1. What is multiprogramming?

 Multiprogramming allows multiple programs to reside in memory at the same time.

 CPU executes one program while others wait for I/O.
2. Define a critical section.
 A critical section is a part of a program where shared resources are accessed.
 Only one process should execute in its critical section at a time to avoid conflicts.
3. List any two page replacement algorithms.
 FIFO (First-In-First-Out)
 LRU (Least Recently Used)
4. What is context switching in a CPU?
 The process of saving the state of one process and loading the state of another.
 Happens during multitasking and scheduling.
5. Mention two advantages of virtual memory.
 Allows larger programs to run than physical memory can hold.
 Provides memory isolation between processes for protection.
6. What is file protection?
 Mechanism to control access to files.
 Prevents unauthorized reading, writing, or execution.
7. Define deadlock prevention.
 A method to ensure at least one of the necessary conditions for deadlock never occurs.
 Avoids deadlock by design.
8. What is the role of a scheduler?
 Selects which process will run next on the CPU.
 Manages CPU time to optimize performance.
9. Define swapping in memory management.
 Moving a process between main memory and disk.
 Used to manage memory when there is not enough RAM.

10. Process Creation and Termination:

 Process Creation:
1. Parent creates child process using system call (e.g., fork).
2. OS assigns PID and allocates resources.
3. PCB (Process Control Block) created.
4. Process is moved to Ready Queue.
 Process Termination:
1. Process finishes or is terminated.
2. OS deallocates resources.
3. PCB is removed.
4. Exit status sent to parent.

11. Real-Time CPU Scheduling:

 Definition: Ensures processes meet timing constraints.
 Requirements:
1. Predictable response times.
2. Priorities for urgent tasks.
3. Preemption support.
4. Real-time clock access.
 Types: Hard and Soft real-time scheduling.
 Algorithms: Rate Monotonic, EDF (Earliest Deadline First).
12. Segmentation vs Paging:
Aspect Segmentation Paging
Division Based on logical segments Divided into equal-size pages
Size Variable Fixed
Fragmentation External Internal
Address Segment No + Offset Page No + Offset
Example Code, Stack, Data segments Page 0, Page 1, etc.

13. Process Synchronization Techniques:

 Semaphores: Integer variables for signaling.
 Mutex: Locks used to ensure one process enters the critical section.
 Monitors: High-level abstraction with condition variables.
 Busy Waiting vs Blocking: Polling wastes CPU time; blocking is efficient.

14. File System Structure and Operations:

 Structure:
1. File Control Block (FCB)
2. Directory structure
3. Volume Control Block
 File Operations:
o Create, Open, Read, Write, Close, Delete
 File Types: Text, Binary, Executable, etc.

➕ 15. (New Additional Question)

Explain any three memory allocation techniques with examples.
1. Contiguous Allocation:
o Allocates single continuous memory block.
o Example: Base + limit.
2. Paging:
o Memory divided into fixed-size pages and frames.
o Logical and physical addresses mapped.
3. Segmentation:
o Divided based on program's logical parts.
o Example: Stack, Code, Data segments.

15. a) Thread Lifecycle:

1. New: Thread is created.
2. Runnable: Ready to run.
3. Running: CPU assigned.
4. Waiting/Blocked: Waiting for I/O or signal.
5. Terminated: Execution completed.
Diagram:
sql
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New → Runnable → Running → Terminated
↘ Blocked ↗
b) Multithreading Models:
1. Many-to-One: Many user threads to one kernel thread.
2. One-to-One: One user thread maps to one kernel thread.
3. Many-to-Many: Many user threads mapped to a pool of kernel threads.
16. a) FCFS Gantt Chart:
Processes:
P1: 10ms, P2: 1ms, P3: 2ms, P4: 5ms (all arrive at 0)
Gantt Chart:
0---P1---10--P2--11--P3--13---P4---18
Waiting Time: 0, 10, 11, 13 → Avg = 8.5 ms
Turnaround Time: 10, 11, 13, 18 → Avg = 13 ms
b) SJF Scheduling Example:
Processes (Arrival Time = 0):
P1: 6ms, P2: 8ms, P3: 7ms, P4: 3ms
SJF Order: P4 → P1 → P3 → P2
Gantt Chart:
0--P4--3--P1--9--P3--16--P2--24

17. a) Deadlock Conditions:

1. Mutual Exclusion
2. Hold and Wait
3. No Preemption
4. Circular Wait
b) Banker’s Algorithm:
 Checks for safe state before allocating resources.
 Steps:
1. Need = Max – Allocation
2. If Need ≤ Available, then safe.
3. Otherwise, wait.

18. a) Paging with Diagram:

 Logical Address = Page Number + Offset
 Physical Address = Frame Number + Offset
 Uses Page Table for translation
Diagram (Simple):
Logical → Page Table → Frame → Physical
b) Thrashing:
 Too much paging, CPU spends more time swapping.
 Control:
o Increase RAM
o Use Working Set model
o Good page replacement algorithm

19. a) File Access Methods:

 Sequential: Data accessed in order. (e.g., tape)
 Indexed: Index table for direct access. (e.g., DBMS)
b) File Allocation Methods:
1. Contiguous: All blocks in sequence.
2. Linked: Each block has pointer to next.
3. Indexed: Uses index block pointing to all file blocks.