(b).

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Fig 4.7(b) Types of Sequential file organization

• Records in a sequential file can be stored in two ways.

i. Pile File method
ii. Sorted File method

i. Pile File Method:

• In this method the record can be store in a sequence, i.e., one
after another. Here, the record will be inserted in the order in
which they are inserted into tables as in Fig 4.8.

• In case of updating or deleting of any record, the record will be

searched in the memory blocks. When it is found, then it will
be marked for deleting, and the new record is inserted.

Fig 4.8 Example of Insertion of the new record:

Suppose we have four records R1, R3 and so on up to R9 and R8

in a sequence. Hence, records are nothing but a row in the table.
Suppose we want to insert a new record R2in the sequence, then it will
be placed at the end of the file as in Fig 4.9. Here, records are nothing
but a row in any table.

Fig 4.9 Insertion of the new record at the End

ii. Sorted File Method:

• In this method, the new record is always inserted at the file's
end, and then it will sort the sequence in ascending or

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descending order as in Fig 4.10.
• Sorting of records is based on any primary key or any other key.
• In the case of modification of any record, it will update the

• record and then sort the file, and lastly, the updated record
is placed in the right place.

Fig 4.10 Example of Insertion of the new record:

Suppose there is a preexisting sorted sequence of four records

R1, R3 and so on up to R6 and R7. Suppose a new record R2 has to be
inserted in the sequence, then it will be inserted at the end of the file,
and then it will sort the sequence as in Fig 4.11.

Fig 4.11 Example of Insertion of the new record:

Advantage:
• Fast and efficient when dealing with large volume of data.
• In the file, every record has a unique id, and every page in a
file is of the same size as in below Fig 4.12.
• Good for group or batch transactions.
• Simple to implement
• Good for report generation, statistical computation and
inventory control.
Disadvantages:
• All new transaction should be sorted for a sequential file
processing
• Not good for interactive transactions
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Heap file organization

In heap file organization, the records are inserted at the
file's end. When the records are inserted, it doesn't require the
sorting and ordering of records.
When the data block is full, the new record is stored in some
other block.
This new data block need not to be the very next data block,
but it can select any data block in the memory to store new
records.
The heap file is also known as an unordered file.

Fig 4.12 Heap file organization

Examples of Insertion of a new record

Suppose we have five records R1, R3, R6, R4 and R5 in a heap and
suppose we want to insert a new record R2 in a heap. If the data block 3
is full then it will be inserted in any of the database selected by the
DBMS as in fig 4.13, let's say data block 1.

Fig 4.13 Examples of Insertion of a new record

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If we want to search, update, or delete the data in heap file

organization, then we need to traverse the data from staring of the file till
we get the requested record.
If the database is very large then searching, updating, or deleting of
record will be time- consuming because there is no sorting or ordering of
records. In the heap file organization, we need to check all the data until
we get the requested record.
3. Hash File Organization
• Hashing is an efficient technique to directly search the location
of desired data on the disk without using index structure.

• Data is stored at the data blocks whose address is generated by using

hash function.
• The memory location where these records are stored is called as
data block or data bucket as in Fig 4.14.

Fig 4.14 Hash File Organization

When a record has to be received using the hash key columns,
then the address is generated, and the whole record is retrieved using
that address.
In the same way, when a new record has to be inserted, then the
address is generated using the hash key and record is directly inserted as
in Fig 4.15. The same process is applied in the case of delete and
update.
In this method, there is no effort for searching and sorting the entire file.
In this method, each record will be stored randomly in the memory.

Fig 4.15 New record insertion.

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4. Indexed sequential access method (ISAM)

• In this method, records are stored in the file using the primary key.
An index value is generated for each primary key and mapped with the record.
This index contains the address of the record in the file Fig 4.16.

Fig 4.16 Indexed sequential access method

If any record has to be retrieved based on its index value, then

the address of the data block is fetched and the record is
retrieved from the memory.
5. B+ File Organization
B+ tree file organization is the advanced method of an indexed
sequential access
method. It uses a tree-like structure to store records in File.
It uses the same concept of key-index where the primary key is
used to sort the records. For each primary key, the value of the
index is generated and mapped with the record.
The B+ tree is similar to a binary search tree (BST), but it can
have more than two children.
In this method, all the records are stored only at the leaf node.
Intermediate nodes act as a pointer to the leaf nodes. They do not
contain any records.

Fig 4.17 B+ tree

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The above Fig 4.17 B+ tree shows that:

o There is one root node of the tree, i.e., 25.
o There is an intermediary layer with nodes. They do not store the
actual record. They have only pointers to the leaf node.
o The nodes to the left of the root node contain the prior value of the
root and nodes to the right contain next value of the root, i.e., 15
and 30 respectively.
o There is only one leaf node which has only values, i.e., 10, 12, 17, 20, 24,
27 and 29.
o Searching for any record is easier as all the leaf nodes are balanced.
o In this method, searching any record can be traversed through
the single path and accessed easily.

6. Cluster file organization

o When the two or more records are stored in the same file, it is known as
clusters.
o These files will have two or more tables in the same data block,
and key attributes which are used to map these tables together are
stored only once.
o This method reduces the cost of searching for various records in different
files.
o In the given example, we are retrieving the record for only
particular departments. This method can't be used to retrieve the
record for the entire department.

Table 4.1: Retrieving the record

In this method, we can directly insert, update, or delete any record. Data
is sorted based on the key with which searching is done. Cluster key is a
type of key with which joining of the table is performed as in Table 4.1.
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Types of Cluster file organization:

Cluster file organization is of two types:

1.Indexed Clusters:
• In indexed cluster, records are grouped based on the cluster key and
stored together.
• The above EMPLOYEE and DEPARTMENT relationship is an
example of an indexed cluster. Here, all the records are grouped
based on the cluster key-DEP_ID and all the records are grouped.

2. Hash Clusters:
• It is similar to the indexed cluster. In hash cluster, instead of storing the
records based on the cluster key, we generate the value of the hash key
for the cluster key and store the records with the same hash key value.

3. Explain the concept of Data Dictionary and column-oriented storage in DBMS.

Data dictionary is mini database management system that manages the
metadata.
• Data dictionaries are helpful to the database administrators in management of
database.
• The general structure of data dictionary is as shown in the Table 4.2.
• The data in the database dictionary is maintained by several programs and
generates the reports if required.
• The dictionary is integrated with the database systems in which the data is
controlled by the data dictionaries and is made available to the DBMS
software.
Following type of information is maintained by data dictionary.
a) Description of the schema of the database.
b) Detailed information about the physical database design
c) Description of database users, their roles and their access rights.
d) Description of database transactions.
e) The description of the relationship between database transactions and
data items referenced by them.
f) Information about the usage statistics. That means, how many queries are
raised to the database, how many transactions are made by the DBMS.
• For example – Consider a student database, in which various fields are RollNo,
FirstName, LastName, and CourseID. The data dictionary for this database
maintains the information about this database. The data dictionary contains the
column names, Data types of each field and the description of each column of
the database.
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Active and passive data dictionaries:

Active data dictionary
• Active Data dictionary is managed automatically by the database management
system.
• They are consistent with current structure.
• In the active data dictionary, when any modification or changes is executed by
the DBMS, then this dictionary it also gets modified by the DBMS
automatically.
• Most of the active data dictionaries are derived from system catalogue.
Passive data dictionary Table 4.3
• Passive data dictionary is used only for documentation purpose.
• Passive dictionary is self-contained application and set of files used for
documenting the data processing environment.
• The purpose of maintaining or modification of the database is manual.
• It is managed by the users of the database systems.

Difference between active and passive data dictionary

S.
Active data dictionary Passive data dictionary
No

The database management The passive data dictionary is

1. system automatically maintains modified whenever the structure of
the active data dictionary database gets changed.

2. It is very consistent It is not every consistent

3. The database management These users are responsible for

systems automatically manage manually managing this dictionary.
this dictionary
It requires separate database for
4. It does not require separate
working with dictionary.
database
Table 4.2 Difference between active and passive data dictionary

Column Oriented Storage:

• Column oriented storage which is also called as columnar database management
system that stores data in columns rather than rows. As in Table 4.4
• The advantage of column-oriented storage is to retrieve the result of query
efficiently.
• It also improves disk I/O performances.
• As column-oriented database store data by columns instead or rows, it
column more than data in smaller amount of memory.
• The data retrieval is done column by column only the columns the need
required are retrieved. This makes it possible for efficient retravel of data large
amount of data can be handled.
• It is mainly used in data analytics, business intelligence and data warehouse.
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Applications of columnar Database

Queries that involve only a few columns
Aggregation queries against vast amounts of data
Column-wise compression
Advantages of Columnar Database:
Related to big data comes into play then the column-
oriented database has greater attention in such case.
The data in the columnar database has a highly compressible
nature.
Efficiency and speed.
Self-indexing: It uses less disk space than a relational
database management system containing the same data.
• Example-
Table 4.3 Row – oriented
ID Name Subject Marks
1 AAA English 87
2 BBB Maths 95
3 CCC History 83

Table 4.4 Column - oriented

ID Name ID Subject Marks

1. AAA 1. English 87
2. BBB
2. Maths 95
3. CCC
3. History 83

Limitation of columnar Database:

1.For loading incremental data, traditional database is more relevant as

compared to column- oriented databases.

2.For online transaction processing (OLTP)applications, Row oriented

databases are more appropriate than columnar databases

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4.Write in details about indexing and ordered indices. (Nov/Dec-20)

• Indexing is used to optimize the performance of a database
by minimizing the number of disk accesses required when a
query is processed.
• The index is a type of data structure. It is used to locate and
access the data in a database table quickly.

Index structure:

The first column of the database is the search key that contains a
copy of the primary key or candidate key of the table.

The second column of the database is the data reference. It

contains a set of pointers holding the address of the disk block
where the value of the particular key can be found.

Indexing Methods:

Fig 4.18 Indexing methods

Ordered indices:

From the Fig 4.18, The indices are usually sorted to make
searching faster. The indices which are sorted are known as
ordered indices.
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➢ Example: Suppose we have an employee table with

thousands of records and each of which is 10 bytes long. If
their IDs start with 1, 2, 3. and so
on and we have to search student with ID-543.
➢ In the case of a database with no index, we have to search
the disk block from starting till it reaches 543. The DBMS
will read the record after reading 543*10=5430 bytes.
➢ In the case of an index, we will search using indexes and
the DBMS will read the record after reading 542*2= 1084
bytes which are very less compared to the previous case.

Primary Index
➢ If the index is created on the basis of the primary key of the
table, then it is known as primary indexing.
➢ These primary keys are unique to each record and contain 1:1
relation between the records.
➢ As primary keys are stored in sorted order, the performance
of the searching operation is quite efficient.
➢ The primary index can be classified into two types:
i. Dense index
ii. Sparse index.
i. Dense index
o The dense index contains an index record for every search key
value in the data file. It makes searching faster.
o The number of records in the index table is same as the
number of records in the main table.
o It needs more space to store index record itself.
o The index records have the search key and a pointer to the
actual record on the disk as in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5: Dense Index

Sparse index
o In the data file, index record appears only for a few items. Each item
points to a block as in Table 4.6.

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Table 4.6: Dense Index

The clustered index can be defined as an ordered data file. Sometimes the index is
created
on non-primary key columns which may not be unique for each record.
In this case, to identify the record faster, we will group two or more
columns to get the unique
value and create index out of them. This method is called a clustering index.
The records which have similar characteristics are grouped, and indexes are
created for these groups.

Example1: Suppose a company contains several employees in each

department. Suppose we use a clustering index, where all employees which
belong to the same Dept_ID are considered within a single cluster, and
index pointers point to the cluster as a whole. Here Dept_ID is a non-
unique key as in Fig 4.19(a).

Fig 4.19(a): Clustering Index

➢ In this, instead of pointing to each record in the main table, the index
points to the records in the main table in a gap.
➢ The previous schema is little confusing because one disk block is shared
by records which belong to the different cluster.
➢ If we use separate disk block for separate clusters, then it is called better
technique as in Fig 4.19(b)
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Fig 4.19(b): Separate Cluster

Secondary Index (multilevel Index)
Index records include search-key values and data pointers.
Multilevel index is stored on the disk along with the actual database
files.
As the size of the database grows, so does the size of the indices.
Multi-level Index helps in breaking down the index into several
smaller indices as in Fig 4.20
It can be saved in a single disk block, which can easily be
accommodated anywhere in the main memory.

The mapping of the first level is stored in the primary memory, so

that address fetch is faster.
The mapping of the second level and actual data are stored
in the secondary memory (hard disk).

Fig 4.20: Secondary Index

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Table 4.7: Secondary Index

For example:

If you want to find the record of roll 111 in the diagram, then it will
search the highest entry which is smaller than or equal to 111 in the
first level index. It will get 100 at this level.
Then in the second index level, again it does max (111) <= 111
and gets 110. Now using the address 110, it goes to the data
block and starts searching each record till it gets 111 as in Table
4.7.
This is how a search is performed in this method. Inserting,
updating, or deleting is also done in the same manner.

5. Discuss in details about hashing. Compare static hashing and dynamic

hashing. (Apr/May-23) (Nov/Dec 2024)
Hashing is an efficient technique to directly search the
location of desired data on the disk without using index
structure.
Data is stored at the data blocks whose address is
generated by using hash function.
The memory location where these records are stored is called
as data block or data bucket.
Hash File Organization:
➢ Data bucket – Data buckets are the memory locations
where the records are stored. These buckets are also considered
as Unit of Storage.
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➢ Hash Function – Hash function is a simple mathematical
mapping function that maps all the set of search keys to actual
record address.
Generally, hash function uses primary key to generate the
hash index – address of the data block.
➢ Hash Index-The prefix of an entire hash value is taken
as a hash index. Every hash index has a depth value to signify how
many bits are used for computing a hash function.

Fig 4.21 Hash File Organization

• The above Fig 4.21 shows data block addresses same as primary
key value.

• This hash function can also be a simple

mathematical function like exponential, mod, cos,
sin, etc.

• Suppose we have mod (5) hash function to determine the

address of the data block.

In this case, it applies mod (5) hash function on the

primary keys and generates 3, 3, 1, 4 and 2 respectively,
and records are stored in those data block addresses as in
Fig 4.22(a)

Fig 4.22(a) Hash File Organization

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Types of Hashing:

Fig 4.22(b) Types of Hashing

1. Static Hashing
➢ In static hashing, when a search-key value is provided, the
hash function always computes the same address in Fig 4.22(b).

Operations:

Insertion – When a new record is inserted into the table, The hash
function h generates a bucket address for the new record
based on it hash key K. Bucket address = h(K)
➢ Searching – When a record needs to be searched, the
same hash function is used to retrieve the bucket address for the
record.
➢ Updation – The data record that needs to be updated is
first searched using hash function, and then the data record is
updated.
➢ Deletion – If we want to delete a record, using the hash
function we will first fetch the record which is supposed to be
deleted.

➢ Then we will remove the records for that address in memory.

If we want to insert some new record into the file but the address of a
data bucket generated by the hash function is not empty, or data already
exists in that address. This situation in the static hashing is known as
bucket overflow. This is a critical situation in this method.

To overcome this situation, there are various methods. Some commonly

used methods are as follows:

i. Open Hashing
ii. Close Hashing

i. Open Hashing
When a hash function generates an address at which data is
already stored, then the next bucket will be allocated to it. This
mechanism is called as Linear Probing.
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For example: suppose R3 is a new address which needs to be inserted,

the hash function generates address as 112 for R3. But the generated
address is already full. So, the system searches next available data
bucket, 113 and assigns R3 to it as in fig 4.23(a).

Fig 4.23(a) open Hashing

ii. Close Hashing
When buckets are full, then a new data bucket is allocated for the
same hash result and is linked after the previous one. This
mechanism is known as Overflow chaining.

For example: Suppose R3 is a new address which needs to be

inserted into the table, the hash function generates address as 110 for
it. But this bucket is full to store the new data. In this case, a new
bucket is inserted at the end of 110 buckets and is linked to it as in
Fig 4.23(b).

Fig 4.23(b) Close Hashing

2. Dynamic Hashing.

• The problem with static hashing is that it does not expand or

shrink dynamically as the size of the database grows or shrinks.
• Dynamic hashing provides a mechanism in which data
buckets are added and removed dynamically and on-demand.

• Dynamic hashing is also known as extended hashing.

• Hash function, in dynamic hashing, is made to produce a large
number of values and only a few are used initially

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Overflow Chaining − When buckets are full, a new bucket is

allocated for the same hash result and is linked after the previous one.as
in Fig 4.24

➢ This mechanism is called Closed Hashing.

Fig 4.24 Overflow Chaining

Linear Probing − When a hash function generates an address

at which data is already stored, the next free bucket is allocated
to it as in Fig 4.25.
This mechanism is called Open Hashing.

Fig 4.25 Linear Probing

Dynamic Hashing
• The problem with static hashing is that it does not expand or
shrink dynamically as the size of the database grows or shrinks.
• Dynamic hashing provides a mechanism in which data
buckets are added and removed dynamically and on-demand.
• Dynamic hashing is also known as extended hashing.
• Hash function, in dynamic hashing, is made to produce a large number
of values
and only a few are used initially

How to search a key

First, calculate the hash address of the key.
Check how many bits are used in the directory, and these bits are called as
i.
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Take the least significant i bits of the hash address. This

gives an index of the directory.
Now using the index, go to the directory and find bucket address
where the record might be.

How to insert a new record

o Firstly, you have to follow the same procedure for retrieval,
ending up in some bucket.
o If there is still space in that bucket, then place the record in it.
o If the bucket is full, then we will split the bucket and redistribute the
records.

For example:

Consider the following grouping of keys into buckets, depending on the

prefix of their hash address in Table 4.8:

Table 4.8: Hash Address

The last two bits of 2 and 4 are 00. So it will go into bucket B0. The last two bits of 5
and 6 are 01, so it will go into bucket B1. The last two bits of 1 and 3 are 10, so it will
go into bucket B2. The last two bits of 7 are 11, so it will go into B3 as in Fig 4.26

Fig 4.26 Insert a new record

Insert key 9 with hash address 10001 into the above structure:

o Since key 9 has hash address 10001, it must go into the first
bucket. But bucket B1 is full, so it will get split as in fig 4.27.

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o The splitting will separate 5, 9 from 6 since last three bits of 5, 9

are 001, so it will go into bucket B1, and the last three bits of 6 are
101, so it will go into bucket B5.
o Keys 2 and 4 are still in B0. The record in B0 pointed by the
000 and 100 entries because last two bits of both the entry are 00.
o Keys 1 and 3 are still in B2. The record in B2 pointed by the
010 and 110 entries because last two bits of both the entry are 10.
o Key 7 are still in B3. The record in B3 pointed by the 111 and 011
entry because last two bits of both the entry are 11.

Fig 4.27 Insert key 9 with hash address 10001

Dynamic hashing
o In this method, the performance does not decrease as the data
grows in the system. It simply increases the size of memory to
accommodate the data.
o In this method, memory is well utilized as it grows and shrinks
with the data. There will not be any unused memory lying.
o This method is good for the dynamic database where data
grows and shrinks frequently.

Disadvantages of dynamic hashing

o In this method, if the data size increases then the bucket size is
also increased. These addresses of data will be maintained in the
bucket address table.
o This is because the data address will keep changing as buckets grow and
shrink.
o If there is a huge increase in data, maintaining the bucket
address table becomes tedious.
o In this case, the bucket overflow situation will also occur. But it
might take little time to reach this situation than static hashing in
Table 4.9.

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STATIC HASHING DYNAMIC HASHING

Numbers of buckets are fixed. Numbers of Buckets are not

fixed.

As the file grows, performance Performance do not degrade as

decreases. the

Space overhead is more. Minimum space lies overhead.

Here we do not use Bucket Address Bucket address table is used.

table.

No complex implementation. Implementation is complex.

Chaining used is overflow chaining. Overflow chaining is not used

Table 4.9 Difference between Static Hashing and Dynamic Hashing

6. Briefly explain about B+ tree index and B Tree file with example.
(Apr/May-23) (Apr/May-24)
• B+ Tree is an advanced method of Indexed Sequential Access
Method (ISAM) file organization.
• It uses the same concept of key-index, but in a treelike structure.
• B+ tree is similar to binary search tree, but it can have more than two
leaf nodes.
• It stores all the records only at the leaf node.
• Intermediary nodes will have pointers to the leaf nodes.
• They do not contain any data/records.
The main goal of B+ tree is:
• Sorted Intermediary and leaf nodes
• Fast traversal and Quick Search
• No overflow pages
Searching a record in B+ Tree
• Suppose we want to search 65 in the below Fig 4.28(a) B+ tree structure.
• First, we will fetch for the intermediary node which will direct
to the leaf node that can contain record for 65.
• So, we find branch between 50 and 75 nodes in the intermediary node.
• Then we will be redirected to the third leaf node at the end.
• Here DBMS will perform sequential search to find 65.
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Fig 4.28(a) Searching a record in B+ Tree

Insertion in B+ tree:
• Suppose we have to insert a record 60 in the following example.

Fig 4.28(b) Inserting a record in B+ Tree

• As in Fig 4.28 (b), It will go to 3rd leaf node after 55.

• Since it is a balanced tree and that leaf node is already full, we
cannot insert the record there.
• But it should be inserted there without affecting the fill factor,
balance and order. So, the only option here is to split the leaf
node.
• The 3rd leaf node should have values (50, 55, 60, 65, 70) and its current
root node is
50. We will split the 3rd leaf node as (50, 55) and (60, 65, 70) as in Fig 4.29

Fig 4.29 Inserting a record in B+ Tree (Leaf node is Full)

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Delete in B+ tree:
• Suppose we have to delete 60 from the above example.
• What will happen in this case?
• We have to remove 60 from 4th leaf node as well as from the
intermediary node too.
• So we need to modify it have a balanced tree.
• After deleting 60 from above B+ tree and re-arranging nodes, it will
appear as below Fig 4.30.

Fig 4.30 Deleting a record in B+ Tree

B TREE INDEX FILES

• B tree index file is similar to B+ tree index files, but it uses binary search
concepts.
• In this method, each root will branch to only two nodes and
each intermediary node will also have the data.
• And leaf node will have lowest level of data.
• However, in this method also, records will be sorted.
• Since all intermediary nodes also have records, it reduces the
traversing till leaf node for the data.
• A simple B tree can be represented as below Fig 4.31

Fig 4.31 B Tree

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See the difference between this tree structure and B+ tree for the same
example above. Here there is no pointers leaf node.
• All the records are stored in all the nodes.
• If we need to insert any record, it will be done as B+ tree
index files, but it will make sure that each node will branch only
to two nodes.
• If there is not enough space in any of the node, it will
split the node and store the records as in Fig 4.32.

Fig 4.32 Inserting in B Tree

7.Explain query processing and query optimization with an example.

(Apr/May-23)

• Query processing describes how SQL queries are typically

translated into relational algebra queries and then how it
is optimized or chooses better and optimal execution
strategy.
Goal • Query Processing would mean the entire process or activity
:
which involves query translation into low level instructions.

a. To find an efficient Query Execution plan.

b. Minimize the cost significantly.
c. Minimize execution time.

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Example:
Select student name whose CGPA is greater than 9 in the following Student
table in Table 4.10

Table 4.10 for CGPA Calculation

The major steps involved in query processing are depicted in the figure 4.33
below

Figure 4.33 Query processing

SQL QUERY:

Select Name from Student where CGPA>9;

Parsing:
• In this step, the parser of the query processor module checks
the syntax of the query, the user’s privileges to execute the
query, the table names and attribute names, etc.
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• The correct table name, attribute names and the privilege of

the users can be taken from the system catalog (data dictionary).
Translation:
• If we have written a valid query, then it is converted from high level
language
SQL to low level instruction in Relational Algebra.
• For example, our SQL query can be converted into a relational
algebra equivalent as follows:

• π (Name) (σ ( CGPA>9 ) Student )

(OR)

• σ (CGPA>9) ( π ( Name ) Student )

Optimizer:

• Optimizer uses the statistical data stored as part of data dictionary.

• The statistical data are information about the size of the table,
the length of records, the indexes created on the table, etc.
• Optimizer also checks for the conditions and conditional
attributes which are parts of the query.
Execution:
• A query can be expressed in many ways.
• The query processor module, at this stage, using the information
collected in steps to find different relational algebra
expressions that are equivalent and return the result of the
one which we have written already.

• Optimizer uses the statistical data stored as part of data dictionary.

• The statistical data are information about the size of the table,
the length of records, the indexes created on the table, etc.
• Optimizer also checks for the conditions and conditional
attributes which are parts of the query.
Evaluation:
• Even if there are many execution plans constructed through
statistical data, though they return same result (obvious), they
differ in terms of Time consumption to execute the query, or the
Space required executing the query.
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• Hence, it is mandatory choose one plan which obviously

consumes less cost. Output: The final result show to
the user.

QUERY PROCESSING AND OPTIMIZATION

• A query typically has many possible execution strategies, and the
process of choosing a suitable one for processing a query is
known as query optimization.
• Query optimization is the process of selecting the most efficient
query-evaluation plan from among the many strategies.
• Amongst all equivalent evaluation plans choose the one with lowest cost.
– Cost is estimated using statistical information
from the database catalog
• e.g. number of tuples in each relation, size of tuples, etc
• Query optimization is process of describing the following.

– How to measure query costs

– Algorithms for evaluating relational algebra operations
– How to combine algorithms for individual operations in
order to evaluate a complete expression.
• Cost is generally measured as total execution time for answering query
– Many factors contribute to time cost
• disk accesses, CPU, or even network communication

8. Explain Algorithms for Selection, Sorting and Join operations in detail.

Algorithm for Selection Operation

▪ For selection operation, the file scan is an important
activity. Basically, file scan is a based on searching
algorithms. These searching algorithms locate and retrieve
the records that fulfills a selection condition.
▪ The various algorithms used for SELECT Operation based in file scan
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1. Algorithm Al: Linear Search

Scan each file block and test all records to see whether they
satisfy the selection condition
Cost = br block transfers + 1 seek
Where, br denotes number of blocks containing records from relation
r If selection is on a key attribute, can stop on finding record
Cost = (br/2) block transfers + 1 seek

2. Algorithm A2: Binary Search

• Applicable if selection is an equality comparison on the

attribute on which file is ordered.
• Assume that the blocks of a relation are stored contiguously.
• Cost estimate is nothing but the number of disk blocks to be scanned.
• Cost of locating the first tuple by a binary search on the blocks
= [log2(br)x (tr + ts) Where, br denotes number of blocks
containing records from relation r.
• tr is average time required to transfer a block of data, in
seconds ts is average block access time, in seconds
• If there are multiple records satisfying the selection add transfer
cost of the number of blocks containing records that satisfy
selection condition.

Algorithm for Sorting Operation

External sorting
• In external sorting, the data stored on secondary memory is part
by part loaded into main memory, sorting can be done over there.
• The sorted data can be then stored in the intermediate files.
Finally, these intermediate files can be merged repeatedly to get
sorted data.
• Thus, huge amount of data can be sorted using this technique.
• The external merge sort is a technique in which the data is loaded
in intermediate files. Each intermediate file is sorted
independently and then combined or merged to get the sorted
data. For example: Consider that there are 10,000 records that
have to be sorted. Clearly, we need to apply external sorting
method. Suppose main memory has a capacity to store 500
records in blocks, with each block size of 100 records. The sorted
5 blocks (i.e. 500 records) are stored in intermediate file.
CS3492-DBMS Unit – 4 Mailam Engineering College

• This process will be repeated 20 times to get all the records

sorted in chunks.
• In the second step, we start merging a pair of intermediate files
in the main memory to get output file.
Algorithm for Join Operation
JOIN operation is the most time-consuming operation to process.
There are Several different algorithms to implement joins
1. Nested-loop join
2. Block nested-loop join
3. Indexed nested-loop join
4. Merge-join
5. Hash-join
Choice of a particular algorithm is based on cost estimate.

Algorithm For Nested Loop Join:

Let, r is called the outer relation and s the inner relation of the join. for each tuple tr
in r do begin for each tuple ts in s do begin test pair (tr, ts) to see if they satisfy the
join condition Θ if Θ is satisfied, then, add (tr, ts) to the result. End

• This algorithm requires no indices and can be used with any kind of join
condition.
• It is expensive since it examines every pair of tuples in the two relations.

Algorithm For Block Nested Loop Join

• Variant of nested-loop join in which every block of inner relation is paired with
every block of outer relation.
• This algorithm is for computing r tx10 s
• Let, r is called the outer relation and s the inner relation of the join.
• For each block Br of r do For each block Bs of s do
• For each tuple tr in Br do begin
• For each tuple ts in Bs do begin
• test pair(tr,ts) to see if they satisfy the join condition o if o is satisfied, then
add(tr,ts) to the result.
• End End
• End End
• Worst case estimate: br x bs + br block transfers + 2 x br seeks
• Each block in the inner relation s is read once for each block in the outer relation.
Best case: br + bs block transfers + 2 seeks
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Merge Join
• In this operation, both the relations are sorted on their join attributes.
Then merged these sorted relations to join them.
• Only equijoin and natural joins are used.
• The cost of merge join is, br + bs block transfers + [br [bbl + [bs/bbl
seeks + the cost of sorting, if relations are unsorted.
Hash Join
• In this operation, the hash function h is used to partition tuples of both
the relations.
• h maps A values to {0, 1, ..., n}, where A denotes the attributes of r
and s used in the join. Cost of hash join is:
• 3(br+ bs) +4 n block transfers +2([br/bb]+bs/bb]) seeks
• If the entire build input can be kept in main memory no partitioning is
required Cost estimate goes down to br + bs.

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APR-MAY 2023

Part-A

1.Outline the need for indexing. Q38, Pg 47

2.What is a hash function? Give example. Q51, Pg 6

Part-B

1.Outline B tree index and B+ tree index with an example Q6, Pg 47

2.Explain static hashing with an example Q5, Pg 30

NOV-DEC 2023
Part A
1. Define B+ trees. Q4, Pg 3
2. Write the problems of executing two concurrent transactions.

Part B
1. Construct a B+ - tree for the following set of key values: Q6, Pg 47
(2,3,5,7,11, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31)
2. Assume that the tree is initially empty and values are added in ascending
order, Construct B+ - trees for the cases where the number of pointers
that will fit in one node is as follows
(1) Four (2) Six (3) Eight
3. Show the form of the tree after each of the following series of operations
(6)
(1) Insert 9 (2) Insert 10 (3) Delete 23 (4) Delete 19

4. Brief on Static and Dynamic Hashing. Q5, Pg 30

5. Suppose that we are using extendable hashing on a file that contains
records with the following search-key values:
(2,3,5,7,11,17,19,23,29.91)
Show the extendable hash structure for this file if the hash function is
h(x) = mod X 8 and buckets can hold three records.

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APR-MAY 2024
Part A
1. What is hash based indexing? Q86, Pg 14
2. List three components of Query processor. Q59, Pg 9

Part B
1. Explain B+ trees. Discuss about this Dynamic Index Structure. Q6, Pg 39
2. Compare I/O costs for all File Organizations. Q2, Pg 18

Part C
1. Consider a B+-tree in which the maximum number of keys in a node is 5.
Calculate the minimum number of keys in any non-root node. Q6, Pg 39
answer
Consider a B+-tree in which the maximum number of keys in a node is 5.
Calculate the minimum number of keys in any non-root node.
here Given Order (Maximum No of Keys in a Node) is P=5 So No of Pointers
=6
There are 2 cases: -

• Case−1 Leaf - ⌈(P−1)/2⌉ #Keys = 3

• Case−2 Non -Root Non-Leaf (Internal Node) - (⌈(P/2⌉−1)
#Keys = 2 {Minimum}

NOV-DEC 2024

Part-A
1. What are the advantages of B+ tree indexing? Q82, Pg 13
2. Mention the use of query optimization. Q61, Pg 9

Part B

1. By considering relevant example, show insertion and deletion operations on

a B-Tree. Q6, Pg 39
2. Compare static and dynamic hashing techniques. Q5, Pg 32

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UNIT V - ADVANCED TOPICS

Distributed Databases: Architecture, Data Storage, Transaction Processing,
Query processing and optimization – NOSQL Databases: Introduction – CAP
Theorem – Document Based systems – Key value Stores – Column Based
Systems – Graph Databases. Database Security: Security issues – Access
control based on privileges – Role Based access control – SQL Injection –
Statistical Database security – Flow control – Encryption and Public Key
infrastructures – Challenges

PART – A
1. What is DDB? (APR/ MAY 2024)
Distributed database (DDB) as a collection of multiple logically
interrelated databases distributed over a computer network, and a
distributed data base management system (DDBMS) as a software
system that manages a distributed database while making the
distribution transparent to the user.

2. What are the conditions should be satisfied, a database to be

called distributed?
• Connection of database nodes over a computer network
• Logical interrelation of the connected databases
• Absence of homogeneity constraint among connected nodes

3. List the advantages of DDB.

• Improved ease and flexibility of application development
• Increased reliability and availability
• Improved performance
• Easier expansion

4. What is a homogeneous distributed database?

In homogeneous distributed databases, all sites have identical
database management system software, are aware of one another,
and agree to cooperate in processing user's requests.

5. What is a heterogeneous distributed database?

In heterogeneous distributed database, different sites may use
different schemas, and different database software. The sites may
not be aware of one another, and they may provide only limited
facilities for cooperation in transaction processing.

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6. What are the two approaches to store relations in

distributed database? (NOV/DEC 2024)
• Replication
• fragmenting
7. What are the two different schemes for fragmenting a
relation?
• Horizontal
• Vertical

8. What is horizontal fragmentation?

Horizontal fragmentation splits the relation by assuming each tuple
of r to one or more fragments.

9. What is vertical fragmentation?

Vertical fragmentation splits the relation by decomposing the scheme
R of relation r.

10. What are the various forms of data transparency?

• Fragmentation transparency
• Replication transparency
• Location transparency

11. What is NoSQL and its uses?

• NoSQL, also referred to as “not only SQL”, “non-SQL”, is an approach to
database design that enables the storage and querying of data outside
the traditional structures found in relational databases.
• NoSQL databases use a variety of data models for accessing and
managing data. These types of databases are optimized specifically for
applications that require large data volume, low latency, and flexible data
models, which are achieved by relaxing some of the data consistency
restrictions of other databases.

12. What are the types of NoSQL databases?

• Document databases.
• Key-value stores.
• Column-oriented databases.
• Graph databases

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• Hybrid systems
• Object databases
• XML databases

13. What are the characteristics of NOSQL database system?

• Scalability
• Availability
• Replication
• Eventual consistency
• Replication model
• Sharding of files
• High performance data access

14. Define CAP theorem.

The CAP theorem, originally introduced as the CAP principle, can be used to explain
some of the competing requirements in a distributed system with replication. It is a
tool used to make system designers aware of the trade-offs while designing
networked shared-data systems.
The three letters in CAP refer to three desirable properties of distributed systems
with replicated data:
• consistency (among replicated copies)
• availability (of the system for read and write operations)
• partition tolerance (in the face of the nodes in the system being
partitioned by a network fault).

15. What is meant by document-based NoSQL system?

• Document databases are considered to be non-relational (or NoSQL)
databases. Instead of storing data in fixed rows and columns, document
databases use flexible documents.
• Document databases are the most popular alternative to tabular, relational
databases.

16. What does key-value store?

• A key-value database stores data as a collection of key-value pairs in
which a key serves as a unique identifier.
• Both keys and values can be anything, ranging from simple objects to
complex compound objects.

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17. What is meant by a column-based database?

While a relational database is optimized for storing rows of data, typically for
transactional applications, a columnar database is optimized for fast retrieval of
columns of data, typically in analytical applications.

18. Is graph database SQL or NoSQL.

A graph database is a NoSQL database that stores data as a network graph. What
differentiates graph databases from other options is that they document and
prioritize the relationships between data.

19. What is mean by Database Security?

Security of databases refers to the array of controls, tools, and procedures designed
to ensure and safeguard confidentiality, integrity, and accessibility. It will
concentrate on confidentiality because it's a component that is most at risk in data
security breaches.

20. List out various threats to database.

• Loss of integrity
• Loss of availability
• Loss of confidentiality
21. What are the control measures to ensure database security?
• Access control
• Flow control
• Inference control
• Data encryption
22. What is the role of access control?
Access control is a fundamental component of data security that dictates
who's
allowed to access and use company information and resources.
Through authentication and authorization, access control policies make sure
users are who they say they are and that they have appropriate access to
company data.

23. Which security issue access control based on granting and revoking
privileges?
o In a discretionary access control system, each resource is assigned a
unique owner account, which is responsible for managing access to that
resource.
o The owner has the ability to grant or revoke access privileges, such as

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reading or modifying data, to other users or groups of users.
24. What is SQL injection in DBMS?
SQL injection is a code injection technique that might destroy your database.
SQL injection is one of the most common web hacking techniques. SQL
injection is the placement of malicious code in SQL statements, via web page
input.

25. What are the methods in SQL injection?

• SQL manipulation
• Code injection
• Function call injection

26. What is meant by statistical database security? (NOV/DEC 2024)

• Statistical database security focuses on the protection of sensitive individual
values stored in so- called statistical databases and used for statistical
purposes, as well as retrieving summaries of values based on categories.
• They do not allow the retrieval of individual information.
27. What is flow control in database?
Flow control is the management of data flow between computers or devices or
between nodes in a network so that the data can be handled at an efficient pace.

28. What is PKI?

PKI (or Public Key Infrastructure) is the framework of encryption and cyber security
that protects communications between the server (your website) and the client (the
users).

29. List out the components of PKI.

A digital certificate also called a public key certificate
Private Key tokens
Registration authority
Certification authority
CMS or Certification management system

30. What are the challenges in using public key encryption? (APR/MAY 2024)
The challenges associated with public key cryptography are:
It has been susceptible to attacks through spoofed or compromised
certification authorities.
Public key Encryption is vulnerable to Brute-force attack.
This algorithm also fails when the user lost his private key, then the

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public key Encryption becomes the most vulnerable algorithm.
Public Key Encryption also is weak towards man in the middle attack.

31. What are the challenges in securing a database?

Data quality
Insider threats
Confinement
SQL injection
Malware

32. What are the types of encryptions?

1. Symmetric Encryption– Data is encrypted using a key and the decryption is
also done using the same key.
2. Asymmetric Encryption- It uses public and private keys to encrypt and
decrypt data. One key in the pair which can be shared with everyone is called
the public key. The other key in the pair which is kept secret and is only
known by the owner is called the private key. Either of the keys can be used
to encrypt a message; the opposite key from the one used to encrypt the
message is used for decryption.

33. Define Digital Signature.

A Digital Signature (DS) is an authentication technique based on public key
cryptography used in e-commerce applications.
It associates a unique mark to an individual within the body of his message.
This helps others to authenticate valid senders of messages.
Typically, a user’s digital signature varies from message to message in order
to provide security against counterfeiting.

34. Define Digital Certificate.

Digital certificate is issued by a trusted third party which proves sender’s
identity to the receiver and receiver’s identity to the sender.
A digital certificate is a certificate issued by a Certificate Authority (CA) to
verify the identity of the certificate holder.
The CA issues an encrypted digital certificate containing the applicant’s
public key and a variety of other identification information.
Digital certificate is used to attach public key with a particular individual or an
entity.

35. What are the impacts of SQL Injection?

The intruder can retrieve all the user-data present in the database, such as

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user details, credit card information, and social security numbers, and can
also gain access to protected areas like the administrator portal.
It is also possible to delete the user data from the tables.
These days all the online shopping applications, bank transactions use back-
end database servers.
If the intruder can exploit SQL injection, the entire server is compromised.

36. What is mean by Database Survivability?

Database systems need to operate and continue their functions, even
with reduced capabilities, despite disruptive events such as information
warfare attacks.
A DBMS, in addition to making every effort to prevent an attack and
detecting one in the event of occurrence, should be able to do the
following:
− Confinement
− Damage assessment
− Reconfiguration
− Repair
− Fault treatment

37. What is RBAC?

Role-based access control (RBAC), also known as role-based security, is a
mechanism that restricts system access. It involves setting permissions and
privileges to enable access to authorized users.

38. Define Discretionary Access Control (DAC) in database.

• DAC is identity-based access control. DAC mechanisms will be controlled
by user identification such as username and password.
• DAC is discretionary because the owners can transfer objects or any
authenticated information to other users. In simple words, the owner can
determine the access privileges.

39. What are the attributes of DAC?

a. Users can transfer their object ownership to another user.
b. The access type of other users can be determined by the user.
c. Authorization failure can restrict the user access after several failed attempts.
d. Unauthorized users will be blind to object characteristics called file size,
directory path, and file name.

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40. Define Mandatory access control (MAC) in database.

o Mandatory Access Control (MAC) is is a set of security policies
constrained according to system classification, configuration and
authentication.
o MAC policy management and settings are established in one
secure network and limited to system administrators.
o MAC defines and ensures a centralized enforcement of confidential
security policy parameters.

41. What are the attributes of MAC?

a. MAC policies can help to reduce system errors.
b. It has tighter security because only the administrator can access or alter
controls.
c. MAC has an enforced operating system that can label and delineate incoming
application data.
d. Maintenance will be difficult because only the administrator can have access to
the database.

42. State the difference between DAC and MAC.

DAC MAC
DAC stands for Discretionary Access MAC stands for Mandatory Access
Control. Control.
DAC is easier to implement. MAC is difficult to implement.
DAC is less secure to use. MAC is more secure to use.
DAC has complete trust in users. MAC has trust only in administrators.
Information flow is impossible to Information flow can be easily
control. controlled.
DAC is supported by commercial MAC is not supported by commercial
DBMSs. DBMSs.

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PART-B
1. Explain the concept of distributed database Management
system. Discuss in detail about the Distributed databases.
(APR-2019) (APR/MAY 2024)
A distributed database is a collection of multiple interconnected
databases, which are spread physically across various locations that
communicate via a computer network.
Features
• Databases in the collection are logically interrelated with each
other. Often, they represent a single logical database.
• Data is physically stored across multiple sites. Data in each site
can be managed by a DBMS independent of the other sites.
• The processors in the sites are connected via a network. They
do not have any multiprocessor configuration.
• A distributed database is not a loosely connected file system.
• A distributed database incorporates transaction processing, but it
is not synonymous with a transaction processing system.

Distributed Database Management System

A distributed database management system (DDBMS) is a
centralized software system that manages a distributed database in a
manner as if it were all stored in a single location.
Features
• It is used to create, retrieve, update and delete distributed
databases.
• It synchronizes the database periodically and provides access
mechanisms by the virtue of which the distribution becomes
transparent to the users.
• It ensures that the data modified at any site is universally
updated.
• It is used in application areas where large volumes of data
are processed and accessed by numerous users
simultaneously.
• It is designed for heterogeneous database platforms.
• It maintains confidentiality and data integrity of the databases.

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Factors Encouraging DDBMS
The following factors encourage moving over to DDBMS −
Distributed Nature of Organizational Units − Most organizations
in the current times are subdivided into multiple units that are
physically distributed over the globe. Each unit requires its own set
of local data. Thus, the overall database of the organization becomes
distributed.
Need for Sharing of Data − The multiple organizational units often
need to communicate with each other and share their data and
resources. This demands common databases or replicated databases
that should be used in a synchronized manner.
Support for Both OLTP and OLAP − Online Transaction Processing
(OLTP) and Online Analytical Processing (OLAP) work upon
diversified systems which may have common data. Distributed
database systems aid both these processing by providing
synchronized data.
Database Recovery − One of the common techniques used in
DDBMS is replication of data across different sites. Replication of
data automatically helps in data recovery if database in any site is
damaged. Users can access data from other sites while the damaged
site is being reconstructed. Thus, database failure may become
almost in conspicuous to users.
Support for Multiple Application Software − Most organizations
use a variety of application software each with its specific database
support. DDBMS provides a uniform functionality for using the same
data among different platforms.
Advantages of Distributed Databases
Following are the advantages of distributed databases over centralized
databases.
Modular Development − If the system needs to be expanded to
new locations or new units, in centralized database systems, the
action requires substantial efforts and disruption in the existing
functioning. However, in distributed databases, the work simply
requires adding new computers and local data to the new site and
finally connecting them to the distributed system, with no
interruption in current functions.
More Reliable − In case of database failures, the total system of
centralized databases comes to a halt. However, in distributed
systems, when a component fails, the functioning of the system
continues may be at a reduced performance. Hence DDBMS is more
reliable.

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Better Response − If data is distributed in an efficient manner,

then user requests can be met from local data itself, thus providing
faster response. On the other hand, in centralized systems, all
queries have to pass through the central computer for processing,
which increases the response time.
Lower Communication Cost − In distributed database systems, if
data is located locally where it is mostly used, then the
communication costs for data manipulation can be minimized. This is
not feasible in centralized systems.

2. Explain in detail about types of distributed databases.

Distributed databases can be broadly classified into

• Homogeneous distributed database
• Heterogeneous distributed

Homogeneous Distributed Databases

In a homogeneous distributed database, all the sites use identical
DBMS and operating systems. Its properties are –
• The sites use very similar software.
• The sites use identical DBMS or DBMS from the same vendor.
• Each site is aware of all other sites and cooperates with other
sites to process user requests.

• The database is accessed through a single interface as if it is a

single database.

Types of Homogeneous Distributed Database

There are two types of homogeneous distributed database −
Autonomous − Each database is independent that functions on
its own. They are integrated by a controlling application and use
message passing to share data updates.
Non-autonomous − Data is distributed across the homogeneous
nodes and a central or master DBMS co-ordinates data updates
across the sites.

Heterogeneous Distributed Databases

In a heterogeneous distributed database, different sites have
different operating systems, DBMS products and data models. Its
properties are – as in fig 5.1

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Different sites use dissimilar schemas and software.
The system may be composed of a variety of DBMSs like
relational, network, hierarchical or object oriented.
Query processing is complex due to dissimilar schemas.
Transaction processing is complex due to dissimilar software.
A site may not be aware of other sites and so there is limited
co- operation in processing user requests.

Fig. 5.1 Types of Distributed Databases

Types of Heterogeneous Distributed Databases

Federated – The heterogeneous database systems are independent

in nature and integrated together so that they function as a single
database system.
Un-federated – The database systems employ a central
coordinating module through which the databases are accessed.

3. Explain briefly about the concept of Distributed DBMS Architectures.

APR-2019
DDBMS architectures are generally developed depending on three
parameters −

• Distribution − It states the physical distribution of data across the

different sites.
• Autonomy − It indicates the distribution of control of the
database system and the degree to which each constituent DBMS
can operate independently.
• Heterogeneity − It refers to the uniformity or dissimilarity of
the data models, system components and databases.

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Architectural Models
Some of the common architectural models are −
❖ Client - Server Architecture for DDBMS
❖ Peer - to - Peer Architecture for DDBMS
❖ Multi - DBMS Architecture

Client - Server Architecture for DDBMS

This is a two-level architecture where the functionality is divided into
servers and clients. The server functions primarily encompass data
management, query processing, optimization and transaction
management. Client functions include mainly user interface.
However, they have some functions like consistency checking and
transaction management.
The two different client - server architecture are −
• Single Server Multiple Client
• Multiple Server Multiple Client (as in fig 5.2)

Fig. 5.2 Multiple Server Multiple Client architecture

Peer-to-Peer Architecture for DDBMS

In these systems, each peer acts both as a client and a server for
imparting database services. The peers share their resource with
other peers and co-ordinate their activities.
This architecture generally has four levels of schemas –
• Global Conceptual Schema – Depicts the global logical view of
data.

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• Local Conceptual Schema – Depicts logical data organization at

each site.
• Local Internal Schema − Depicts physical data organization at
each site.
• External Schema − Depicts user view of data.

Multi - DBMS Architectures

This is an integrated database system formed by a collection of
two or more autonomous database systems. – as in fig 5.3
Multi-DBMS can be expressed through six levels of schemas −
• Multi-database View Level − Depicts multiple user views
comprising of subsets of the integrated distributed database.
• Multi-database Conceptual Level − Depicts integrated
multi-database that comprises of global logical multi-
database structure definitions.
• Multi-database Internal Level − Depicts the data
distribution across different sites and multi-database to local
data mapping.
• Local database View Level − Depicts public view of local data.
• Local database Conceptual Level − Depicts local data
organization at each site.
• Local database Internal Level − Depicts physical data
organization at each site.

Fig. 5.3 Global Conceptual Schema

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4. Write briefly about the Distributed Data Storage or Illustrate

the approaches to store relations in distributed Database.
(Nov/Dec 2019) (Nov/Dec-20)
There are 2 ways in which data can be stored on different sites.
These are:
• Replication
• Fragmentation
Replication
Data replication is the process in which the data is copied at multiple
locations
(Different computers or servers) to improve the availability of data.
Goals of data replication
Data replication is done with an aim to:
• Increase the availability of data.
• Speed up the query evaluation.
Types of data replication
There are two types of data Replication:
1. Synchronous Replication:
In synchronous replication, the replica will be modified
immediately after some changes are made in the relation table.
So, there is no difference between original data and replica.
2. Asynchronous replication:
In asynchronous replication, the replica will be modified after
commit is fired on to the database.
Replication Schemes
The three replication schemes are as follows:
1. Full Replication
In full replication scheme, the database is available to almost every
location or user in communication network. – as in fig 5.4

Fig. 5.4 Full Replication process in Distributed database

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Advantages of full replication

• High availability of data, as database is available to almost every
location.
• Faster execution of queries.
Disadvantages of full replication
• Concurrency control is difficult to achieve in full replication.
• Update operation is slower.
2. No Replication
No replication means, each fragment is stored exactly at one
location. – as in fig 5.5

Fig. 5.5 No Replication in Distributed database

Advantages of no replication
• Concurrency can be minimized.
• Easy recovery of data.

Disadvantages of no replication
• Poor availability of data.
• Slows down the query execution process, as multiple clients
are accessing the same server.
3. Partial replication
Partial replication means only some fragments are replicated from
the database. – as in fig 5.6

Fig. 5.6 Partial Replication in Distributed database

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Advantages of Data Replication

• Reliability − In case of failure of any site, the database system
continues to work since a copy is available at another site(s).
• Reduction in Network Load − Since local copies of data are
available, query processing can be done with reduced network
usage, particularly during prime hours. Data updating can be
done at non-prime hours.
• Quicker Response − Availability of local copies of data ensures
quick query processing and consequently quick response time.
• Simpler Transactions − Transactions require less number of
joins of tables located at different sites and minimal coordination
across the network.

Disadvantages of Data Replication

• Increased Storage Requirements − Maintaining multiple copies

of data is associated with increased storage costs. The storage
space required is in multiples of the storage required for a
centralized system.
• Increased Cost and Complexity of Data Updating − Each time
a data item is updated, the update needs to be reflected in all the
copies of the data at the different sites. This requires complex
synchronization techniques and protocols.
• Undesirable Application – Database coupling − If complex
update mechanisms are not used, removing data inconsistency
requires complex co-ordination at application level. This results in
undesirable application database coupling.
1. Fragmentation
The process of dividing the database into a smaller multiple parts is
called as fragmentation. These fragments may be stored at
different locations. The data fragmentation process should be carried
out in such a way that their construction of original database from
the fragments is possible.

Types of data Fragmentation

There are three types of data fragmentation:
1. Horizontal data fragmentation –splitting by rows
Horizontal fragmentation divides a relation(table) horizontally into
the group of rows to create subsets of tables.

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For example, in the student schema, if the details of all students of

Computer Science Course needs to be maintained at the School of
Computer Science, then the designer will horizontally fragment the
database as follows –
CREATE COMP_STD AS SELECT * FROM STUDENT WHERE
COURSE ="Computer Science";

2. Vertical Fragmentation
Vertical fragmentation divides a relation(table) vertically into
groups of columns to create subsets of tables.
For example, let us consider that a University database keeps
records of all registered students in a Student table having the
following schema.
STUDENT
Regd_No Name Course Address Semester Fees Marks
Now, the fees details are maintained in the accounts section. In
this case, the designer will fragment the database as follows −
CREATE TABLE STD_FEES AS SELECT Regd_No, Fees FROM
STUDENT;

3. Hybrid Fragmentation
Hybrid fragmentation can be achieved by performing horizontal and
vertical partition together. Mixed fragmentation is group of rows and
columns in relation.
Advantages of Fragmentation
• Since data is stored close to the site of usage, efficiency of
the database system is increased.
• Local query optimization techniques are sufficient for most
queries since data is locally available.
• Since irrelevant data is not available at the sites, security and
privacy of the database system can be maintained.
Disadvantages of Fragmentation
• When data from different fragments are required, the access
speeds may be very high.
• In case of recursive fragmentations, the job of
reconstruction will need expensive techniques.
• Lack of back-up copies of data in different sites
may render the database ineffective in case of failure of a
site.

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5. What is a transaction in distributed DBMS? and explain about different

states and properties of transaction.
A program that includes a collection of database operations which are executed
as a logical unit of processing the data is known as a transaction.
In a transaction one or more of the data operations are performed such as insert,
update, delete or retrieve. All this process is automated and if performed, is
performed in completion or is not at all performed.
The transaction that does not include any updating of data but only involve in
retrieving the data is known as read-only transaction.
A high level operation is divided into many low level operations. For instance, the
operation of data updation is divided into three different low level operations -
read_item() – The data items from the storage till the main memory is
read.
modify_item() – The value of the item in the main memory is changed
write_item() – The modified value from the main memory is written to
storage.
The access of the database is only restricted to the operations,
read_item() and write_item(). Therefore, the basic database operations
for any transaction include read and write.

What are the different Transaction Operations?

The operations that can be performed in a transaction at low level are:
begin_transaction – The start of the transaction execution is specified by this
marker.
read_item or write_item – As a part of transaction, the operations of
main memory are interleaved with the operations of the database.
end_transaction – The end of the transaction is specified by this marker.
commit – The successful completion of the transaction in its entirety is
specified by this signal.
rollback – The failure of the transaction and the status that the temporary
changes are undone in the database is specified by this signal. Once the
transaction is committed, it cannot be rolled back.

Different States of Transaction

There are set of five different states, which a transaction needs to go through.
They are active, partially committed, committed, failed and aborted.
Active − The initial state where the transaction enters is the active state. The
transaction remains in this state while it is executing read, write or other
operations.

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Partially Committed − The transaction enters this state after the last
statement of the transaction has been executed.
Committed − The transaction enters this state after successful completion
of the transaction and system checks have issued commit signal.
Failed − The transaction goes from partially committed state or active state
to failed state when it is discovered that normal execution can no longer
proceed or system checks fail.
Aborted − This is the state after the transaction has been rolled back after
failure and the database has been restored to its state that was before the
transaction began.
The diagram demonstrates the different states of the transaction and also the low
level transaction operations that may lead to states being changed. – as in fig 5.7

Fig. 5.7 different states of the transaction

Desirable properties of Transactions

The properties such as Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation and Durability, known
as ACID need to be maintained by any of the transaction.
Any transaction must maintain the ACID properties, viz. Atomicity, Consistency,
Isolation, and Durability.
Atomicity − This property states that a transaction is an atomic unit of
processing, that is, either it is performed in its entirety or not performed at all.
No partial update should exist.
Consistency − A transaction should take the database from one
consistent state to another consistent state. It should not adversely affect
any data item in the database.
Isolation − A transaction should be executed as if it is the only one in the
system. There should not be any interference from the other concurrent
transactions that are simultaneously running.
Durability − If a committed transaction brings about a change, that change
should be durable in the database and not lost in case of any failure.

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Schedules in Distributed DBMS

In a system with a number of simultaneous transactions, a schedule is the
total order of execution of operations. Given a schedule S comprising of n
transactions, say T1, T2, T3………..Tn; for any transaction Ti, the operations in Ti
must execute as laid down in the schedule S.

Types of Schedules
There are two types of schedules −

Serial Schedules − In a serial schedule, at any point of time, only one

transaction is active, i.e. there is no overlapping of transactions. This is
depicted in the following graph – – as in fig 5.8

Fig. 5.8 Serial Schedule

Parallel Schedules – In parallel schedules, more than one transactions are
active simultaneously,
i.e. the transactions contain operations that overlap at time.
This is depicted in the following graph – as in fig 5.9

Fig. 5.9 Parallel Schedule

Conflicts in Schedules
In a schedule comprising of multiple transactions, a conflict occurs when two
active transactions perform non-compatible operations.
Two operations are said to be in conflict, when all of the following three conditions
exists simultaneously: The two operations are parts of different transactions.
Both the operations access the same data item.
At least one of the operations is a write_item() operation, i.e. it tries to modify
the data item.

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6. Explain in detail about Query processing in database with example.

Query Processing is a translation of high-level queries into low-level
expression. It is the activity performed in extracting data from the database. Query
processing is a step wise process that can be used at the physical level of the file
system, query optimization and actual execution of the query to get the result. In
query processing, it takes various steps for fetching the data from the database.
The steps involved are:
i. Parsing and translation
ii. Optimization
iii. Evaluation

Steps in Query Processing

Fig. 5.10 Query processing in Database

Parsing and Translation

The scanning, parsing, and validating module produces an internal
representation of the query. The query optimizer module devises an execution
plan which is the execution strategy to retrieve the result of the query from
the database files.
A query typically has many possible execution strategies differing in
performance, and the process of choosing a reasonably efficient one is known
as query optimization.
The code generator generates the code to execute the plan. The runtime
database processor runs the generated code to produce the query result.
Relational algebra is well suited for the internal representation of a query.

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The translation process in query processing is similar to the parser of a query.

When a user executes any query, for generating the internal form of the
query, the parser in the system checks the syntax of the query, verifies the
name of the relation in the database, the tuple, and finally the required
attribute value.

The parser creates a tree of the query, known as 'parse-tree.' Further,

translate it into the form of relational algebra. With this, it evenly replaces all the
use of the views when used in the query.
It is done in the following steps: – as in fig 5.10

Step-1:
Parser:
During parse call, the database performs the following checks- Syntax check,
Semantic check and Shared pool check, after converting the query into relational
algebra.
1. Syntax check – concludes SQL syntactic validity.
Example: SELECT * FORM employee
Here error of wrong spelling of FROM is given by this check.
2. Semantic check – determines whether the statement is
meaningful or not. Example: query contains a table name which
does not exist is checked by this check.
3. Shared Pool check – Every query possesses a hash code during its
execution. So, this check determines existence of written hash code in shared
pool if code exists in shared pool, then database will not take additional steps
for optimization and execution.
Hard Parse and Soft Parse:
If there is a fresh query and its hash code does not exist in shared pool then
that query has to pass through from the additional steps known as hard
parsing otherwise if hash code exists then query does not passes through
additional steps.
It just passes directly to execution engine (refer detailed diagram).
This is known as soft parsing.
Hard Parse includes following steps – Optimizer and Row source generation.
Step-2:
Optimizer:
During optimization stage, database must perform a hard parse at least for
one unique DML statement and perform optimization during this parse.
This database never optimizes DDL unless it includes a DML component
such as sub-query that require optimization.

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It is a process in which multiple query execution plan for satisfying a query
are examined and most efficient query plan is satisfied for execution.
Database catalog stores the execution plans and then optimizer passes the
lowest cost plan for execution.

Step-3:
Execution Engine:
Finally runs the query and display the required result.
Suppose a user executes a query. As we have learned that there are various
methods of extracting the data from the database.
In SQL, a user wants to fetch the records of the employees whose salary is
greater than or equal to 10000.
For doing this, the following query is undertaken:
SELECT EMP_NAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE
SALARY>10000;

Thus, to make the system understand the user query, it needs to be translated
in the form of relational algebra. We can bring this query in the relational algebra
form as:
o σsalary>10000 (πEmp_Name(Employee))
o πEmp_Name(σsalary>10000 (Employee))

After translating the given query, we can execute each relational algebra
operation by using different algorithms. So, in this way, a query processing begins
its working.

Evaluation
For this, with addition to the relational algebra translation, it is required to
annotate the translated relational algebra expression with the instructions
used for specifying and evaluating each operation. Thus, after translating the
user query, the system executes a query evaluation plan.

Query Evaluation Plan

In order to fully evaluate a query, the system needs to construct a query
evaluation plan.
A query evaluation plan defines a sequence of primitive operations used for
evaluating a query. The query evaluation plan is also referred to as the query
execution plan.
A query execution engine is responsible for generating the output of the
given query. It takes the query execution plan, executes it, and finally makes
the output for the user query.

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Optimization
The cost of the query evaluation can vary for different types of queries.
Although the system is responsible for constructing the evaluation plan, the
user does need not to write their query efficiently.
Usually, a database system generates an efficient query evaluation plan,
which minimizes its cost. This type of task performed by the database system
and is known as Query Optimization.
For optimizing a query, the query optimizer should have an estimated cost
analysis of each operation. It is because the overall operation cost depends on
the memory allocations to several operations, execution costs, and so on.
Finally, after selecting an evaluation plan, the system evaluates the query and
produces the output of the query.

Example:
SELECT LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY > (SELECT MAX
(SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=5);

The inner block

(SELECT MAX (SALARY) FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE DNO=5)
➢ Translated in: Π MAX SALARY (σDNO=5(EMPLOYEE)) The Outer block
SELECT LNAME, FNAME FROM EMPLOYEE WHERE SALARY > C
➢ Translated in: Π LNAZME, FNAME (σSALARY>C (EMPLOYEE))
(C represents the result returned from the inner block.)
The query optimizer would then choose an execution plan for each block.
The inner block needs to be evaluated only once. (Uncorrelated nested query).
It is much harder to optimize the more complex correlated nested queries.

7. Explain about NOSQL database. Discuss how it evolved and

describe about its characteristics, categories, advantages &
disadvantages with an example. (NOV/DEC 2024)
NoSQL is a type of database management system (DBMS) that is designed to
handle and store large volumes of unstructured and semi-structured data.
Unlike traditional relational databases that use tables with pre-defined
schemas to store data, NoSQL databases use flexible data models that can
adapt to changes in data structures and are capable of scaling horizontally to
handle growing amounts of data.
The term NoSQL originally referred to “non-SQL” or “non-relational”
databases, but the term has since evolved to mean “not only SQL,” as
NoSQL databases have expanded to include a wide range of different database
architectures and data models.

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It provides a mechanism for storage and retrieval of data other than tabular
relations model used in relational databases.
NoSQL database doesn't use tables for storing data. It is generally used to
store big data and real- time web applications.

History behind the evolution of NoSQL Databases:

In the early 1970, Flat File Systems are used. Data were stored in flat files
and the biggest problems with flat files are each company implement their
own flat files and there are no standards.
It is very difficult to store data in the files, retrieve data from files because
there is no standard way to store data.
Then the relational database was created by E.F. Codd and these databases
answered the question of having no standard way to store data.
But later relational database also get a problem that it could not handle big
data, due to this problem there was a need of database which can handle
every types of problems then NoSQL database was developed.

Characteristics of NoSQL databases:

1. Dynamic schema: NoSQL databases do not have a fixed schema and can
accommodate changing data structures without the need for migrations or
schema alterations.
2. Horizontal scalability: NoSQL databases are designed to scale out by
adding more nodes to a database cluster, making them well-suited for
handling large amounts of data and high levels of traffic.
3. Document-based: Some NoSQL databases, such as MongoDB, use a
document-based data model, where data is stored in semi-structured format,
such as JSON or BSON.
4. Key-value-based: Other NoSQL databases, such as Redis, use a key-value
data model, where data is stored as a collection of key-value pairs.
5. Column-based: Some NoSQL databases, such as Cassandra, use a column-
based data model, where data is organized into columns instead of rows.
6. Distributed and high availability: NoSQL databases are often designed
to be highly available and to automatically handle node failures and data
replication across multiple nodes in a database cluster.
7. Flexibility: NoSQL databases allow developers to store and retrieve data in a
flexible and dynamic manner, with support for multiple data types and
changing data structures.
8. Performance: NoSQL databases are optimized for high performance and can
handle a high volume of reads and writes, making them suitable for big data
and real-time applications.

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The main types of NoSQL database: – as in fig 5.11

Document-based databases
Key-value stores
Column-based databases
Graph-based databases

Fig. 5.11 Categories of NoSQL database

➢ Document-Based Database:
• The document-based database is a nonrelational database. Instead of storing
the data in rows and columns (tables), it uses the documents to store the
data in the database. A document database stores data in JSON, BSON, or
XML documents.
• Documents can be stored and retrieved in a form that is much closer to the
data objects used in applications which means less translation is required to
use these data in the applications. In the Document database, the particular
elements can be accessed by using the index value that is assigned for faster
querying.
• Collections are the group of documents that store documents that have
similar contents. Not all the documents are in any collection as they require a
similar schema because document databases have a flexible schema.
• Document-oriented NoSQL database solutions include MongoDB,
CouchDB, Riak, Amazon SimpleDB, and Lotus Notes.

Key features of documents database:

Flexible schema: Documents in the database has a flexible schema. It
means the documents in the database need not be the same schema.
Faster creation and maintenance: the creation of documents is easy and
minimal maintenance is required once we create the document.
No foreign keys: There is no dynamic relationship between two documents
so documents can be independent of one another. So, there is no
requirement for a foreign key in a document database.
Open formats: To build a document we use XML, JSON, and others.

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➢ Key-Value Stores:
• A key-value store is a nonrelational database. The simplest form of a NoSQL
database is a key- value store. Every data element in the database is stored
in key-value pairs.
• The data can be retrieved by using a unique key allotted to each element
in the database. The values can be simple data types like strings and
numbers or complex objects.
• A key-value store is like a relational database with only two columns which
is the key and the value.
Example: Key-value NoSQL solutions include Dynamo, Redis, Riak, Tokyo
Cabinet/Tyrant, Voldemort, Amazon SimpleDB, and Oracle BDB.

Key features of the key-value store:

Simplicity.
Scalability.
Speed.

➢ Column based Databases:

• A column-oriented database is a non-relational database that stores the data
in columns instead of rows.
• That means when we want to run analytics on a small number of columns,
you can read those columns directly without consuming memory with the
unwanted data.
• Columnar databases are designed to read data more efficiently and retrieve
the data with greater speed.
• A columnar database is used to store a large amount of data.
Examples of column-based NoSQL databases include Cassandra, HBase, and
Hypertable.

Key features of columnar oriented database:

Scalability.
Compression.
Very responsive.

➢ Graph-Based databases:
• Graph-based databases focus on the relationship between the elements.
• It stores the data in the form of nodes in the database. The connections
between the nodes are called links or relationships.
• Graph-based NoSQL database solutions include Neo4J, Infinite Graph, and
FlockDB.

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Key features of graph database:

In a graph-based database, it is easy to identify the relationship between
the data by using the links.
The Query’s output is real-time results.
The speed depends upon the number of relationships among the database
elements.
Advantages of NoSQL database:
High scalability
Availability
Flexibility
Performance
Cost-effectiveness
Disadvantages of NoSQL database:
Lack of standardization
Lack of ACID compliance
Narrow focus
Management challenges
No GUI
Backup
Large document size
Lack of Support for complex queries

8. Define CAP theorem. Discuss in detail about CAP theorem in NoSQL

databases.
The CAP theorem, originally introduced as the CAP principle, can be used to
explain some of the competing requirements in a distributed system with
replication. It is a tool used to make system designers aware of the trade-offs
while designing networked shared-data systems.
The three letters in CAP refer to three desirable properties of distributed
systems with replicated data:
− Consistency (among replicated copies),
− Availability (of the system for read and write operations)
− Partition tolerance (in the face of the nodes in the system being
partitioned by a network fault).
The CAP theorem states that it is not possible to guarantee all three of the desirable
properties – consistency, availability, and partition tolerance at the same time in a
distributed system with data replication.
The theorem states that networked shared-data systems can only strongly support
two of the following three properties: – as in fig 5.12

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Fig. 5.12 Triangle properties of CAP theorem

Consistency:
Consistency means that the nodes will have the same copies of a replicated
data item visible for various transactions.
A guarantee that every node in a distributed cluster returns the same, most
recent and a successful write. Consistency refers to every client having the
same view of the data.
There are various types of consistency models. Consistency in CAP refers
to sequential consistency, a very strong form of consistency.

Availability:
Availability means that each read or write request for a data item will either
be processed successfully or will receive a message that the operation cannot
be completed.
Every non-failing node returns a response for all the read and write
requests in a reasonable amount of time.
The key word here is “every”. In simple terms, every node (on either side of
a network partition) must be able to respond in a reasonable amount of time.

Partition Tolerance:
Partition tolerance means that the system can continue operating even if the
network connecting the nodes has a fault that results in two or more
partitions, where the nodes in each partition can only communicate among
each other.
That means, the system continues to function and upholds its consistency
guarantees in spite of network partitions.
Network partitions are a fact of life. Distributed systems guaranteeing
partition tolerance can gracefully recover from partitions once the partition
heals.
The CAP theorem states that distributed databases can have at most two of
the three properties: consistency, availability, and partition tolerance.
As a result, database systems prioritize only two properties at a time.

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The following figure represents which database systems prioritize specific properties
at a given time: – as in fig 5.13

Fig. 5.13 Priorities of database properties

CA (Consistency and Availability) - The system prioritizes availability over
consistency and can respond with possibly stale data.
Example databases: Cassandra, CouchDB, Riak, Voldemort.

AP (Availability and Partition Tolerance) - The system prioritizes

availability over consistency and can respond with possibly stale data. The
system can be distributed across multiple nodes and is designed to operate
reliably even in the face of network partitions.
Example databases: Amazon DynamoDB, Google Cloud Spanner.

CP (Consistency and Partition Tolerance) - The system prioritizes

consistency over availability and responds with the latest updated data. The
system can be distributed across multiple nodes and is designed to operate
reliably even in the face of network partitions.
Example databases: Apache HBase, MongoDB, Redis.

9. Explain briefly any two examples of NoSQL database.

i) MongoDB ii) Oracle NoSQL
✓ MongoDB
MongoDB is one of the foremost open-source NoSQL systems. It is a
document-oriented database that uses dynamic schemas to store JSON-like
documents.
This database solution features a flexible data model, enabling users to store
unstructured data.

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Users can also access full indexing support and replication through intuitive
API.
MongoDB’s popularity among developers includes its flexible data model and
intuitive API.
Why is MongoDB used?
Storage. MongoDB can store large structured and unstructured data
volumes and is scalable vertically and horizontally. Indexes are used to
improve search performance. Searches are also done by field, range and
expression queries.
Data integration. This integrates data for applications, including for
hybrid and multi-cloud applications.
Complex data structures descriptions. Document databases enable the
embedding of documents to describe nested structures (a structure within a
structure) and can tolerate variations in data.
Load balancing. MongoDB can be used to run over multiple servers.
Key features of MongoDB include:
Ad-hoc queries: Support for range, field, and regular-expression queries
that are capable of returning complete documents, particular fields from inside
documents, and even random result samples.
Replication: High availability is achieved through replica sets, including
multiple data copies. The primary replica handles writes, and any replica can
serve read requests. In case of primary replica failure, a secondary replica
takes over as the primary replica.
Indexing: Support for different index types, including single field, multikey
(array), compound (multiple fields), geospatial, hashed, and text. Document
fields can be indexed using both primary and secondary indices.
Advantages of using MongoDB:
Schema-less
Document oriented
Scalability
Third-party support
Aggregation
Disadvantages in MongoDB:
Continuity
Write limits
Data consistency
Security

✓ Oracle NoSQL Database

This proprietary NoSQL database supports key-value and JSON table data models

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and is built to operate either on-premise or over the cloud. Developers leverage
Oracle NoSQL Database Cloud Service to create applications using column,
document, and key-value data models.

The characteristics of Oracle NoSQL Database include:

ACID transactions, comprehensive security, low pay-per-use pricing, and
serverless scaling.
Delivery of predictable, within-milliseconds response times and high
availability through robust data replication.
Support for both provisioned and on-demand capacity modes.
Simplified access through a user-friendly application programming interface
(API).
Wide support for data models for various business requirements.
End-to-end compatibility with on-premise Oracle NoSQL Database.
Key features of Oracle Database:
Scalability and Performance
Manageability Features
Database Backup and Recovery
High Availability
Business Intelligence
Content Management
Security Features
Data Integrity and Triggers
Information Integration
Advantages of Oracle NoSQL database:
Data-model flexibility. Unlike RDBMS solutions, Oracle NoSQL does not
restrict you to a predefined set of data types.
Ability to Handle an Increased Amount of Traffic. As Oracle NoSQL can
process queries much quicker than Oracle Database, Oracle NoSQL is able to
respond to a lot more queries in the same amount of time.
Data-model simplicity. In SQL-oriented databases, there is a learning curve in
learning the relationship between databases, tables, rows, and keys.
Disadvantages of Oracle NoSQL database:
Fewer analytical functions to choose from. When compared to Oracle
Database, there is significant difference in the amount of built-in analytical
functions.
Eventual data consistency. It is not guaranteed that a write or delete query
will be immediately visible for subsequent queries.
Data redundancy. As there are no mechanisms that insure data integrity,
users are more likely to have redundant data across their documents.

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10. Explain about document-based NoSQL database in detail.

Document Database Model:
A Document Data Model is a lot different than other data models because it
stores data in JSON, BSON, or XML documents.
In this data model, we can move documents under one document and apart
from this, any particular elements can be indexed to run queries faster.
JSON is a native language that is often used to store and query data too.
Often documents are stored and retrieved in such a way that it becomes close
to the data objects which are used in many applications which means very
less translations are required to use data in applications.
So in the document data model, each document has a key-value pair below is
an example for the same.
Example:
{
"Name" : "Yashodhra",
"Address" : "Near Patel Nagar",
"Email" : "[email protected]",
"Contact" : "12345"
}

Working of Document Data Model:

This is a data model which works as a semi-structured data model in which the
records and data associated with them are stored in a single document which
means this data model is not completely unstructured. The main thing is that data
here is stored in a document.

Features:
Document Type Model: As we all know data is stored in documents rather
than tables or graphs, so it becomes easy to map things in many
programming languages.
Flexible Schema: Overall schema is very much flexible to support this
statement one must know that not all documents in a collection need to have
the same fields.
Distributed and Resilient: Document data models are very much
dispersed which is the reason behind horizontal scaling and distribution of
data.
Manageable Query Language: These data models are the ones in which
query language allows the developers to perform CRUD (Create Read Update
Destroy) operations on the data model.

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Examples of Document Data Models:

Amazon DocumentDB
MongoDB
Cosmos DB
ArangoDB
Couchbase Server
CouchDB

Advantages:
Schema-less: These are very good in retaining existing data at massive
volumes because there are absolutely no restrictions in the format and the
structure of data storage.
Faster creation of document and maintenance: It is very simple to
create a document and apart from this maintenance requires is almost
nothing.
Open formats: It has a very simple build process that uses XML, JSON, and
its other forms.
Built-in versioning: It has built-in versioning which means as the documents
grow in size there might be a chance they can grow in complexity. Versioning
decreases conflicts.

Disadvantages:
Weak Atomicity: It lacks in supporting multi-document ACID transactions. A
change in the document data model involving two collections will require us to
run two separate queries i.e. one for each collection. This is where it breaks
atomicity requirements.
Consistency Check Limitations: One can search the collections and
documents that are not connected to an author collection but doing this might
create a problem in the performance of database performance.
Security: Nowadays many web applications lack security which in turn results
in the leakage of sensitive data. So it becomes a point of concern, one must
pay attention to web app vulnerabilities.

Applications of Document Data Model:

Content Management
Book Database
Catalog
Analytics Platform

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11. Explain about key-value store in NoSQL database. (APR/MAY 2024)

Key-Value database model
A key-value data model or database is also referred to as a key-value store. It
is a non-relational type of database.
In this, an associative array is used as a basic database in which an individual
key is linked with just one value in a collection. For the values, keys are
special identifiers. Any kind of entity can be valued. – as in fig 5.14
The collection of key-value pairs stored on separate records is called key-
value databases and they do not have an already defined structure.

Fig. 5.14 Key-Value model

Working of key-value databases:

• A number of easy strings or even a complicated entity are referred to as a
value that is associated with a key by a key-value database, which is utilized
to monitor the entity.
• Like in many programming paradigms, a key-value database resembles a map
object or array, or dictionary, however, which is put away in a tenacious
manner and controlled by a DBMS.
• An efficient and compact structure of the index is used by the key-value store
to have the option to rapidly and dependably find value using its key.
• For example, Redis is a key-value store used to track lists, maps, heaps, and
primitive types (which are simple data structures) in a constant database.
• Redis can uncover a very basic point of interaction to query and manipulate
value types, just by supporting a predetermined number of value types, and
when arranged, is prepared to do high throughput.

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When to use a key-value database:

User session attributes in an online app like finance or gaming, which is
referred to as real-time random data access.
Caching mechanism for repeatedly accessing data or key-based design.
The application is developed on queries that are based on keys.

Features:
One of the most un-complex kinds of NoSQL data models.
For storing, getting, and removing data, key-value databases utilize simple
functions.
Querying language is not present in key-value databases.
Built-in redundancy makes this database more reliable.

Advantages:
It is very easy to use. Due to the simplicity of the database, data can accept
any kind, or even different kinds when required.
Its response time is fast due to its simplicity, given that the remaining
environment near it is very much constructed and improved.
Key-value store databases are scalable vertically as well as horizontally.
Built-in redundancy makes this database more reliable.

Disadvantages:
As querying language is not present in key-value databases, transportation
of queries from one database to a different database cannot be done.
The key-value store database is not refined. You cannot query the database
without a key.

Some examples of key-value databases:

Couchbase
Amazon DynamoDB
Riak
Aerospike
Berkeley DB

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12. Explain in detail about Column-based database with example.

Column based Data Model of NoSQL:
Basically, the relational database stores data in rows and also reads the data row
by row, column store is organized as a set of columns.
So if someone wants to run analytics on a small number of columns, one can read
those columns directly without consuming memory with the unwanted data.
Columns are somehow of the same type and gain from more efficient
compression, which makes reads faster than before.
Examples of Columnar Data Model: Cassandra and Apache Hadoop Hbase.

Working of Columnar Data Model:

In Columnar Data Model instead of organizing information into rows, it does in
columns. This makes them function the same way that tables work in relational
databases in table 5.1.
This type of data model is much more flexible obviously because it is a type
of NoSQL database. Columnar Data Model uses the concept of key space, which is
like a schema in relational models.
The below example will help in understanding the Columnar data model in table
5.2:

Row-Oriented Table:

S.No. Name Course Branch ID

01. Tanmay B-Tech Computer 2

02. Abhishek B-Tech Electronics 5

03. Samriddha B-Tech IT 7

04.
Aditi B-Tech E & TC 8
Table 5.1 Row-Oriented
Column – Oriented Table:

S.No. Name ID S.No. Course ID S.No. Branch ID

01. Tanmay 2 01. B-Tech 2 01. Computer 2
02. Abhishek 5 02. B-Tech 5 02. Electronics 5
03. Samriddha 7 03. B-Tech 7 03. IT 7
04. Aditi 8 04. B-Tech 8 04. E & TC 8
Table 5.2 Column – Oriented

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Advantages of Columnar Data Model:

Well structured: Since these data models are good at compression so these
are very structured or well organized in terms of storage.
Scalability: It can be spread across large clusters of machines, even
numbering in thousands.
Flexibility: A large amount of flexibility as it is not necessary for the
columns to look like each other, which means one can add new and different
columns without disrupting the whole database.
Aggregation queries are fast: The most important thing is aggregation
queries are quite fast because a majority of the information is stored in a
column. An example would be Adding up the total number of students
enrolled in one year.
Load Times: Since one can easily load a row table in a few seconds so load
times are nearly excellent.
Disadvantages of Columnar Data Model:
Designing indexing Schema: To design an effective and working schema is
too difficult and very time-consuming.
Suboptimal data loading: incremental data loading is suboptimal and must
be avoided, but this might not be an issue for some users.
Security vulnerabilities: If security is one of the priorities then it must be
known that the Columnar data model lacks inbuilt security features in this
case, one must look into relational databases.
Online Transaction Processing (OLTP): Online Transaction Processing
(OLTP) applications are also not compatible with columnar data models
because of the way data is stored.
Applications of Columnar Data Model:
Columnar Data Model is very much used in various Blogging Platforms.
It is used in Content management systems like WordPress, Joomla, etc.
It is used in Systems that maintain counters.
It is used in Systems that require heavy write requests.
It is used in Services that have expiring usage.

13. Explain in detail about Graph-based database with example.

Graph based database model
Graph Based Data Model in NoSQL is a type of Data Model which tries to
focus on building the relationship between data elements.
As the name suggests Graph-Based Data Model, each element here is
stored as a node, and the association between these elements is often known
as Links.

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Association is stored directly as these are the first-class elements of the
data model. These data models give us a conceptual view of the data.
These are the data models which are based on topographical network
structure.
Obviously, in graph theory, we have terms like Nodes, edges, and properties,
which means here in the Graph-Based data model.
Nodes: These are the instances of data that represent objects which is to be
tracked.
Edges: As we already know edges represent relationships between nodes.
Properties: It represents information associated with nodes.

The picture given below represents Nodes with properties from relationships
represented by edges.
– as in fig 5.15

Fig. 5.15 Relationship among Nodes, Edges and

Properties

Working of Graph Database Model:

In these data models, the nodes which are connected together are
connected physically and the physical connection among them is also taken
as a piece of data.
Connecting data in this way becomes easy to query a relationship.
This data model reads the relationship from storage directly instead of
calculating and querying the connection steps.
Like many different NoSQL databases these data models don’t have any
schema as it is important because schema makes the model well and good
and easy to edit.

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Examples of Graph Database Models:

✓ JanusGraph: These are very helpful in big data analytics. It is a scalable
graph database system open source too. JanusGraph has different features
like:
• Storage
• Support for transactions
• Searching options
✓ Neo4j: It stands for Network Exploration and Optimization 4 Java. As the
name suggests this graph database is written in Java with native graph
storage and processing. Neo4j has different features like:
• Scalable
• Higher Availability
• Query Language
✓ DGraph: It is an open-source distributed graph database system designed
with scalability. Its features are:
• Query Language
• open-source system

Advantages of Graph Data Model:

Structure: The structures are very agile and workable too.
Explicit Representation: The portrayal of relationships between entities is
explicit.
Real-time O/P Results: Query gives us real-time output results.
Disadvantages of Graph Data Model:
No standard query language: Since the language depends on the platform
that is used so there is no certain standard query language.
Unprofessional Graphs: Graphs are very unprofessional for transactional-
based systems.
Small User Base: The user base is small which makes it very difficult to
get support when running into a system.

Applications of Graph Data Model:

Graph data models are very much used in fraud detection which itself is
very much useful and important.
It is used in Digital asset management which provides a scalable database
model to keep track of digital assets.
It is used in Network management which alerts a network administrator
about problems in a network.
It is used in Context-aware services by giving traffic updates and many more.
It is used in Real-Time Recommendation Engines which provide a better user
experience.

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14. Describe about Database Security with common threats and counter
measures in detail.
Security of databases refers to the array of controls, tools, and procedures
designed to ensure and safeguard confidentiality, integrity, and accessibility.
It is a technique for protecting and securing a database from intentional or
accidental threats.
Database security encompasses hardware parts, software parts, human
resources, and data.
To use the security efficiently, appropriate controls are required, which
are separated into a specific goal and purpose for the system.

Database security is more prevalent in the following scenarios:

Theft and fraudulent.
Loss of Data privacy.
Loss of Data integrity.
Loss of confidentiality or secrecy
Loss of availability of data.

Why Database Security is Important?

Security is an important concern in database management because the information
stored in a database is a very valuable and, at times, quite sensitive commodity. As
a result, data in a database management system must be protected from abuse and
illegal access and updates.
The factors are:
Intellectual property that is compromised
The damage to our brand's reputation
The concept of business continuity
Penalties or fines to be paid for not complying
Costs for repairing breaches and notifying consumers about them

Common Threats and Challenges for database security:

Insider Dangers
An insider threat can be an attack on security from any three sources having an
access privilege to the database.
o A malicious insider who wants to cause harm
o An insider who is negligent and makes mistakes that expose the database to
attack. vulnerable to attacks
o An infiltrator is an outsider who acquires credentials by using a method like
phishing or accessing the database of credential information in the database
itself.

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Insider dangers are among the most frequent sources of security breaches to
databases. They often occur as a consequence of the inability of employees to have
access to privileged user credentials.
Human Error
The unintentional mistakes, weak passwords or sharing passwords, and other
negligent or uninformed behaviors of users remain the root causes of almost half
(49 percent) of all data security breaches.
Software Vulnerabilities
Hackers earn their money by identifying and exploiting vulnerabilities in software
such as databases management software. The major database software companies
and open-source databases management platforms release regular security patches
to fix these weaknesses. However, failing to implement the patches on time could
increase the risk of being hacked.
SQL/NoSQL Injection Attacks
A specific threat to databases is the infusing of untrue SQL as well as other non-SQL
string attacks in queries for databases delivered by web-based apps and HTTP
headers. Companies that do not follow the safe coding practices for web
applications and conduct regular vulnerability tests are susceptible to attacks using
these.
Buffer Overflow
Buffer overflow happens when a program seeks to copy more data into the memory
block with a certain length than it can accommodate. The attackers may make use
of the extra data, which is stored in adjacent memory addresses, to establish a basis
for they can begin attacks.
DDoS (DoS/DDoS) Attacks
In a denial-of-service (DoS) attack in which the attacker overwhelms the targeted
server -- in this case, the database server with such a large volume of requests that
the server is unable to meet no longer legitimate requests made by actual users. In
most cases, the server is unstable or even fails to function.
Malware
Malware is software designed to exploit vulnerabilities or cause harm to databases.
Malware can be accessed via any device that connects to the databases network.
Attacks on Backups
Companies that do not protect backup data using the same rigorous controls
employed to protect databases themselves are at risk of cyber attacks on backups.
Control Measures for the Security of Data in Databases:
Authentication
Authentication is the process of confirming whether a user logs in only with
the rights granted to him to undertake database operations. A certain user
can only log in up to his privilege level, but he cannot access any other
sensitive data.
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The ability to access sensitive data is restricted by the use of authentication.
For example, a mobile phone performs authentication by requesting a PIN,
fingerprint, or by face recognition. Similarly, a computer verifies a username
by requesting the appropriate password.
Access Control
Database access control is a means of restricting access to sensitive company
data to only those people (database users) who are authorized to access such
data and permitting access to unauthorized persons. It is a key security
concept that reduces risk to the business or organization.
Physical and logical access control are the two types of access control. Access
to campuses, buildings, rooms, and physical IT assets is restricted through
physical access control. Connections to computer networks, system files, and
data are restricted through logical access control.
The most well-known Database Access Control examples are:
− Discretionary Access Control (DAC)
− Mandatory Access Control (MAC)
− Role-Based Access Control (RBAC)
− Attribute-Based Access Control (ABAC)
Inference Control
Inference control in databases, also known as Statistical Disclosure Control
(SDC), is a discipline that aims to secure data so that it can be published
without disclosing sensitive information associated with specific individuals
among those to whom the data corresponds.
It prevents the user from completing any inference channel. This strategy
prevents sensitive information from indirect disclosure.
There are two kinds of inferences:
i. Identity disclosure
ii. Attribute disclosure
Flow Control
Distributed systems involve a large amount of data flow from one site to
another as well as within a site.
Flow control prohibits data from being transferred in such a way that
unauthorized agents cannot access it. A flow policy specifies the channels
through which data can flow. It also defines security classes for data as well as
transactions.
Applying Statistical Method
Statistical database security focuses on the protection of sensitive individual
values stored in so- called statistical databases and used for statistical
purposes, as well as retrieving summaries of values based on categories. They
do not allow the retrieval of individual information.

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It provides access to the database to obtain statistical information about the

number of employees in the company but not to obtain detailed
confidential/personal information about a specific individual employee.
The techniques used to prevent statistical database compromise are classified
into two types: noise addition, in which all data and/or statistics are available
but are only approximate rather than exact, and restriction, in which the
system only delivers statistics and/or data that are deemed safe.
Encryption
Data encryption protects data confidentiality by converting it to encoded
information known as cipher text, which can only be decoded with a unique
decryption key generated either during or before encryption.
Data encryption can be used during data storage or transfer, and it is usually
used in conjunction with authentication services to ensure that keys are only
given to or used by authorized users.
Data is more accessible and desirable to attackers than ever before,
increasing the need for security. Additionally, many firms must comply with
data protection regulations, many of which specifically require the use of
encryption.

15. Explain in detail about Discretionary access control privileges and

Role based access control mechanism. (APR/MAY 2024) (NOV/DEC2024)
Discretionary Access Control
Discretionary Access Control is a mechanism that allows the owner of a
resource to control who has access to that resource and what actions they can
perform on it.
The term “discretionary” implies that the owner has the discretion to decide
who is granted access and what privileges they are granted.
In a discretionary access control system, each resource is assigned a unique
owner account, which is responsible for managing access to that resource.
The owner has the ability to grant or revoke access privileges, such as
reading or modifying data, to other users or groups of users.

Types of Discretionary Privileges:

There are two levels for assigning privileges to use the database system:
The Account Level - At this level, the DBA specifies the particular
privileges that each account holds independently of the relations in the
database.
The Relation (or Table) Level - At this level, the DBA can control the
privilege to access each individual relation or view in the database.

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Account Level Privileges apply to the capabilities provided to the account itself
and can include:
− The CREATE SCHEMA or CREATE TABLE privilege, to create a schema or base
relation.
− The CREATE VIEW privilege.
− The ALTER privilege, to apply schema changes such as adding or
removing attributes from relations.
− The DROP privilege, to delete relations or views.
− The MODIFY privilege, to insert, delete, or update tuples.
− The SELECT privilege, to retrieve information from the database by using a
SELECT query. These privileges give the account holder varying degrees of control
over the database and its contents. The DBA must carefully consider the level of
access they grant to each account to ensure the security and protection of sensitive
information.

Relation Level Privileges are the second level of privileges applies to the relation
level, whether they are base relations or virtual (view) relations.
It is the second level of privileges which is applied to the relation level. This
includes tables or relations and virtual relations known as views.
A user who has created a database object such as a table or a view will get all
privileges on that object.
This user is the holder of owner account which is created for each relation. In
this level, an owner account is created for each relation and this account will
also have right to pass the privileges to other users by GRANTING privileges
to their accounts. – as in fig 5.16
The granting and revoking of discretionary privileges can be done by using a
model known as access matrix model. This model specifies rights of each
subject for each object.

subject file1 file2 file3

Mary read write

Sashi read write

Rahul write read append

Fig 5.16 Access matrix Model

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Here, Mary has only read privilege on file1 she can’t modify that file1. So, we can
represent the privileges of each subject on each object. The matrix M consists of
rows which resembles subjects like users, accounts and the columns resembles
objects like relations, views. Each position M(i,j) in the matrix represents the types
of privileges like read, write, update that subject i holds on object j.

Role-based access control (RBAC)

Role-based access control (RBAC), also known as role-based security, is a
mechanism that restricts system access.
It involves setting permissions and privileges to enable access to authorized
users.
Role-based access control is generally used in conjunction with the principle of
least privilege, where the roles represented will only involve the least level of
access needed to done the necessary job service or requirements.

Most large organizations use role-based access control to provide their

employees with varyinglevels of access based on their roles and responsibilities.
An organization assigns a role-based access control role to every employee;
the role determines which permissions the system grants to the user.
For example, you can designate whether a user is an administrator, a student,
or an end-user, and limit access to specific resources or tasks. An
organization may let some individuals create or modify files while providing
others with viewing permission only. – as in fig 5.17

Fig. 5.17 Specific roles and rights assigned to specific users

The RBAC methodology is based on a group of three primary rules that govern
access to secured systems:

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✓ Role Assignment − Each transaction or operation can only be carried out if

the user has assumed the suitable role. An operation is represented as some
action taken with respect to a system or network object that is secured by
RBAC. Roles can be assigned by an independent party or selected by the user
attempting to implement the action.
✓ Role Authorization − The objective of role authorization is to provide that
users can only consider a role for which they have been given the suitable
authorization. When a user considers a role, they should do so with
authorization from an administrator.
✓ Transaction Authorization − An operation can only be done if the user
trying to complete the transaction possesses the suitable role.

The benefits of RBAC include the possibility to:

Create a systematic, repeatable assignment of permissions
Audit user privileges and correct identified issues
Add, remove or change roles, as well as implement them across API calls
Reduce potential errors when assigning user permissions
Reduce third-party risk and fourth-party risk by providing third-party
vendors and suppliers with pre-defined roles
Decrease the risk of data breaches and data leakage by restricting access to
sensitive information
16. Discuss about SQL injection in detail with an example.
SQL injection
SQL injection is a technique used to extract user data by injecting web page inputs
as statements through SQL commands. Basically, malicious users can use these
instructions to manipulate the application’s web server.
1. SQL injection is a code injection technique that can compromise your database.
2. SQL injection is one of the most common web hacking techniques.
3. SQL injection is the injection of malicious code into SQL statements via web
page input.

Types of SQL injection attacks

SQL injections can do more harm other than passing the login algorithms. Some of
the SQL injection attacks include:
Updating, deleting, and inserting the data: An attack can modify the cookies
to poison a web application's database query.
It is executing commands on the server that can download and install
malicious programs such as Trojans.
We are exporting valuable data such as credit card details, email, and
passwords to the attacker's remote server.
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Getting user login details: It is the simplest form of SQL injection. Web
application typically accepts user input through a form, and the front end
passes the user input to the back-end database for processing.

Example of SQL Injection

Suppose we have an application based on student records. Any student can view
only his or her own records by entering a unique and private student ID.
Suppose we have a field like the one below:

Student id: The student enters the following in the input field:

12222345 or 1=1. Query:

SELECT * from STUDENT where
STUDENT-ID == 12222345 or 1 = 1

Now, this 1=1 will return all records for which this holds true. So basically, all the
student data is compromised. Now the malicious user can also delete the student
records in a similar fashion. Consider the following SQL query.

Query:
SELECT * from USER where
USERNAME = “” and PASSWORD=””
Now the malicious can use the ‘=’ operator in a clever manner to retrieve
private and secure user information. So instead of the above-mentioned query
the following query when executed retrieves protected data, not intended to be
shown to users.

Query:
Select * from User where
(Username = “” or 1=1)
AND(Password=”” or 1=1).
Since 1=1 always holds true, user data is compromised.

Impact of SQL Injection

The intruder can retrieve all the user-data present in the database, such as
user details, credit card information, and social security numbers, and can
also gain access to protected areas like the administrator portal.
It is also possible to delete the user data from the tables.
These days all the online shopping applications, bank transactions use back-
end database servers.
If the intruder can exploit SQL injection, the entire server is compromised.

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Preventing SQL Injection

User Authentication: Validating input from the user by pre-defining length,
type of input, of the input field and authenticating the user.
Restricting access privileges of users and defining how much amount of data
any outsider can access from the database. Basically, users should not be
granted permission to access everything in the database.
Do not use system administrator accounts.

17. What is data encryption? Explain in detail about the encryption

methods and public key infrastructure in detail.
Cryptography is the science of encoding information before sending via
unreliable communication paths so that only an authorized receiver can
decode and use it.
The coded message is called cipher text and the original message is called
plain text.
The process of converting plain text to cipher text by the sender is called
encoding or encryption.
The process of converting cipher text to plain text by the receiver is
called decoding or decryption.

The entire procedure of communicating using cryptography can be illustrated

through the following diagram – as in Fig. 5.18

Fig. 5.18Communication using cryptography

Types of Encryptions
1. Symmetric Encryption– Data is encrypted using a key and the decryption is
also done using the same key.
2. Asymmetric Encryption-Asymmetric Cryptography is also known as public-
key cryptography. It uses public and private keys to encrypt and decrypt data.
One key in the pair which can be shared with everyone is called the public key.
The other key in the pair which is kept secret and is only known by the owner is
called the private key. Either of the keys can be used to encrypt a message; the
opposite key from the one used to encrypt the message is used for decryption.
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Public key– Key which is known to everyone. Ex-public key of A is 7, this

information is known to everyone.
Private key– Key which is only known to the person who’s private key it is.
Authentication-Authentication is any process by which a system verifies the
identity of a user who wishes to access it.
Non- repudiation– non-repudiation means to ensure that a transferred
message has been sent and received by the parties claiming to have sent and
received the message. Non-repudiation is a way to guarantee that the sender of
a message cannot later deny having sent the message and that the recipient
cannot deny having received the message.
Integrity– to ensure that the message was not altered during the transmission.
Message digest -The representation of text in the form of a single string of
digits, created using a formula called a one-way hash function. Encrypting a
message digest with a private key creates a digital signature which is an
electronic means of authentication.

Public Key Cryptography

• In contrast to conventional cryptography, public key cryptography uses two
different keys, referred to as public key and the private key.
• Each user generates the pair of public key and private key. The user then puts
the public key in an accessible place.
• When a sender wants to sends a message, he encrypts it using the public key
of the receiver. On receiving the encrypted message, the receiver decrypts it
using his private key. Since the private key is not known to anyone but the
receiver, no other person who receives the message can decrypt it.
• The most popular public key cryptography algorithms are RSA
algorithm and Diffie–Hellman algorithm.
• This method is very secure to send private messages. However, the problem
is, it involves a lot of computations and so proves to be inefficient for long
messages.
• The solution is to use a combination of conventional and public key
cryptography. The secret key is encrypted using public key cryptography
before sharing between the communicating parties.
• Then, the message is send using conventional cryptography with the aid of the
shared secret key.

Digital Signatures
• A Digital Signature (DS) is an authentication technique based on public key
cryptography used in e-commerce applications.
• It associates a unique mark to an individual within the body of his message.
This helps others to authenticate valid senders of messages.
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• Typically, a user’s digital signature varies from message to message in order
to provide security against counterfeiting.

Digital Certificate
• Digital certificate is issued by a trusted third party which proves sender’s
identity to the receiver and receiver’s identity to the sender.
• A digital certificate is a certificate issued by a Certificate Authority (CA) to
verify the identity of the certificate holder.
• The CA issues an encrypted digital certificate containing the applicant’s
public key and a variety of other identification information.
• Digital certificate is used to attach public key with a particular individual or an
entity.

18. Discuss in detail about the challenges in database security.

Database security is an essential aspect of database management systems (DBMS)
as it involves protecting the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the data
stored in the database. A DBMS in addition to making every effort to prevent an
attack and detecting one in the event of the occurrence should be able to do the
following:

Confident: We should take immediate action to eliminate the attacker’s

access to the system and to isolate or contain the problem to prevent further
spread.
Damage assessment: Determine the extent of the problem, including
failed function and corrupted data.
Recover: Recover corrupted or lost data and repair or reinstall failed
function to reestablish a normal level of operation.
Reconfiguration: Reconfigure to allow the operation to continue in a
degraded mode while recovery proceeds.
Fault treatment: To the extent possible, identify the weakness exploited in
the attack and takes steps to prevent a recurrence.

The challenges of database security in DBMS include:

Authentication and Authorization: One of the biggest challenges of

database security is ensuring that only authorized users can access the
database. The DBMS must authenticate users and grant them appropriate
access rights based on their roles and responsibilities.
Encryption: Data encryption is an effective way to protect sensitive data in
transit and at rest. However, it can also be a challenge to implement and
manage encryption keys and ensure that encrypted data is not compromised.

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Access Control: Access control involves regulating the access to data within
the database. It can be challenging to implement access control mechanisms
that allow authorized users to access the data they need while preventing
unauthorized users from accessing it.
Auditing and Logging: DBMS must maintain an audit trail of all activities in
the database. This includes monitoring who accesses the database, what data
is accessed, and when it is accessed. This can be a challenge to implement
and manage, especially in large databases.
Database Design: The design of the database can also impact security. A
poorly designed database can lead to security vulnerabilities, such as SQL
injection attacks, which can compromise the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of data.
Malicious attacks: Cyber-attacks such as hacking, malware, and phishing
pose a significant threat to the security of databases. DBMS must have robust
security measures in place to prevent and detect such attacks.
Physical Security: Physical security of the database is also important, as
unauthorized physical access to the server can lead to data breaches.

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APR-MAY 23

Part A:
1.what is a distributed database management system? Q1, Pg 1
2.Define encryption with an example. Q32, Pg 5
Part B:
1.What is a distributed transaction? explain distributed query processing with
a diagram Q5,6, Pg 16
2.What is NoSQL? Outline the features of NoSQl Databases. Q7, Pg 22
3.Discuss role-based access control with an example. Q15, Pg 39

NOV-DEC 23

Part A:
1. State CAP Theorem.Q4, Pg 3
2. List the different types of SQL injection attacks? Q25, Pg 4

Part B:

1. Describe in detail Query Processing and Optimization. (13) Q6, Pg 19

2. Discuss on the following. Q15, Pg 39
(i)Access control based on privileges. (8)
(ii) Role Based access control. (5)

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APR-MAY 24

Part A
1. Define Distributed Database. Q1, Pg 1
2. What are the challenges faced when using an encrypted system? Q30, Pg 5

Part B

1. Explain distributed database architecture in detail. Q1, Pg 9

2. Explain in detail about key value stores and role-based access control in
advanced database management systems. Q11 Pg 36, Q15, Pg 45

NOV-DEC 24
Part A

1. Write the approaches for storing the relation in distributed data storage? Q6,Pg 2
2. What is statistical database security? Q26, Pg 5

Part B

1. Discuss in brief about different NOSQL databases. Q7, Pg 25

2. Explain the purpose of role-based access control in a database. Q15, Pg 45

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