Name : Noorulain

Roll no. : 21112061045

Department: Bs Physics
Semester: 7th A
Submitted To: Dr. Bushra
Phototransistor Sensor:

A Phototransistor is an electronic switching and current amplification component

which relies on exposure to light to operate. When light falls on the junction,
reverse current flows which are proportional to the luminance. Phototransistors
are used extensively to detect light pulses and convert them into digital electrical
signals. These are operated by light rather than electric current. It is capable of
converting light energy into electric energy. Phototransistors work in a similar way
to photoresistors commonly known as LDR (light dependent resistor) but are able
to produce both current and voltage while photoresistors are only capable of
producing current due to change in resistance.

Phototransistors are transistors with the base terminal exposed. Instead of

sending current into the base, the photons from striking light activate the
transistor. This is because a phototransistor is made of a bipolar semiconductor
and focuses on the energy that is passed through it. These are activated by light
particles and are used in virtually all electronic devices that depend on light in
some way. All silicon photosensors (phototransistors) respond to the entire visible
radiation range as well as to infrared. In fact, all diodes, transistors, Darlington’s,
TRIACs, etc. have the same basic radiation frequency response.

The structure of the phototransistor is specifically optimized for photo

applications. Compared to a normal transistor, a phototransistor has a larger base
and collector width and is made using diffusion or ion implantation.

Construction:

In a normal (BJT) transistor, the current from the base to the emitter controls the
flow of current between the collector and emitter. In a phototransistor, light
controls the flow of current between the collector and emitter. There are two
different types of phototransistors, NPN and PNP. NPN phototransistors are the
most common and are used for low-power applications, such as proximity sensors
or optical encoders. PNP phototransistors are less common and are used for
applications such as smoke detectors or IR sensors.

Working:
A phototransistor has a base, collector, and emitter like a regular transistor, but
instead of a pin to connect to the base, it has an internal photodiode that
converts light into current that acts as the base current. When light hits the
photodiode, it produces a flow of electrons into the base of the transistor. This
turns the transistor on so that current can flow from the collector to the emitter.
The more light that hits the photodiode, the more electrons flow into the base,
and the stronger the current becomes. Once you have made all the connections,
the phototransistor should sense the ambient light level and output a signal to
the NPN transistor. If the ambient light level is low, the NPN transistor will turn on
and allow current to flow through the LED, turning the LED on. If the ambient light
level is high, the NPN transistor will turn off and the LED will switch off.

The basic idea behind this circuit is that the phototransistor senses the amount of
light falling on it and turns the LED on/off accordingly.

Application:
Light detection: Phototransistors are used in light meters, cameras, and optical
sensors to detect light intensity and convert it to an electrical signal.
Optical communication: Phototransistors are used in fiber optic communication
systems to detect light signals.
Remote printing machines: Phototransistors are used in remote printing
machines due to their high light-to-current conversion efficiency.
Punch card readers: Phototransistors are used in punch card readers.
Security systems: Phototransistors are used in security systems.
Encoders: Phototransistors are used in encoders to measure speed and direction.
Lighting control: Phototransistors are used in lighting control, such as on
highways.
Radar Sensor:

The sensor which is used to measure the distance, velocity and movements of
objects above wide distances is known as a radar sensor and also measures the
relative speed of the noticed object. This sensor uses wireless detecting
technology like FMCW (Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave) to detect the
motion by figuring out the object’s shape, position, motion trajectory & motion
characteristics. As compared to other types of sensors, these sensors are not
affected by darkness & light. These sensors can detect longer distances & it is
secure for people & animals. Here the carrier frequency is modulated constantly
in a small range of bandwidth. Once the signal from an object is reflected back,
then it is feasible to determine the distance & also the object speed by comparing
frequency.

This sensor uses an extremely high carrier frequency to produce a very thin beam
cone and also notices even small objects without interference from adjacent
objects above large distances.

Working Principle

The working principle of a radar sensor is to compute the speed of an object along
with its direction by detecting the change in frequency wave which is known as
Doppler Effect.

A radar sensor includes an antenna that emits a high-frequency (62 GHz)

transmitted signal. This transmitted signal also includes a modulated signal with a
lower frequency (10 MHz). This sensor gets the signal once it is returned back
from an object. So this sensor evaluates the phase shift between the two
frequencies. Here, the difference in transmitting time & receiving time will
determine the distance between the sensor & an object.

Applications
The applications of radar sensors include the following.

 Radar sensors are used where vehicle detection is required or avoiding a

collision when equipment is moving. Vehicle detection mainly includes
trucks, trains, cars, toll booths, shipping canals, railroads, etc. Collision
avoidance includes ports, manufacturing, low-visibility factory
environments & onboard mobile equipment.
 Military
 Security system

Ultrasonic Sensor:

Ultrasonic sensors are electronic devices that utilize sound waves at frequencies
above the audible range (typically between 23 kHz and 40 kHz) to measure
distances or detect objects. They are widely used in various applications due to
their versatility, affordability, and effectiveness in non-contact distance
measurement.

Components of Ultrasonic Sensors

An ultrasonic sensor primarily consists of two main components:

 Transmitter: This component generates ultrasonic sound waves using a

piezoelectric crystal. When an electrical signal is applied to the crystal, it
vibrates and produces sound waves.
 Receiver: This component detects the reflected ultrasonic waves that
bounce back from an object. It also typically uses a piezoelectric element to
convert the received sound waves back into electrical signals.

Construction of Ultrasonic Sensors

The sensor is encased in a protective housing that shields its internal components
from environmental factors while allowing sound waves to pass through. The
piezoelectric crystal serves as both the transmitter and receiver. Its efficiency in
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy (sound) and vice versa is
crucial for the sensor’s performance.The electronic circuitry processes the signals
generated by the transducer. It includes components for generating the trigger
signal, measuring time intervals, and calculating distances based on received
echoes.Ultrasonic sensors typically operate on low voltage (around +5 V), which
makes them suitable for integration with microcontrollers like Arduino or
Raspberry Pi.

Principle of Operation

The transmitter emits a burst of ultrasonic sound waves directed towards an

object. When these sound waves encounter an object, they reflect back towards
the sensor. The receiver captures these reflected sound waves after they return
to the sensor. The sensor measures the time taken for the sound wave to travel to
the object and back (round trip).

Working Mechanism

To initiate measurement, a trigger signal is sent from a microcontroller (e.g.,

Arduino). This signal must be high for at least 10 microseconds to activate the
sensor. Upon receiving this trigger signal, the ultrasonic sensor emits eight bursts
of ultrasound at 40 kHz. The echo pin receives signals back from any detected
objects after reflection occurs.By measuring how long it takes for these echoes to
return, along with knowing the speed of sound, accurate distance measurements
can be made effectively without physical contact with objects.

Magnetic Sensor

Magnetic sensor definition is a sensor which is used to notice disturbances as well

as changes within a magnetic field such as strength, direction, and flux. There are
different types of detection sensors which can work on some of the
characteristics like light, pressure, temperature. These sensors are separated into
two groups. The first one is used to calculate the total magnetic field, whereas the
second one is used to calculate vector components of the field.

Magnetic Sensor Working Principle

The magnetic sensor comprises a chip with a magnetoresistive component which
is used to detect a magnetic vector & a magnet intended for magnetic vector
biasing which can be detected by the magnetoresistive component.The chip
which is used in the sensor can be used for sensing the change within the
magnetic vector. This vector notices the behavior of a magnetic body depending
on a change of resistance value of the magnetoresistive component.Whenever
the magnetic vector biasing is occurred due to the magnet in co-operation by the
magnetic body, then it will be the motion inside the sensing chip. This sensor can
be used to compass functionality, which is accessible during Navigation menu.
Generally, the magnetic field can be surrounded by an electric current, and it is
noticeable through its strength otherwise communication on magnets, electrical
charges, as well as magnetic products. Here, the magnetic field direction, as well
as strength, can be calculated. The variations within the field are detected as well
as changes are made inside the response of machines.

Magnetic Sensor Applications

It include magnetic flux measuring & the direction as well as the strength of a
magnetic field.