1) What is an operating system?

An operating system (OS) is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware, managing hardware resources and providing services for computer programs. It performs
basic tasks like file management, memory management, process management, handling input and
output, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
2) What is inter-process communication?
Inter-process communication (IPC) is a mechanism that allows processes to communicate and
exchange data with each other. It is essential for processes that need to cooperate. IPC can be
achieved using two fundamental models: shared memory (where processes read/write data in a
shared region) and message passing (where processes send and receive messages to each other).
3) What is a thread?
A thread is a lightweight process, representing a single sequential activity within a process. Threads
share the same resources of the process but execute independently, allowing for parallelism within
applications. Threads have their own program counter, registers, and stack.
4) What is pre-emptive scheduling?
Pre-emptive scheduling is a CPU scheduling method where the operating system can suspend (pre-
empt) a currently running process in order to start or resume another process with a higher priority.
This ensures that high-priority tasks get CPU time as soon as they are ready to execute, which is crucial
for real-time systems.
5) What is race condition?
A race condition occurs when two or more threads or processes access shared data concurrently, and
the outcome depends on the sequence or timing of their execution. Without proper synchronization,
this can lead to unpredictable and undesirable results.
6) What is semaphore? Mention its types.
A semaphore is a synchronization tool used to control access to a common resource in a concurrent
system. It is a variable used to signal whether a resource is available. There are two types of
semaphores:
Binary semaphore: Can have only two values (0 or 1), used for mutual exclusion.
Counting semaphore: Can have any integer value, used to manage a resource with multiple instances.
7) Define logical and physical address.
Logical address: The address generated by the CPU during a program's execution; also known as a
virtual address.
Physical address: The actual address in main memory (RAM) where the data/instruction resides.
8) What is dynamic loading?
Dynamic loading is a technique in which a program loads a routine into memory only when it is needed,
rather than loading the entire program at once. This helps in efficient memory usage.
9) List the various file attributes.
Common file attributes include: Name,Type,Location(path),Size,Protection(permisions),
Time, date, and user identification (creation, modification, access times)
10) Explain functions of an operating system.

Process Management: Handles creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.

Memory Management: Allocates and manages memory space for processes.

File System Management: Manages files on storage devices, including creation, deletion, and access control.

Device Management: Controls and coordinates use of hardware devices through device drivers.

Security and Protection: Ensures authorized access and protects data and resources.

User Interface: Provides interfaces like command-line or graphical user interface for user interaction.

11)Explain the different types of threads.

User-level threads: Managed by user-level libraries, not visible to the operating system. They are faster to
create and manage but if one thread blocks, the entire process blocks.

Kernel-level threads: Managed directly by the operating system. Each thread can be scheduled independently
by the OS, but they are slower to create and manage due to kernel involvement.

12) Gantt Chart and Calculations (FCFS Scheduling):

13) Explain methods for handling deadlocks.

Prevention: Ensure at least one of the necessary conditions for deadlock cannot hold.

Avoidance: Dynamically examine the resource allocation to avoid unsafe states (e.g., Banker's algorithm).

Detection and Recovery: Allow deadlocks to occur but detect and recover by terminating/restarting processes
or preempting resources.

14) Write a note on segmentation.

Segmentation is a memory management technique where the memory is divided into variable-sized segments
based on logical divisions of a program (like functions, objects, data). Each segment has a name and length,
and addresses are specified as segment number and offset.
15) Explain any two directory structures.

Single-level directory: All files are contained in a single directory, making it simple but inefficient for large
numbers of files.

Two-level directory: Each user has their own directory, improving organization and access control.

16) a) Explain time sharing and real time operating system.

Time sharing OS: Allows multiple users to use a computer system interactively at the same time by rapidly
switching the CPU among users/processes.

Real-time OS: Designed to process data and events within a strict time limit, used in systems where timing is
critical (e.g., embedded systems, industrial control).

16) b) Write a note on operating system calls.

System calls are interfaces between a process and the operating system, allowing user-level processes to
request services like file operations, process control, and communication.

17) a) Write a note on schedulers.

Schedulers are algorithms in the OS that decide which process runs at a given time.

Types include:

Long-term scheduler: Decides which processes are admitted to the system (job scheduling).

Short-term scheduler: Decides which ready process gets the CPU next (CPU scheduling).

Medium-term scheduler: Swaps processes in and out of memory.

17) b) Explain Round Robin scheduling with example.

Round Robin scheduling assigns each process a fixed time slot (quantum) in a cyclic order. If a process doesn't
finish in its time slot, it is preempted and moved to the end of the queue. This ensures fairness and
responsiveness.

18) a) Write a note on threading issues.

Threading issues include synchronization, deadlocks, race conditions, and resource sharing problems. Proper
coordination is needed to avoid inconsistent data and ensure safe concurrent execution.

18) b) Write a note on scheduling criteria.

Scheduling criteria are metrics used to evaluate scheduling algorithms, such as CPU utilization, throughput,
turnaround time, waiting time, response time, and fairness.
19) a) What is fragmentation? Explain the types of fragmentation.

Fragmentation occurs when memory is used inefficiently, reducing performance:

Internal fragmentation: Wasted space within allocated memory blocks.

External fragmentation: Wasted space between allocated memory blocks.

19) b) Explain dining philosopher problem using semaphore.

The dining philosopher problem illustrates synchronization issues. Semaphores are used to ensure that only
one philosopher picks up a fork at a time, preventing deadlock and ensuring mutual exclusion.

20) a) Explain FIFO page replacement algorithm with example.

FIFO (First-In-First-Out) page replacement replaces the oldest page in memory when a new page needs to be
loaded. Example: If pages 1, 2, 3 are in memory and page 4 is needed, page 1 (the oldest) is replaced.

20) b) What is file accessing method? Explain sequential file access methods.

File accessing methods define how data is read/written from files. Sequential access reads or writes data in
order, from the beginning to the end, suitable for tapes and logs.