Introduction

This manual, on the experiments of general physics (phy 106) is written for 10+3 level learners,
who are engaged in chemistry and Chemistry laboratory technicians as well as biology and
biology laboratory technicians. Which is an experimental course based on general physics
course (phy100) covers 13 laboratories selected from general physics contents. Such as, basic
skills in measurement, laws of motions, forces, rotation, oscillations, fluid mechanics, series and
parallel connection of resistors, Ohms law, wave, optics, heat & thermodynamics.

The main aim of this module is to guide students with a clear and logical explanation of
objectives, apparatus, theories and procedures for each of thirteen experiments available in the
course.

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Course Objectives

After completing this course a student will be able to:

 Develop skills of reading basic measuring instruments like meters.

 Present data and results in clear graphic and tabular form.
 Verify laws of motion
 Verify the Archimedes principle to determine the density of fluid.
 Perform experiments on different pendulum
 Develop a skill of using electrical measuring instruments.
 Identify different electrical measuring scales
 Analyze image formation by mirrors and lenses

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 Table of Contents

Preparation for experimental activities………………………………………………………...4

1. How to write the formal Lab report………………………………………………….……4

1.1 Abstract …………………………………………………………………………………….…4
1.2 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………5
1.3 Procedure………………………………………………………………………………...……6
1.4 Results…………………………………………………………………………………………7
1.5 Discussion & conclusion………………………………………………………………………8
2 Data Analysis and Experimental Uncertainty………………………………………………..10
2.1 Types of Uncertainty…………………………………………………………………………10
2.1.1 Systematic uncertainty…………………………………………………………….……..10
2.1.2 Random uncertainty……………………………………………………………….…….11
2.2 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Standard Deviation of the Mean…………………..….12
2.3 Stating Results with Uncertainty………………………………………………………..…..15
2.4 Comparing Quantities with Uncertainty………………………………………………..……16
2.5 Significant Digits ……………………………………………………………………...……17
3. Experiment 1: Basic measurement……………………………………………………….19
4. Experiment 2: Hook’s law……………………………………………………………….30
5. Experiment 3: Conservation of linear Momentum in one dimension …………………...33
6. Experiment 4: Period of simple pendulum…………………………………………….37
7. Experiment 5: Coefficient of static friction …………………………………………..…42
8. Experiment 6: Archimedes' Principle………………………………………………..….48
9. Experiment 7: Charging methods.....................................................................................54
10. Experiment 8: Ohm’s low……………………………………………………………….57
11. Experiment 9: Resistors in series and parallel connection................................................61
12. Experiment 10: Electromotive force and internal resistance of a dry cell........................66
13. Experiment 11: Faraday’s law …………………………………………………………..71
14. Experiment 12: Low of reflection of light wave…………………………………………75
15. Experiment 13: Thermal expansion of solids and liquids………………………………77
16. Appendices……………………………………………………………………………….81
17. References………………………………………………………………………………..84

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Preparation for experimental activities

1. How to Write a Formal Lab Report

A formal lab report is essentially a scaled-down version of a scientific paper, reporting on the
results of an experiment that you and your lab partner(s) have carried out. As such, the key
sections of the report are directly analogous to the sections of a formal scientific paper. In the
order in which they appear, these are:

1.1Abstract
The abstract is a single short paragraph stating the important results of your experiment,
including the numerical values, with appropriate units and uncertainties, and the most important
conclusions drawn from the experiment.

The Abstract of a typical report should be no more than three or four sentences, and should be
self-contained. The Abstract should not contain equations or references to figures that appear in
the main body of the report. The main text of the report should not assume that the reader has
read the Abstract first—stating the key results in the Abstract does not absolve you of the
responsibility to describe them in the Results and Conclusion. The Abstract should not include
details of the procedure beyond those that are absolutely necessary for understanding the results.
It is generally sufficient to name the method used to obtain a measurement, without going into
any detail about the measurement technique: “We measured the speed of a ball leaving a spring-
loaded projectile launcher by measuring the horizontal distance traveled after launching it from
the top of a lab table,” rather than “We measured the speed of a ball leaving a projectile launcher
by clamping the launcher to the top of a 1.00 m high table, and launching the projectile
horizontally into the room. We measured how far from the table the ball hit, and used that
number with the height of the table and the acceleration due to gravity g=9.8m/s2 to determine
how fast the ball was moving when it left the launcher.”

The Abstract should boil the whole report down to a single, short paragraph. As a result, the
Abstract should generally be the last thing written, even though it will be the first section the
reader sees.

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1.2 Introduction
The Introduction gives the important background for understanding the experiment, including
both the motivation for making the measurement and a complete description of the theory
underlying the measurement, with all the relevant equations.

The Introduction of a lab report should contain all of the background information a reader would
need to understand the measurements described in the Procedure and Results sections. This
includes both the motivation of the experiment (What did you measure, and why should the
reader care?) and the theory behind the measurements, including all of the equations that will be
used in the report, and how those equations are obtained from basic principles of physics.

When discussing the motivation of the experiment, focus on the important applications of the
ideas to interesting real-world situations. Do not talk about the pedagogical purpose of the lab
(i.e., do not write sentences of the form “The purpose of this lab was to help us learn about
conservation of energy.”). The idea of the motivation section is to give a reader who isn’t in your
class a reason to read the whole report and care about the measurements you made.

The Introduction should include a complete description of the theory underlying the experiment,
including all of the important equations. Any equation that you plug numbers into in the Results
section should be presented first in the Introduction, and given a number for future reference. If
you need to refer back to an equation later, you should use the number: “We combine Equation 2
and Equation 7 to get an expression for the moment of inertia in terms of the measured velocity
of the hanging mass.”
Equations should be set off on a separate line, and indented with respect to the rest of the text, as
with the following presentation of Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

…………………………………………….1

Any symbol that appears in the equations should be identified the first time it appears (e.g.
“F=ma, where F is the applied force, m is the mass, and a is the acceleration”). If the same
symbol is used again in a later equation, it is not necessary to define it again.

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When deriving the important equations in the Introduction, equations should be interspersed with
text explaining what the various equations mean, and what operations are done to get from one
equation to the next. Large blocks of equations one after another are not a sufficient explanation
of the process by which important results are derived.

1.3 Procedure
The Procedure section gives a complete description of the important measurements you made,
and how you made them. It is a description of what you did, and is not to be written in the style
of instructions to someone else.

The Procedure should include a detailed explanation of the steps that you followed to make the
measurements presented in the Results section. When writing the Procedure section you should
make sure that there is a clear explanation of how you determined every number that you present
in the Results.

The Procedure is a description of what you did in making the measurement, and should not be
written in the form of instructions to another person or lab group (i.e, you should write “We
measured the height with a meter stick,” not “Measure the height using a meter stick.”). The
description should be detailed enough for the reader to reproduce your results, without reference
to the lab handouts or other documentation.

The Procedure must include a description of the apparatus used, which will almost always
include a diagram of the lab set-up. This diagram should be clearly labeled, and include a
descriptive caption explaining the important features of the apparatus. The diagram should be
assigned a number as a figure, and referred to using that number (“The apparatus consisted of a
spring-loaded projectile launcher bolted to the table, as shown in Figure 2”). The text should
include enough description of the apparatus for the reader to understand what is going on, even if
the figure were absent.

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When writing the procedure, make sure that there is a clear and logical flow from one idea to the
next, to make it as easy as possible for the reader to follow. Keep in mind that the clearest
explanation of your measurements will not necessarily be a chronological list of the steps that
you followed in exactly the order in which you did them.

The Procedure is a description of what you actually did in making the measurement. Your lab
instructor may make changes to the procedure described in the lab handout, telling you to skip
certain steps, or adding additional measurement steps. When this happens, your report must
reflect the actual procedure that you followed in making your measurements, not what is written
in the handout. Make sure you have careful notes reflecting what you did in the lab.

1.4 Results
The Results section presents the important experimental findings, including figures and tables
containing the data you collected in the course of the experiment, a description of any
calculations made from the data collected, and text explaining the significance of the results.
The Results section is not merely a collection of data tables and figures, but must include prose
paragraphs as well.

Each of the major conclusions that you draw from your data must be supported by at least one
feature of your data. When writing the Results section, you should make sure you know which
parts of the data support each of your conclusions, and make sure that you clearly explain those
features to your reader.
The data that you present in the report will usually include one or more tables and figures. Each
figure or table should be numbered in the order in which they appear in the report (starting at the
beginning, so Figure 1 will typically be in the Introduction or Procedure), and referred to by
number in the text. Figures and tables are numbered separately, but no distinction is made
between types of figures (so a schematic drawing of the apparatus may be Figure 1, and a graph
of several data points may be Figure 2).

Each figure or table should be accompanied by a descriptive caption explaining what is shown in
the figure or table. The caption should contain enough description for the reader to understand

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what is being displayed without reference to the text of the report. Graphs of data must include
clearly labeled axes, including the appropriate units. Tables of data must include clearly labeled
rows and columns, including the appropriate units and uncertainties.

While the figures and tables are the most important part of the results, the Results section is not
merely a collection of figures and tables with captions. The Results section should include text
highlighting and explaining the important features of the data, referring to figures and tables by
number .The text should include enough detail for the reader to understand what is going on in
the data, even if the figures and tables are absent. Do not string together one table or figure after
another with no sentences between them to guide the reader.

The Results section should also include an explanation of any calculations done using the data,
including uncertainty calculations. Calculations should not be presented as large blocks of
equations set off in a separate box, but should be presented as equations interspersed with text, as
in a typical textbook. Equations that are presented in the Introduction do not need to be repeated
here, but can be referred to by number.

1.5 Discussion and Conclusions

The Conclusion of the report explains the conclusions that you can draw from your
measurements—whether they agree with theoretical predictions, what they mean for applications
of the central physics principles, and what further experiments are suggested by your findings.

The whole point of whatever experiment you have performed is to draw some conclusions from
the data that you have collected. For a typical lab, there will be only one or two main conclusions
to be drawn from your results. It is important to have these conclusions in mind before you begin
writing the entire lab report should be building toward these conclusions.
There are a number of different types of conclusions you can draw from a typical lab experiment.
Examples include (but are not limited to):

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  Determination of a physical quantity (the speed of a projectile, or the mass of a particle,
for example)

 Agreement or disagreement with theoretical predictions either quantitative (a simple

model predicts a mass of 7kg, we measured 6 ±3kg) or qualitative (the measured force is
proportional to the stretch, consistent with Hooke’s Law)

 Comparison of different techniques (one method gave 6.0±0.2 m/s, the other 6.019±0.002
m/s, thus the second is more precise)

 Applications to real-life situations (the measurement technique effectively determined the

force needed to break wood, and could also be used to measure the force needed to snap
bones).

Not every experiment will involve all of these types of conclusions, but these are some of the
most common types of conclusions to be drawn from lab experiments.

When you are writing the Conclusion section of a report, you want to make sure you clearly state
all the major conclusions, with numerical values where appropriate. The Conclusion should also
include a discussion of the limits of the measurements and techniques used in the experiment:
What are the main sources of measurement uncertainty? What steps did you take to
minimize the uncertainty?
along with a statement of how the measurement could be improved or extended
What could you do to significantly reduce the uncertainty? What other interesting
systems could you apply this technique to?
The Conclusion section of the report should focus on the measurements you made, and what can
be learned from those measurements. Do not discuss the pedagogical purpose of the lab (i.e., do
not write sentences of the form “This experiment helped us gain a better understanding of the
concept of momentum.”). Also, please do not start the Conclusion section by declaring that the
experiment was a success.

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 2. Data Analysis and Experimental Uncertainty
2.1 Types of Uncertainty
There are two basic kinds of uncertainties, systematic and random uncertainties.
2.1.1 Systematic Uncertainty
There are basically two sources of systematic uncertainty:

I. Instrument calibration: For example, the zero-point has not been tuned correctly
before the measurement suppose it is at Δa, not at the zero point, at the
beginning. Then all the measured data points will shift by a constant Δa. As
another example, if the full range of a voltage meter is 0-1.9volts, but the meter
scale shows a full scale of 0-2volts, then the measured voltage value using this
meter will be systematically increased by a factor of 2/1.9.Therefore, checking the
instrument calibration including the zero-point tuning is important to avoid the
systematic errors.
II. Experiment method uncertainty: This kind of uncertainty often is due to the
experiments design being imperfect. The experimental conditions are not exactly
the same as the theoretic model assumes. When comparing the experimental data
with the theoretical expectations one must take into account the experimental
method errors. We sometimes call such error theoretical systematic error.

Systematic uncertainties are those due to faults in the measuring instrument or in the techniques
used in the experiment. Here are some examples of systematic uncertainty:
If you measure the length of a table with a steel tape which has a kink in it, you will
obtain a value which will appear to be too large by an amount equal to the loss in length
resulting from the kink. On the other hand, a calibration error in the steel tape itself an
incorrect spacing of the markings will produce a bias in one direction.
If you measure the period if a pendulum with a clock that runs too fast, the apparent
period will be systematically too long.
The stiffness of many springs depends on their temperature. If you measure the stiffness
of a spring many times, by compressing and decompressing it, the internal friction inside

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 the spring may cause it to warm. You may see this by a systematic trend in your data set;
for example, each data point in a data set will be smaller than the previous one.

2.1.2 Random uncertainty

Random uncertainties are associated with unpredictable variations in the experimental conditions
under which the experiment is being performed, or are due to a deficiency in defining the
quantity being measured. Here are some examples of random uncertainty:

Electrical noise from nearby circuits or equipment, thermal effects, or imperfect

connections may cause random fluctuations in the magnitude of a quantity measured by a
voltmeter.
The length of a table may depend on which two points along the edge of the table the
measurement is made. The \length" is imprecisely de_ned in such a case.
Repeated measurements of the period of a pendulum which are made with a stopwatch
vary because it is hard for a person to start and stop the watch at exactly the same point
in the pendulum's swing. Note, however, that if the experimenter always starts the watch
late, but stops it early, this will lead to a systematic error.

Of these two types of uncertainties, random uncertainties are much easier to deal with and to
quantify. There is no general procedure for estimating the magnitude of systematic uncertainties
as there is for random uncertainties. Only an experimenter whose skill has come through long
experience can consistently detect systematic uncertainties and prevent or correct them. If an
experiment has low systematic uncertainty it is said to be accurate. If an experiment has low
random uncertainty it is said to be precise. Obviously an experiment can be precise but
inaccurate or accurate but imprecise. When thinking about uncertainty, it is important to
remember these associations, so they are worth repeating:

Random uncertainty decreases the precision of an experiment.

Systematic uncertainty decreases the accuracy of an experiment.

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These distinctions are illustrated in Fig. 1. You should avoid falling into the trap of thinking that
because the uncertainty of a measurement is always the same, then it is systematic. Systematic
uncertainty does not mean that the uncertainty is repeatable. What it means is that the uncertainty
involves physics that has not been accounted for in the analysis two very different ideas.

Not precise Not precise Precise Precise

Not accurate Accurate Not accurate Accurate

Figure 1: A “bulls-eye" plot showing the distinction between precision and accuracy in a
measurement. The black dots represent data points taken in a measurement of a quantity whose
true value is at the center of the circles.

Before proceeding further it may be useful to point out that blunders are not a source of
uncertainty. They can always be eliminated completely by careful work. In your laboratory
reports never list misreading the instrument or getting the wrong units as a source of uncertainty!

2.2 The Mean, Standard Deviation, and Standard Deviation of the Mean
Random uncertainty is often associated with the concept of standard deviation. This is best
illustrated by an example. Suppose ten students each measure the diameter of a steel ball with a
micrometer caliper. For a variety of reasons we do not expect all the measurements to be
identical.
The sources of error include:
Some students tighten the micrometer caliper more than others.
The steel ball may not be perfectly round.
some students may not exercise care to be sure they are measuring a “great diameter “ -
the ball is not centered between the jaws.

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 the temperature of the steel ball may change with time as the ball is handled and hence its
diameter may change slightly through thermal contraction or expansion.
There may be varying amounts of corrosion on the steel ball.

Exercise 1: which of the above sources of error contribute to systematic uncertainty? Which
contribute to random uncertainty? Explain how you came up with your answers.
The obvious question to ask is, “What is the best value for the diameter of the steel ball?" If the
sources of error are random, that is, they give values for the diameter which vary randomly
above and below the “true" value, but do not skew all of the values in one particular direction,
then an obvious procedure to get the best value for the diameter is to take the average or
arithmetic mean. The mean of a set of numbers is defined as the sum of all the numbers divided
by the number of them. In mathematical language, if we have N observations and xi represents
any one of the observations (i.e. i can have any integer value from 1 to N), then the arithmetic
mean, which we designate by the symbol, , is given by

= .. . . .. . . .. 1

Having obtained a mean or \best" value, x, it is important to have a way of stating quantitatively
how much the individual measurements are scattered about the mean. For a precise experiment
we expect all measurements to be quite close to the mean value. The extent of scatter about the
mean value gives us a measure of the precision of the experiment, and thus, a way to quantify the
random uncertainty.

A widely accepted quantitative measure of scatter is the sample standard deviation, s. For the
special case where all data points have equal weight, the sample standard deviation is defined by
the equation,

……………………….2

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Although this equation may not be intuitive, inspection of it reveals that s becomes larger if there
is more scatter of the data about the mean. This is because for any particular i will on
the average increase with greater scatter of the data about the mean so that
increases. Note that s has the same units as or since the square root of the
sum of squares of differences between and is taken.

The standard deviation s defined by Eq. (2) provides the random uncertainty estimate for any one
of the measurements used to compute s. Intuitively we expect the mean value of the
measurements to have less random uncertainty than any one of the individual measurements. It
can be shown that the standard deviation of the mean value of a set of measurements ,when all
measurements have equal statistical weight, is given by

.. . .. . . . .. . . . .. .. . .3

Note that is necessarily smaller than s. When we speak of the uncertainty of a set of
measurements made under identical conditions, we mean that number and not s. It is most
important that the student distinguish properly between standard deviation associated with
individual data points, s, and standard deviation of the mean of a set of data points .

Exercise 2: Five students measure the mass of an object by making two separate measurements
each. These measurements, in grams: 9.80, 9.87, 9.89, 9.95, 9.91, 9.98, 9.92, 10.05, 9.97, 9.84.

1. Calculate the mean, the standard deviation, and standard deviation of the mean, using
your calculator and the above formulas. Show how you made the calculations.
2. Do the same calculations as in part 1 but using the statistical package on your calculator.
Refer to your calculator's manual for instructions. If you have lost your manual, you may
be able to find the instructions at the manufacturer's website; for example, Texas
Instruments has copies of their manuals at http://www.ti.com/. Usually, in lab you will
use your calculator to find means and standard deviations rather than doing the
calculations by hand, so it is important to know how this is done. Write the results down,
along with a brief description of how you performed them.

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2.3 Stating Results with Uncertainty
There are two common ways to state the uncertainty of a result: in terms of a , like the standard
deviation of the mean m, or in terms of a percent or fractional uncertainty, for which we reserve
the symbol . The relationship between and is as follows. Let the quantity of interest be x,
then, by definition,

x=

When stating a result and its uncertainty in a report, one typically uses the form x , with the
units placed last. For example, if the mass of an object is found to be 9.2 g and the uncertainty in
the mass is 0.3 g, one would write
m = 9:2 ± 0:3 g :
When using scientific notation, the factor of ten multiplier should come after the signi_cant
digits and uncertainty. Write
m = (9:3 ± 0:3) x 10-3 kg ;
not
m = 9:3 X 10-3 ±0:3 x 10-3kg ; (WRONG!)
and certainly not
m = 9:3 X 10-3 Kg±0:3 x 10-4kg ; (WRONG!)

Sometimes one will present uncertainty in terms of , but in this case, is usually multiplied by
100, so that one would say, “The mass of the object is 9.2 grams with an uncertainty of 3
percent."
Unless otherwise instructed, you should state all of your measurements following the first form,
using . There is one important distinction between and when stating results: x always has
the same units as x, while is always unit less. Failure to be conscious of this difference
typically costs students many points.

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 2.4 Comparing Quantities with Uncertainty
Frequently one wants to know whether two numbers obtained by two different methods but
hypothetically referring to the same physical quantity agree. The term “agreement "means
something very specific in an experiment. If uncertainties for one or both numbers (expressed by
an associated ) have been calculated, one can say that the two numbers agree with each other if
they overlap within their uncertainties. For example, if a theory predicts that the density of an
object should be 10.0 ± 0.1 g/cm3, and a measurement gives a value of 9.8 ±0.3 g/cm3, then we
can say the two values agree within the experimental uncertainty. But if the measurement gave
instead 9.81±0.02 g/cm3, then we would be forced to admit that the two values did not agree.

In the case of disagreement, the experimenter faces a problem: what effects have not been
accounted for? There could be a source of additional random error that has not been appreciated,
or more vexing, there may be a source of systematic error that is fouling the accuracy of the
measurement. Generally, sources of random error are easier to track down and rectify; but in so
doing, one may uncover other sources of systematic error that were previously invisible!

You will often be asked to determine what the dominant source of error is in a particular
experiment. In general, this is a subtle problem as there is no general method for determining
systematic error. However, one important clue can be used when comparing measurements with
each other, or with theory: if the measured quantity including the uncertainty calculated from
random sources of error does not overlap with another expected value (either from another
experiment or theory) then you can assume that the systematic error in the experiment dominates
the experimental error. This is especially true when comparing against theoretically calculated
values, as the theory almost always assumes some simplifications in order to make the
calculation reasonable (for example, neglecting the weight of a string or assuming that friction is
zero). To reiterate: systematic error comes into an experiment when the experimenter neglects
some important physics in the analysis.

In quick measurements, we may not always calculate uncertainties for the quantities we measure.
In these cases, the best we can state is that two values disagree by some amount. This
disagreement is usually presented as a percent of the value of the quantity. For example, if we

16
did not have uncertainties calculated for the above two density values, we could say that they
disagree by

The general rules for comparing results in lab reports are these:

If uncertainties exist, state the quantities with their uncertainty, and see if they overlap. If
they do, they agree. If not, they don't, and you should try to explain why, that is, discuss
the physics of the experiment and try to come up with some sources of systematic error.
If uncertainties do not exist, calculate a percent disagreement. If the percent
disagreement is less than a few percent, the results are probably in agreement. If the
disagreement is more than ten percent, they are probably not in agreement, and you
should try to explain why.

Exercise 3: The manufacturer of the mass that was measured by the students in Exercise 2
claims that the mass is 10 g, within 0.4%. Is this a valid claim? Discuss whether your result
agrees with the manufacturer's claim, following the guidelines above.

2.5 Significant Digits

Most students learn the idea of significant digits in high school, at about the same time that they
learn “scientific notation". But the results of uncertainty analysis complicate matters: What if the
uncertainty is very large? What are the significant digits for it self? What is the uncertainty of
a result that is measured repeatedly with a digital instrument (like a voltmeter), and the same
number is recorded every time? These questions cause much confusion.
Here are some guidelines:
The uncertainty in the final result should have, at most, 2 digits, and more commonly 1
digit. Remember, all uncertainty calculations are estimates; there is no such thing as an
“exact uncertainty". Use this rule: if the first digit of is 1, use 2 digits for sigma, e.g.,
x= 0:14 g, or x = 0:3 g, but not x = 0:34 g. The result itself should be stated to the

17
same precision as x. For example, you should write 9:5 ± 0:3 g, or 9:52 ±0:14 g, but not
9:52 ± 0:3 g.
If is especially large, you will lose significant digits. For example, suppose that
multiple measurements are made with an instrument that is precise to 3 digits, and mean
value of 9.52 g is found, but for other reasons the data points varied so that the standard
deviation of the mean was 2 g. The result would have to be reported as 9 ±2 g. If the
measurement is so bad that is larger than the value itself, you may have no significant
digits, but only know the order of magnitude. This case is most common when the
quantity in question is expected to be close to zero. such measurements may only give an
upper or lower bound on the quantity.
If is calculated to be much smaller than the smallest digit of your measurement, then
assume that is equal to “1" of the smallest digit. For example, if a measurement of a
mass gives exactly 9.52 g ten times, the result should be stated as m = 9:52 ± 0:01 g.
Thus you may need to round your uncertainty up to the least significant digit in your
measurement.
Do not confuse round off errors with uncertainty. With calculators and computers, there
is no reason to prematurely truncate a result, just because it is found to be uncertain. If
properly used, the formulas for propagating uncertainty will take care of the uncertainty
in the final result. So keep your extra digits as you go (at most one or two extra, if
calculating by hand), but make sure to adjust the final result when you present your
measurements for comparison.

18
Experiment 1
Basic measurement

Objective:
After the end of this experiment, students will be able to:

To learn proper measuring techniques. To see and understand the uncertainty inherent in
all physical measurements.
To become familiar with the use of significant figures and simple uncertainty
calculations.
To practice the measurement of length as accurate as possible, using various measuring
equipment.
To practice to measure of mass as accurate as possible using various measuring
equipment.
To practice how to calculate derived quantities ( in the case of volume and density) using
basic measurements.

Apparatus:
Meter stick, vernier caliper, micrometer, triple beam balance, lever arm balance, electronic
balance, blocks, cylinders, spheres.

Theory:
All physical quantities have dimensions. For example, the dimension of force is Newton and the
dimension of power is Watt (Joule/second). All of these dimensions can be written in terms of
the three basic dimensions: Kg (for mass), meter (for length) and second (for time).

If we do experiment it is essential we try to measure the accurate as possible and that we report
our data within the accuracy of the measurement (that is: report in the appropriate number of
significant figures). In this experiment we will practice the measurement of length and mass of

19
varies objects using different measuring equipment. Furthermore, we will practice calculating the
density of these objects, using the measurements of length and mass.

Part I: Measuring dimension and volume

Meter Stick:
All physical measurements are of limited precision. The instrument, the technique, and the
quantity being measured all contribute to the uncertainty of a measurement. The meter stick, for
example, has a least count of 1 mm. Then the uncertainty due to scale limitations is 1/2 mm. For
an experimenter with a sharp eye, further discernment to the nearest 1/2 mm might be possible,
reducing the uncertainty to 1/4 mm. Precision beyond this is, however, not very reliable with the
common meter stick because of the coarseness of the black lines that mark off the millimeters.
Another example is the Vernier caliper--an instrument designed to measure lengths more
accurately than the meter stick. Its use is explained below. The least count of a standard Vernier
caliper is 1/10 mm which leads to an uncertainty of 1/20 mm. But a more precise Vernier caliper,
such as is used in this lab, can have a least count of 1/50 mm. An even more precise instrument is
the micrometer caliper (also explained below). It has a least count of 1/100 mm. An experienced
user might be able to discern tenths of the least count.

The proper use of the meter stick might seem to need little explanation--one simply holds it
against the object being measured and computes the difference between the readings at the
extremes of the object. Yet, even during such a simple operation, a couple of errors are
commonly made. Both involve the manner in which the meter stick is held.

The parallax (line-of-sight) error can occur when the actual measuring scale is not up against the
object being measured. When such is the case, the reading will depend upon the line-of-sight of
the experimenter. (See Figure 1.1) The resulting reading will be of questionable value. This error
is considered a blunder and should be avoided.

20
 Figure 1.1: The parallax plunder

By holding the measuring scale directly against the object, a good reading can be taken
irrespective of the line of sight of the experimenter. (See Figure 2)

Figure 1.2: Better positioning of a meter stick

Vernier Caliper
A typical Vernier caliper is pictured in Figure 4. It consists primarily of two parts: the main
frame and the movable frame. Often the frame will include both English and metric scales and
the number of lines on the Vernier can be more than the number shown here.

21
The outside caliper jaws are used to measure the outside dimensions of an object while the inside
caliper jaws are used to measure inside dimensions (such as the inner diameter of a tube). The
depth gauge can measure the depth of holes.

Figure 1.3: verner caliper

To read the Vernier caliper, one first looks to see where, on the main scale, the zero line of the
movable scale (the "index line") lies. In general it will not line up exactly with any line on the
main scale but will exceed some line by some fraction of the least count. (See Figure 5.) The
purpose of the movable or "Vernier" scale is to indicate that fraction to the nearest tenth. One
counts the lines of the Vernier scale from the left (starting with zero) until one comes to a line
that is best aligned with a main-scale line. The number of that Vernier line indicates the number
of tenths by which the reading exceeds the number just to the left of the index line.

Example 1.1:

Figure 1.4: basic verner scales

22
The index line indicates 26 mm + some fraction. Since the 7th line of the Vernier scale is aligned
with a main-scale line, that fraction is .7 mm and the reading is 26.7 mm. Since the alignment of
the seventh line was clear, we assign an uncertainty of one-half the least count, namely .05 mm.
The measurement value is then 26.7 ± .05 mm.

Example 1.2:

Figure1.5: basic verner scales

The index line indicates 60. + a fraction. Since the 4th line of the Vernier scale is aligned, the
fraction is .4 mm. Thus the reading is 60.4 mm. If the alignment was clear, we assign an
uncertainty of one-half the least count, namely .05 mm. Then the recorded value should be 60.4
± .05 mm.
Micrometer Caliper:
A typical micrometer caliper is shown in Figure

Figure 1.6: The micrometer caliper.

23
The movable jaw advances or recedes when the thimble is rotated due to screw threads inside the
sleeve. (Important: when closing the jaws, do not turn the thimble directly but rather turn the slip
knob. This will prevent damage to the instrument and guarantee a consistent exertion of pressure
on the jaws.) Because one revolution of the screw advances the jaw exactly .5 mm, the fifty
equally spaced markings around the circumference of the thimble each correspond to 1/50th of .5
mm or .01 mm. Furthermore, as the thimble turns it reveals more of the sleeve scale. Between
these two scales, very accurate readings are possible. An experimenter with a sharp eye can even
make estimates of readings that lie between lines on the thimble scale.

Example 1.3:

Figure 1.7:

From the location of the thimble edge on the sleeve scale, one reads 7.5 mm + a fraction. From
the location of the index line (the horizontal line on the sleeve) on the thimble scale one reads 30
hundredth. Thus: reading = 7.80 mm. Actually, because the index line was so well lined up with
the 30, one might dare to say the reading is 7.800 ± .0005 mm.
Example 1.4:

Figure 1.8:

24
From the sleeve scale, the reading is 23 mm + fraction. From the thimble scale, the fraction is .23
plus some little bit. Estimating that little bit to be 8/10 of the distance between "23" and "24" on
the thimble scale, one gets a thimble reading of .238. Then the total reading is 23.238 mm. Since
the last digit, the “8”, was an estimate, its uncertainty might ±2. Then the reading should be
recorded as 23.238 ± .002 mm.

Volume measurement for blocks, cylinders & spheres

……………………………….1.1
………………………………………………………………………………..…..1.2

……………………………………………………………………………………1.3

Part II: Measuring the mass and calculating density

Triple beam balance, lever arm balance and electronic balance are instruments which help
measures the mass of small objects.

Figure 1.9 a) Lever arm balance b, triple beam balance

25
C. Electronic balance

Note that: Electronic balance is more accuracy than the others.

Density is defined as the mass, M, divided by volume, V

………………………………. 1.4

Express your densities in units of g/cm3

For your information, the textbook values of a few densities are:

substance Density in g/cm2

aluminum 2.7±0.1
steel 7.9±0.5
brass 8.4±0.5
copper 8.93±0.1
gold 19.28±0.5

26
Procedure

1. Measuring dimension and volume

1. Make sure you know how equipments for measuring the length (meter stick,
micrometer and verner caliper) work. Check the zero setting for verner caliper
and micrometer
2. Measure the length, the width and the height of the rectangular block using the
meter stick, verner caliper and micrometer and record data in column 1,2 &3.

Tables of Data

Meter stick Vernier calliper micrometer

Length L (m)
Width W (m)
Height h (m)
Volume (m)
Table 1.1: dimensions of rectangular block as measured by meter stick, verner caliper and
micrometer

Meter stick Vernier calliper micrometer

Length L (m)
Width W (m)
Height h (m)
Volume (m)
Table 1.2: dimensions of cylinder measured by meter stick, verner caliper and micrometer

Meter stick Vernier calliper micrometer

Length L (m)
Width W (m)
Height h (m)
Volume (m)
Table 1.3: dimension of sphere as measured by meter stick, verner caliper and micrometer

27
2. Measuring mass and calculating density

1. Make sure you know how the equipment measuring mass (lever arm balance, triple
beam balance and electronic balance) works check the zero setting for all three
apparatus.
2. Measure mass of the rectangular block, the cylinder and the sphere each by lever arm
balance, triple beam balance and electronic balance and record the data in table 4.
3. Calculate the density of rectangular block, the cylinder and the sphere by using
equation 1 and record the data in table 5.

Tables of data

Lever arm balance Triple beam balance Electronic balance

Mass of rectangular
block(Kg)
Mass of cylinder(Kg)
Sphere(Kg)
Table 1.4: mass of rectangular block, the cylinder and sphere measured by lever arm balance,
triple beam balance and electronic balance.

Density in Meter Meter Vernier Vernier Vernier Vernier Micro Micro Micro
stick stk+Tr caliper+ caliper+L caliper+T caliper+E meter meter+ meter+
3
Kg/m +Leve iple Electron ever arm riple lectric + Triple Electron
r arm beam ic beam balance Lever beam ic
balance arm balance
Rectangul
ar block
cylinder
sphere
Table 1.5: density of rectangular block, the cylinder and sphere using different calibration of
measurement

28
Discussion

1. Which combination of apparatus gives the least accurate density and how many
significant figure we have?
2. Which combination of apparatus gives the most accurate density and how many
significant figure we have?
3. In which measurement of the dimension are we most likely to make reading errors?
4. Are there any inconsistency in the measurements with the different apparatuses?(if yes,
how do you account for the inconsistencies?)
5. What other ways of measuring the volume of an object are available?
6. What other ways of measuring the density of substances?
7. Determine the mean, media and standard deviation from the mean value of density of the
sphere, cube and rectangular block.

29
Experiment 2
Hook’s law

Objective:
After the end of this experiment, students will be able to:

To determine the spring constant of the spring

To analyze the relationship between the applied force on the spring and the stretching of
the spring
To practice the experiment

Apparatus

Stand, meter stick, 2 different springs, 5 different masses, clamp

Theory
Hooks low is stated as the stretching of the spring is directly proportional to the applied force on
it.

Figure 2.1: the stretching of the spring

30
If the deformation ∆L is not to large then hooks law gives the relation between the deformation
and the force:

F= K∆L……………………………….2.1

Where K is the spring constant( in N/m).

Procedure

For spring number 1

1. Arrange the equipment as shown in the figure

2. Measure the initial length of the spring
3. Attach a mass of 10gm to the spring and measure the length of the spring and write the
result in the table
4. Repeat step 4 for masses 20gm, 30gm, 40gm and 50gm
5. Calculate the gravitational force of each masses using F=mg and record it in the table
6. Calculate ∆L=L-L0 for every masses and record it in the table

Use all the above stapes for spring 2

Discussion

For spring 1

1. Calculate the spring constant K for every experiment and report in table 1
2. Calculate the average, mean& standard deviation of the spring constant.
3. Estimate the source of errors
4. Draw the graph of the force versus ∆L
5. Determine the spring constant from the slope of the graph

Use all the above stapes for spring 2

31
L0 Mass (Kg) Force (N) L ∆L=L-L0 Spring constant
(in m) ( in m) (in m) K (N/m)

Table 2.1: for spring 1

L0 Mass (Kg) Force (N) L ∆L=L-L0 Spring constant

(in m) ( in m) (in m) K (N/m)

Table 1: for spring 2

Questions and discussions

1. In which spring does the spring constant is more?

2. Determine the mean, media and standard deviation from the mean value of the spring
constant for each springs
3. What would be the spring constant when the two springs are connected
a. In series
b. In parallel
4. Estimate the source of errors and analyze it.

32
Experiment 3

Conservation of linear Momentum in one dimension

Objective

After the end of this experiment students will:

verify the law of conservation of momentum

verify the law of conservation of momentum
to check the collision is elastic or not

Apparatus

Two different small spherical balls, three carbon papers, meter stick, inclined plane.

Theory

Consider two particles that can interact each other but are isolated from the surrounding as
shown in the figure bellow.

Let F12 = the force on particle 1 due to particle 2

F21 = the force on particle 2 due to particle 1

Applying Newton’s 2nd law

………………3.1

+ ……….3.2

+ =constant……………………..3.3

…………3.4

33
 Figure 3.1:
The statement: the total momentum of the system remains constant is referred to as the law of
conservation of momentum.

Procedure

1. Measure the masses of the two balls and the height h and record
M1 =
M2 =
h=

2. Determination of V10

Remove m2. Let m1 roll down the accelerating ramp and fall to the floor as seen in the figure
below Note where it hits. Determine the velocity V10 of m1 by the time it leaves lowest point on
the ramp. If m1 falls through a vertical height of h, it is then in the air for a time t given by

…………………………………………..3.5

The horizontal distance x traveled by m1 during this time is given by

………………………………………. 3.6

34
 (a) Measure x using the meter stick and determine V10 from equation 3.6.

Figure; momentum conservation set up

(b) Repeat the above procedure three times and fill the table 3.1.

First second Third average

reading reading reading
x
V10
Table 3.1

3. Determination of V1f and V2f: The velocities V1f and V2f are the speeds which m1 and
m2 acquire immediately after collision at the lower edge of the ramp.

(a) Now let m1 roll down the accelerating ramp and strikes m2, which is at rest at the end of
the accelerating ramp with head of collision. X1 and x2 are the horizontal distances
traveled by m1 and m2 respectively. Both balls spend the same time t to fall to the floor.
Thus
X1 = V1f t and X2= V2ft. Fill in the table 3.2

35
 First second Third average
reading reading reading
X1
X2

V1f=

V2f=

Table 3.2:
(b) Calculate the momentum before and after the collisions and fill the table below

Momentum before collision Momentum after collision

M1V1i M1V1f+m2V2f

Table 3.3:

Result and Discussion

1. Do the results in the last two tables show the validity of the law of conservation of
momentum or not? How? Can you list possible sources of error?
2. Compare the total kinetic energy before and after collision. Is it conserved?
3. Is momentum conserved when the balls strike the ground and rebound? Explain why or
why not?
4. Suppose you are stranded on a frozen frictionless lake with a bag of gold coins. Is there
anything you can do to reach shore? Explain on the basis of conservation of momentum
5. Organize the Concept momentum conservation using hierarchical drawings

36
Experiment 4

Period of simple pendulum

Objective
After the end of this experiment student will be able to:

Determine the period of simple pendulum

Determine the gravitational acceleration of the place
Identify the factors affecting simple pendulum
Practice how to manipulate it.

Apparatus
The apparatus for this experiment consists of a support stand with a string clamp, two different
small spherical balls, light string, a meter stick, and a stop watch.

THEORY
A simple pendulum consists of a relatively small mass at the end of a string suspended from a
support so that it can oscillate back and forth (Fig. 1.1). The time required for the mass to make
one complete round trip of its motion is called period.

The simple pendulum is a favorite introductory exercise because Galileo's experiments on pendulums
in the early 1600s are usually regarded as the beginning of experimental physics. Our experiment
may be similar to one you have done in high school, however, the mathematical analysis will be
more sophisticated. You will need to familiarize yourself (again) with radian measure and
trigonometric functions, take derivatives of trigonometric function and apply the error analysis being
presented in lecture. In part I you will find the acceleration of gravity and analyze the error in your
measurements.

A simple pendulum consists of a mass m hanging at the end of a string of length L. where g is the
acceleration of gravity. This expression for T becomes exact in the limit of zero amplitude motion

37
and is less and less accurate as the amplitude of the motion becomes larger. From this expression, we
can use measurements of T and L to compute g.

In a simple pendulum a mass m hanging on a string of length L. We can describe the

displacement from equilibrium of the mass m either with the distance along a curved x-axis or
with angle θ of the string from the vertical. The distance x is related to the angle θ by x = Lθ,
where θ is in radians.

Figure 4.1: simple pendulum

There are two forces on the mass m: the force of gravity, mg, and the tension in the string, Fstring.

The tension Fstring has no component along our curved x-axis, while gravity has a component

along the x-axis equal to −mg sin θ. The minus sign indicates that the direction (sign) of the
force is toward the origin, always opposite to the direction (sign) of x and θ.

If θ is very small and expressed in radians, then sin θ is about equal to θ , and we have,
approximately,

x …………………..4.1

And using

38
 F=ma, we have

=- …………………………..4.2

…………………………….4.3

This is a second-order linear differential equation − "second-order" meaning that the equation
involves a second derivative, and "linear" meaning that it contains no non-linear x-terms such as
2
x or sin(x). The solution to equation is:

X(t)= A sin( where ………………4.4

The constant A is the amplitude of the motion; the position x oscillates between -A and +A. The
constant φ is called the phase constant. A and φ depend on the initial conditions, that is, the
position and velocity at time t=0. The period T is related to ω by

…………………………..4.5

As a result the period of a pendulum or any oscillatory motion is the time required for one complete
cycle, that is, the time to go back and forth once. If the amplitude of motion of the swinging
pendulum is small, then the pendulum behaves approximately as a simple harmonic oscillator, and
the period T of the pendulum is given approximately by

……………………………………..4.6

And the gravity is ………………….4.7

39
Procedure

Part one: Keep the mass constant (100gram) and vary the length

1. Arrange the equipment as given in figure 4.1.

2. Before you start any experiment, first discuss how you will measure the period of the
pendulum.
3. Start measure the period T for a length of 100cm, mass=100gram. Repeat this experiment
at least three times and take the mean period and record in the table 4.1.
4. Repeat step 3 for length 80cm, 60cm, 40cm and 20cm with a mass of 100gm.

Length L in m Mean period T in s T2 Gravity constant g

Table 4.1: data of simple pendulum

Part two: Repeat all the above steps by using the mass (50gram) and vary the length 100cm,
80cm, 60cm, 40cm and 20cm.

Length L in m Mean period T in s T2 Gravity constant g

Table 4.2: data of simple pendulum

40
Result and discussion

1. What would be the mean period when you change the length of the spring by keeping the
mass is contestant?
2. What would be the mean period when you change the mass suspended by keeping the
length of string is contestant?
3. Determine the factors affecting the period of simple pendulum
4. Determine the mean, media and standard deviation of gravity from the mean value and
from 9.8m/s2 for the two cases.
5. Estimate the source of errors and analyze it.

41
Experiment 5

Static and Friction

Objective:

After the end of this experiment student will be able to:

The coefficient of static friction of the surface

Determine the factors affecting coefficient of friction
To analyze which surfaces have high coefficient of friction

Apparatus:

Wooden track, wooden block, pulley, string, meter stick, paper clip hanger and mass set

Theory:

We encounter friction at almost all times during the day. Friction between our foot and the floor
helps us walk. In spite of its importance, friction is still not well understood. However, empirical
laws describe the friction between two surfaces. These laws are as follows:

1. The ratio of the maximum frictional force and the normal force is a constant and equals
the coefficient of friction, m, and depends only on the nature of the two surfaces in
contact. I.e.: m ³ (Frictional Force) / (Normal Force).
2. The coefficient of friction is independent of the area of contact.
3. The coefficient of kinetic friction µk (the object is in motion) is lower than the
coefficient of static friction µs (the object is stationary.)

42
 Fig 5.1:

We will first use the configuration shown in Fig. 1 to determine the coefficient of static and
kinetic friction between a few surfaces. Here, the normal force N = Mg, obtained by balancing
forces in the vertical direction on the block. Recall that the pulley only changes the direction of
force but does not change its magnitude. Balancing forces in the horizontal direction, we obtain:
0 ……………………………………………5.1

and, fs= =mg……………………………………………….5.2

Therefore, …………………………………..5.3

And the friction of the same surface but in inclined plane is:

43
 Fig 5.2:

Next, we explore if there is a substantial change in m if the surface on which the block is sliding
is at an angle to the horizontal. In this case the normal force N is not equal to Mg, but rather to
Mg cosθ. Balancing forces along the inclined plane when the block is about to move up the
plane, we obtain:
………………5.4
Substituting for N we obtain

……………………….5.5

(Note: When the block is about to move downwards, the direction of the frictional force is in
opposite direction and therefore you will have to modify the formula appropriately.)

Note that: To be static friction, the system has to be at rest and to be kinetic friction, it must be
motion with constant velocity.

44
Procedure:
Static Friction on horizontal plane

1. Check that the wooden track is level using the angle indicator. Attach the pulley to one
end of the track.
2. Tie a string to the supplied wooden block and the hanger as shown in Fig. 5.1. Use the
wooden surface with the larger area first.
3. Add masses to the hanger until the block begins to slide. (Take care to gently place small
increments of masses just before the block begins to move.) At this point, the tension
which equals mg is exactly equal to µN, the maximum frictional force. Because you
know both masses M and the minimum mass m required to slide the block, you should be
able to determine the coefficient of static friction µs.
4. Place additional masses on the block to change the total mass M of the block, and
determine the corresponding mass m required to slide the block. Repeat your
measurements for at least four different values of M in increments of 100g. What can you
say about the maximum coefficient of frictional force? Does it change or remain
constant? Record the table in the table 1 and Plot a graph of frictional force versus normal
force. Can you fit a line through your data points? Determine the coefficient of static
friction.

For surface one

Frictional force in N Normal force in N

Table 5.1:

45
 5. Next, use the felt side of the block and determine the frictional force and the coefficient
of friction for at least four masses. How does your result compare for the two cases?

For surface two

Normal force in N Frictional force in N

Table 5.2:

Static Friction on inclined plane

6. Tilt the wooden track through approximately 300 (you may use the angle indicator to
approximately set this angle but, measure the height and length of an appropriate angle to
determine the angle more accurately.)
7. Add masses in small increments to the hanger so that the block stops sliding down.
Which direction is frictional force acting? Repeat your measurements for at least four
different values of M in increments of 100g. Determine the coefficient of friction using
equation 5.5.

For surface one

m in Kg M in Kg θ in degree

Table 5.3:

46
 8. Next, use the felt side of the block and determine the frictional force and the coefficient
of friction for at least four masses. How does your result compare for the two cases?
For surface two

m in Kg M in Kg θ in degree

Table 5.4:

Questions and discussion:

1. What can you say about the maximum coefficient of frictional force in the inclined
horizontal plane of the two surfaces one. Plot a graph of frictional force versus normal
force for both cases in surface one. Calculate the mean media and standard deviation the
coefficient of frictional force of for each surfaces.
2. Calculate the mean, media and standard deviation of the coefficient of static friction of
the inclined plane in the two surfaces.
3. Compare the values of coefficients of surface one in both planes.
4. Compare the values of coefficients of surface two in both planes.
5. In which direction does the frictional force act under your foot as you are walking
forward?
6. Can the coefficient of friction be greater than 1.0?
7. How does your measurement of static and coefficient of friction explain the superiority of
anti-lock brakes (as opposed to regular brakes?)

47
Experiment 6

Archimedes principle

Objective

After the end of these experiments, students will be to;

Familiarized with law of buoyancy and Archimedes principle

Measure the density of different objects and liquids
Determine whether or not an object will float or sink in a fluid if you know the density of
each.

Apparatus

Spring balance and roll of string, Overflow Can, 500-mL and 1000-mL Beaker, Large Ring
stand, Clamp, different metal objects , hydrometer ,metal cylinder , bottle of unknown liquid

Introduction

A solid object may float or sink when placed in a given fluid (i.e., in a gas or a liquid). If the
object floats, it is buoyed up by a force equal to its weight. According to the ancient Greek
philosopher Archimedes, the buoyant (upward) force exerted on an object that is either wholly or
partially submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the amount of fluid displaced by the
object. The object will sink when its weight exceeds the weight of the displaced fluid.

Because of Earth’s gravity, every fluid substance from the atmosphere to the oceans to a tank full
of gasoline has an internal pressure that increases with depth. And because fluids are
compressible, the greater pressure at a given depth squeezes the fluid into greater density at that
depth.

We live our lives at the bottom of the atmospheric ocean which exerts about 15 pounds of force
on every square inch of our bodies. We don’t notice this pressure, of course, because the fluids

48
inside our bodies exert a balancing outward pressure. This balance is not automatic. Our internal
pressure doesn’t adjust to external pressure changes, so we must surround our bodies with air at
normal atmospheric pressure if we ascend into the atmosphere or descend into the ocean.

Because of the vertical pressure gradient in fluids, the pressure on the lower surface of a
submerged object is always greater than that on the upper surface. This is the root cause of the
buoyant force.

Theory
The buoyant force is described by Archimedes’ principle as: an object, when placed in a fluid, is
buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The principle
applies to an object either entirely or partially submerged in the fluid. The magnitude of the
buoyant force depends only on the weight of the displaced fluid, and not on the object’s weight.
Using Archimedes’ principle, you can deduce that an object:
1. Will float in a fluid if the object’s density is less than the fluid’s density (ρo < ρf).
2. Will sink if the object’s density is greater than the fluid’s density (ρo > ρf).
3. Will remain in equilibrium at a given submerged depth if the object’s density is exactly
equal to the fluid’s density at that depth (ρo = ρf).

The buoyant force on a floating object Fb is related to the properties of the displaced fluid by:
……………………….6.1
where ρf is the density of the fluid,
Vo is the volume of the submerged part of the object, and
g is the acceleration due to gravity.

The volume of the submerged part of a cylinder oriented vertically is equal to its cross-sectional
area A multiplied by the height h of the submerged part, so the buoyant force on it is:
……………………….6.2
This is a linear relationship between Fb and h, so if you lower the cylinder into a fluid as you
measure its weight, then plot Fb vs. h, the slope of the plotted straight line will be , i.e. in
constant area and density of fluid, the buoyant force is more as the depth is more.

49
 I. density of an unknown solid object using Archimedes principle( ρo)
You can determine the density of an unknown solid object in a similar fashion. It’s easy to
measure the mass of an object, but unless it has a regular shape it’s not so easy to measure its
volume. But Archimedes showed us how to measure volume by measuring weight.
When the object is completely submerged in water, its weight (but not its mass) will decrease by
an amount equal to the upward buoyant force the water exerts on it. So:
………..……6.3
But …………………………………………………………...….6.4

As a result: …………………………………………6.5

……………………………….….6.6

……………………..…6.7

…………………………………………………………6.8

II. Density of an unknown fluid using Archimedes principle( ρf)

You can also determine the density of an unknown liquid without measuring the submerged
height of the solid object. With an object with density greater than that of the unknown liquid,
first weigh it in air, then when it is submerged in the liquid, and then when it is submerged in
water. By an analysis identical to that for the density of a solid object, you can show that:

……………………………………….6.9

50
 …………………………………….6.10

Procedure
You will use a lab balance to weigh a metal object in air and under water, to weigh a wooden object
in air and under water, and to weigh the metal object under water and under an unknown liquid.
From these measurements, you will calculate the density of the metal object, of the wooden object,
and of the unknown liquid. In Part D, you will use the computer force sensor to measure the weight
loss of a metal cylinder as you slowly submerge it in water. You will plot Fb vs. h and determine the
density of water.

Figure 6.1: Determination of volume of object

A. Density of Metal Object

1. Mount the lab balance on a ring stand about two 50cm high and place the
overflow can under the spring balance on a lab jack.
2. Weigh the metal object mo (in air) and record it in Data Table 6.1.
3. Place the catch beaker beneath the spout of the overflow can as shown in Figure
6.1, and fill the overflow can with water until it runs out the spout. Then empty
and replace the beaker.

51
 4. Hang the metal object by a short thread from the hook beneath the spring balance,
and then raise the lab jack until the object is completely sub-merged in the water.
Weigh the submerged object Wo (in water) and record its mass in Table 6.1.
5. Remove the sample from the hook under the balance and measure and record the
combined mass of the catch beaker and the overflow water
6. From Archimedes’ principle, calculate and record the weight of the displaced
water Wdw (weight of displaced water) and record the data in table 6.1.
7. Calculate and record the percent difference between the measured and calculated
weights of the displaced water.
8. Calculate and record the density ρm of the metal object. Use the accepted value of
the metal density (consult your textbook for this value) to calculate the percent
error.
9. Use the same procedure for other metal objects.

B. Density of Unknown Liquid

1. Hang the metal object mo from the balance hook.
2. Measure and record in Table 6.2 the object’s mass (mo(in liquid)) when
submerged in the unknown liquid, then when it is submerged in water (mo(in
water)).
3. Calculate and record the density ρf of the unknown liquid.
4. Pour the unknown liquid into a graduated cylinder and measure its density with
the hydrometer. Record it in Table 12.2.
5. Calculate and record the percent difference between the calculated and measured
densities of the liquid.

52
Table of Data
Wo(in air) Wo(in water) ∆W( by measuring ∆W Density of
weight of ((Wo(in metal
displaced water) water)-Wo(in object(ρo)
air))
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
average

Table 6.1: to determine the density of solid metal

Wo(in air) Wo(in water) Wo(in fluid) Density of

fluid(ρf)
Trial 1
Trial 2
Trial 3
average

Table 6.2: to determine the density of unknown fluid

53
Experiment 7

Types of electric charge

Objective

After the end of these experiments, students will be to;

To investigate charges and charging methods

Apparatus:

Pith balls, pieces of thread glass rod, pieces of silk and woolen closes, two stands.

Theory:

A number of simple experiment demonstrates the existence of electric forces and charges. For
example, after running a comb through your hair on a dry day, you will find that the comb
attracts bits of paper. The attractive force is often strong enough to suspend the paper. The same
effect occurs when certain materials are rubbed together, such as glass rod rubbed with silk or
rubbed with fur.

Another simple experiment is to rub an insulated balloon with wool. The balloon the adheres to
a wall, often for hours. When materials behaves in this way, they are said to be electrified, or to
have become electrically charged. Evidence of electric charge on your body can be detected by
tightly touching a friend.

In a series of simple experiments, it was found that there are two kinds of electric charges, which
were given the names positive and negative by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790). To verify that
there are two types of charges, suppose that a hard rubber rod that has been rubbed with fur is
suspended by a sewing thread, as shown in the figure 7.1 .When a glass rod has been rubbed
with silk is brought near the rubber rod, repel each other. When the rubbed glass rod brought
near to a rubbed rubber rod, they are attract each other. On the basis of these observations, we
concluded that charges of the same sign repel each other and charges of opposite charge attract
each other.

54
Using convention suggested by Franklin, the electric charge on the glass rod is called positive
and that on the rubber rod is called negative. There for, any charged object attracted to a charged
rubber rod ( or attracted by a glass rod) must have positive charge and any charged object
repelled by a charged rubber rod( or attracted by a glass rod ) must have a negative charge.

a. b.

Figure 7.1 a. A negative charged rubber rod suspended by a tread is attracted towards the a
positively charged glass rod. b. A negative charged rubber rod is repel by an other charged
rubber rod.

In the process of charging, extra charge can not be created ( the law conservation of charges).
The electrified state is due to a transfer of charges from one object to an other, one object loses
electron as a result it become positive in charge and the other gains equal amount of electrons as
a result positive in charge.

55
Procedure:

1. Tie a tread to each of a pith balls. Attach the end each thread to stand so that the pith balls
hand down close to each other (but not touching).
2. Touch both balls with charged glass rod . you can charge the glass rod by rubbing with
pieces of silk.
3. Repeat step 2 above using charged rubber rod. you can charge rubber rod by rubbing it
with fur or woolen close.
4. Now touch one of the pith balls with charged glass rod and the other by charged rubber
rod.
5. The phenomenon you observe in step 3 and 4 should be your data or observations

56
Experiment 8

Verification of Ohm’s law

Objective:-

After the end of these experiments, students will be to;

To measure electrical resistance of a certain resistor

Apparatus

Power supply, Dc-voltmeter, Dc- ammeter, Resistor, Rheostat

Theory:

The flow of electric charge through a piece of material considered as an electric current. The
amount of the flow depends on the material through which the charge are passing and the
potential difference across the material. Whenever there is a net flow of charge through some
region, an electric current is said to exist. To define current more precisely, suppose that charges
are moving perpendicular to the a surface of area A. as shown in figure 8.1 . This area should be
the cross-sectional area of the wire. The current is the rate at which charge flows through this
surface.

Figure 8.1 Charge in motion through an area A

57
The time rate at which charges flows through the area is defined as electric current. If ΔQ is the
amount of charge that passes through this area in a time interval Δt, the average current I av is
equal to the charge that passes through A per unit time

I av = ΔQ/ Δt ------------------- 8.1

The SI unit of current is the ampere(A)

1A=1C/1s ---------------------8.2

The charges passing the surface in figure 8.1 can be positive or negative or both. It is
conventionally to assign to the current the same direction as the flow of positive charge. In
ordinary conductors, such as copper and aluminum, the current is due to the motion of negatively
charged electrons. However, if we are considering a beam of positively charged proton in
accelerator, the current is in the direction of the protons. In some cases, such as those involving
gases and electrolytes, for instance the current is the result of the flow of both positive and
negative charges. If the ends of the conducting wire to form a loop, all points on the loop are at
the same electric potential, and hence the electric field is zero with in and at the surface of the
conductor. Because the electric field is zero, there is no net transport of charge through the wire,
and there fore there is no current. However, if the ends of the conducting wire is connected to a
battery, all points on the loop are not at the same potential. The battery sets up a potential
difference between the ends of the loop, creating an electric field with in the wire. The electric
field exerts force on the conduction electrons in the wires, causing them to move in the wire, thus
creating a current.

It is common to refer to a moving charge ( positive or negative) as a mobile charge carriers, for
example, the mobile charge carrier in a metal are electrons.

The potential difference (V) across a conductor is proportional to the current If lows the
conductor. One can then write

V=IR ------------------------ 8.3

Where the proportionality constant R is the resistance of a conductor. The relation in equation
8.3 is ohms law

58
 Procedure

1. Connect the resistor R with the ammeter, voltmeter, and the source as shown in figure 8.2
below. Connect the positive terminals of the ammeter and the voltmeter to the positive
terminals of the source and the negative to the negative.
2. Vary the applied voltage using the Rheostat and measure the corresponding current and
voltage across the conductor
3. Record the various measured valuesof the voltage and current in table.

ammeter
voltmeter

Rheostat
Source

Figure 8.1 set up measuring potential difference through voltmeter and current using ammeter

Data

Potential difference in volt

Current ampere

Table 8.1 used to fill measured values

59
Data analysis

1. Plot a graph of V versus I and from this determine the value of the resistance
2. Determine the average value of the resistance R from your data and compare value you
have obtained

60
Experiment: 9

Series and parallel connections of resistors

Apparatus:

power supply, DC-voltmeter, DC ammeter, Rheostat, connecting wires

Theory:

Here we shall consider a brief discussion of series and parallel connection.

A. series connection

When only a single current path between the point in which more than on resisters are found the
are connected in “series” for example for two resistor as indicated in figure 9.1

R1 R2

V
Figure 9.1: two resistors connected in series.

The current is the same through out the resistors or through the circuit. This can be assured by
placing the ammeter every where in the circuit. The potential difference or the voltage across the
individual resistance is add up to give the total voltage. This also checked by using volt meter
across the individual resistors and the combination.

Applying Ohms law the voltage drop across R1, will be

V1=IR1 --------------------------------- 9.1

61
 The voltage drop across resistance R2 will be

V2 = IR2 ----------------------------------- 9.2

The total voltage across the two resistors become

V =IR -------------------------------------- 9.3

Where I-the total current, R-the total resistance and V- total voltage

The total voltage is the sum of the voltage V1 and V2

V=V1 +V2 = IR1 +IR2 =I(R1 +R2)------------------------9.4

Comparing equation 9.3 and equation 9.4

Therefore, R= R1 +R2 --------------------------------------------------9.5

For resistors connected in series the total equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances. Equivalent resistance is the resistance of a single resistors that could
replace a combination of resistors in any given circuit and leave unaltered the potential
difference between the terminals of the combination and the current is remain the same.

62
 B. Parallel connection

For the case of two resistor connected in parallel as indicated by figure 9.2

I2 R2
R1
I1

Figure 9.2 two resistors connected in parallel

In parallel connection of resisters the total current is equal to the sum of the currents through the
individual resistors. For the figure 9.2 case

I=I1 +I2 ----------------------------- 9.6

The voltage is the same across each branch since conductors are equipotential.for this particular
case

V=V1 = V2 -------------------------------9.7

This can be checked with the aid of voltmeter by connecting across each resistor and across the
source. From equation 9.6

I=I1 + I2 and applying Ohms law the total resistor and across each resistors

I=V/R, I1 =V1/R1 , I2 = V2/R2

But for parallel connection of resistors,

V1=V2 =V

63
 Hence ,

I=I1 +I2 =V/R=V/R1+V/R2

V/R =V(1/R1 +1/R2) from which

1/R=1/R1 +1/R2 ---------------------------------9.8

For resistors connected in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance equal the sum of the
reciprocal resistance of the resistors. The total resistance in parallel connection is less than the
smaller resistance of the resistors that means connecting resistor in parallel decreases resistance.

Procedure

1. Connect the circuit as follow in figure 9.3

R1 R2

Figure 9.3 circuit for the verification of series connection of resistors.

2. Vary the applied voltage using the rheostat and measure the corresponding value
of current and voltage across the resistors.
3. Tabulate the different measured values of the voltage and current.
4. Connect the circuit as in figure 9.4

64
 Figure 9.4 circuit for parallel connection of resistors

5. Vary the applied voltage using the rheostat.

6. Tabulate the different values of the measured quantities
7. From your measurement apply Ohm’s law to find the equivalent resistance of the
resistors.
Data
For series connection
Voltage in volt
Current in ampere

For parallel connection

Voltage in volt
Current in ampere

65
Experiment 10

Electromotive force and internal resistance of a dry cell

Objective:

After the end of this experiment students will be able to:

determination of internal resistance of a dry cell

Apparatus:

Dry cell, Voltmeter, Ammeter, Rheostats

Theory:

In order to maintain an electric current, some agency is required to expend energy in moving the
charge around a circuit. With the exception a few metals near absolute zero temperature, the
super conductors, all conductors present some opposition to the flow of charges so that work
must be done to maintain a current. An agency capable of causing such a flow by converting
other forms of energy to electrical work is called a “ seat of electromotive force” or a “ source of
electric current”. A source of current does not manufacture charge but merely moves the charge
through a circuit. In most circuits this agency is concentrated in one or a few part of a circuit.
The source must create an electric field in all parts of the circuit to cause the charge move against
the various opposing effects they may encounter. The electromotive force or emf of a source is
the energy per unit charge transferred in a reversible process. Electromotive force makes charge
move from lower potential to higher potential.

Figure 10.1 is a schematic diagram of a source of electromotive force that maintain a potential
difference b/n point a and b is called terminals of the device.

66
Terminal a, marked +, is maintained at higher potential then terminal b, marked -, is maintaned
at lower potential.

Fe

Fn

Figure 10.1 schematic diagram for EMF.

The potential difference Vab of a point a with respect to point b is defined as, as the work per unit
charge by the electrostatic force F= q E on a charge q that moves from a to b. The electromotive
force of the source is the energy per unit charge supplied by the source during the “uphill”
displacement from b to a, from lower to higher potential, despite the fact that the electrostatic
force is trying to push it from higher to lower potential.

For ideal source of emf, Vab = (no complete circuit). A complete circuit by connecting a wire
with resistance R to the terminal of the source, the charge terminals a and b set up electric field
in the wire, and this causes a current in the wire from a towards b. From V= IR the current I in
the circuit is determined by

= Vab =IR ( ideal source of emf ).

Charge moving through the material of any real source encounters resistance. This resistance is
called “ internal resistance” of the source, denoted by r. The terminal potential difference Vab
under complete circuit is then

67
 Vab = –Ir ------------------------------ 10.1

The potential Vab, called the “terminal voltage” is les

representing the potential drop across the internal resistance r

The current in the external circuit is determined by V=IR, combining with the above equation, we find

–Ir =IR

------------ ----- ----- 10.2

Generally if a battery is connected across the terminal resistance as in figure 10.2

VT = –Ir

a b
r

Figure 10.2

68
Procedure

1. First measure the electromotive force of the dry cell under open circuit condition.
Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.3 and measure the potential difference. Note the
reading of the voltmeter is the electromotive force since the current is zero.

A B

Figure 10.3 circuit for measuring emf

2. Make a closed circuit as shown in figure 10.4 below. Since we measure the voltage over the
energy source (dry cell) and the current through the energy source, we can apply equation 10.2
for solving internal resistance r

Figure 10.4 circuit to determine internal resistance

3. Since we know that we cannot rely on one experiment, we have to add some
measurements to the once of step 2. Therefore, we will have to vary the current through

69
the dry cell, and thus also the current through the circuit. This we do by using the
rheostat, we make the circuit as given in figure 10.5 below.

Figure 10.5 circuit to get various values of r

Data
No of measurement Potential Current (A) Internal resistance(r)
difference(V)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

70
Experiment 11

Investigation on the induced electromotive force

Objectives:

After the end of this experiment students will be able to:

Describe some configuration of relative motion between a conductor and a magnetic field
that will induce an electromotive force.

Apparatus:

Power supply, milli-volt meter, different bar magnets, coil with different wdg, iron rod, rheostat,
electric board, cables

Theory:

In 1831 Micael Faraday discovered that an electromotive force will be induced in a coil if the
flux of the magnetic fieldthrough the coil changes.

The flux of the magnetic field is defined as

= B.A ------ ------- 11.1
Where - is the flux of the magnetic field
B- is magnetic induction or magnetic field strength
A- area of the coil times unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the area.
The change of the flux may be obtained in many ways
a) moving a bar magnet relative to the coil

71
 Figure 11.1 moving a magnet towards a
stationary coil

The motion of bar magnet towards a stationary coil, increases the number of magnetic field lines
crossing the cross sectional area of the coil, which in turn changes the magnetic flux through the
coil. The change in magnetic flux of the coil induces electromotive force through the coil
manifested by the deflection of the needle of the mill-voltmeter.

b) varying the current in the primary coil.

Secondary coil Primary coil

Figure 11.2 variation of current in the primary coil induces voltage in the secondary coil.

In both case of the above situation induce electromotive force is obtained in a coil. The induced
electromotive force in a coil mathematically will be put as follow from Faraday’s law

=-N -------- 11.2

Where –the induced electromotive force

N – the number of primary windings (wdg)

- the time rate change of magnetic flux

72
The induced electromotive force in the secondary coil is proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic flux in it.

The deflection of the needle of the milli-voltmeter indicates the magnitude as well as the
polarity of the induced electromotive force . the minus sign in equation 11.2 is from lenzs law
which states the induces current is so as to oppose the cause producing it

Procedure:

1. move one pole of the magnet towards the coil in a circuit like figure 11.3 and observe the
events

Figure 11.3 Motion of bar magnet towards a

stationary coil

2. Repeat step 1 by changing the polarity of the same bar magnet. Observe the difference in this c

3. Now change the size of the magnet in procedure 1 and 2 case and note the difference

4. Now move the magnets faster than before for different sizes of the magnet

5. Now vary the number of turning of the coil and observe the occurrence .

250, 500, 750 and 1000 turns

6. Now instead of magnet use variation of current in the primary coil and observe the induced
electromotive force in the secondary coil. As in figure 11.4
Secondary coil with 1000 wdge Primary coil with 500 wdg

73
Figure 11.4 set up for induced emf in secondary coil by variable current in primary.

7. use tables for different observation in the above procedure

Data

I(A)
emf (mV)

74
Experiment 12

Law of reflection of light wave

Objective:

at the end of this experiment students will be able to

 Observe the incident and the reflected rays.

 Verify the laws of reflection of light.

Theory:

The bouncing of light ray from an obstacle or any surface on its way is called reflection . This
reflection of light has a natural law to obey for smooth surfaces. A ray of light traveling towards
reflecting surface is called incident ray and that reflecting from reflecting surface is reflected ray.
A line perpendicular to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence is the normal.

The angle between the incidence and the normal is angle of incidence() and the angle between
the reflected and the normal is the angle of reflection.

Apparatus:

A protractor printed on a paper, Plane mirror , Ruler , Single slit (it can also prepared from a
thick paper), Scissors ,Torch or sources of light

75
Procedures:

1. Make your room dark

2. Prepare a slit of 0.2 mm wide and 5 cm long on a thick paper. Make sure that the light
pass through and from a straight line.
3. Place the mirror along side the edge of protractor printed on the paper and attach them
together with scotch tape.
4. Place the source of light vertical to the mirror. Observe the path of the light ( reflected
ray)
5. Place the sources of light 10 degree from the normal. Observe the rays of reflection and
record the angle of reflection from the normal.
6. Similarly, move the sources of light 10 degree intervals and record the reflections angles.
Trial No Angle of incidence Angle of reflection
1 00
2 100
3 200
4 300
5 400
6 500

76
Experiment:13

Measuring the specific heat capacity of solid

Objective:

At the end of this experiment students will be able to

Determine the specific heat capacity of substances.

Explain the way how to determine specific heat capacity of substances

Theory:

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a body depends on the mass, the change
in temperature and the specific capacity of a body. Specific heat capacity is a peculiar property
of a substance and it refers to the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit
mass by one degree. For example if 100J of heat is required to raise the temperature of 1 kg
substance by 1k, that heat is the specific heat capacity of that substance.

From the theoretical explanation point of view, we know that

Q α m ∆T

From this

Q = m c ∆T----------------(1)

Where c- is the specific heat capacity..

m- is the mass of a substance

∆T- the change in temperature.

In this experiment the specific heat is determined using the principle of heat exchange.
According to this principle heat lost by hot body equals the heat gained by cold body. The
instrument that we use to determine the specific heat capacity is called calorimeter. The process
used is said to be calorimetry.

77
 Q lost by hot body = Q gained by cold body. --------------- (2)

From equation 2 above we will get the following.

m hC h (T h-T f) = m cC c( T f – T i) +m w C w (T f – T i) +m s C s( T f -Ti)

Solving for the specific heat of metal from the above

C h = [m cC c( T f – T i) +m w C w (T f – T i) +m s C s( T f -Ti)]/ m h (T h-T f) ------------( 3 )

Where mh, mw , mc are masses of hot body , water and calorimeter in addition to the stirrer
respectively.

T i –is the initial temperature of water in the caloriometer.

T f- is the final temperature of the mixture.

T h- is the temperature of hot body.

C w – the specific heat capacity of water .

C c – is the specific heat capacity of calorimeter.

C h – is the specific heat capacity of hot body.

C s – is thye specific heat capacity of the stirrer.

Apparatus:

Copper calorimeter with wooden cover , Copper stirrer., Hanging jacket., Thermometer., Water
beaker., Specimen metal ( iron, lead … etc), Tripod stand., Heater (Bunsen burner).

Procedure

1. Measure the mass of solid sample, m h

2. Weigh the mass of the container, m c and the mass of the stirrer, m s .
3. Fill half of the calorimeter with clod water and weigh then. The difference
between step 3 and 2 give the mass of the water in the calorimeter.

78
 4. Using a thermometer take the initial temperature, T, of the water and the
calorimeter.
5. Place the solid sample( say an iron block) in boiling water for few minutes and
the temperature of the boiling water in the beaker. This gives you the temperature
of the solid block, Ts see the diagram below.

Copper calorimeter
Thermometer
Stirrer

Boiling water
Iron block

Cold
water

- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----- Cloth for
-----------
- - - - - - -- --- - - - - - - ---- drying block
-----------
------------------------------- -----------
------------------------------- -----------
-

Heat

6. Take out the solid from the boiling water very quickly and immerse it in the
calorimeter. Then stir the water Before taking the final temperature of the
mixture.
7. Take the final temperature of the mixture, T f.

79
 8. Finally determine the specific heat of the solid block using formula 3 above.

Data collection

1. Fill the table below using the measured results.

Use C w = 4200 J/kg o c
C s =C c =390 J/kg oc ( if copper calorimeter and stirred are used.)
Mass of calorimeter, m c (g)
Mass of stirrer, m s(g)
Mass of solid block M n (g)
Mass of water in the calorimeter, M w(g)
Initial temperature of the calorimeter, water and the stirrer, T i (o c)
Initial temperature of the solid block, T n ( o c)
Final temperature in the calorimeter, T f (o c)

2. Calculate the specific heat capacity of the solid block.

80
Appendices

General Notes:
I. A Note on Writing lab report:
One of the most common complaints about the writing of lab reports, and especially the grading
of lab reports, concerns the importance of writing. A lab report, like a scientific paper, is first and
foremost about communication, conveying your results to the reader, and as such proper writing
is essential. You can be a brilliant experimental scientist, able to produce great results in the lab,
but if you are unable to communicate those results effectively to another person, all your lab
skills are worthless.

Some important elements of good writing to keep in mind when writing your report:
 Think carefully about organization: Your report should be written in such a way as to
lead the reader through a clear and logical progression from one idea to the next. Make
sure that each sentence or paragraph follows naturally from the preceding sentence or
paragraph. Each paragraph should deal with a single main idea, which should be stated as
clearly as possible.
 Write simply and directly: Students writing lab reports for the first time often try to
“sound scientific” by using big words and complicated sentence structures. This is bad
writing, and undercuts the effectiveness of the points you’re trying to make. State what
you did as simply and directly as possible. Writing “A calibrated rod was utilized to
ascertain the physical extension of the wire helix” makes you sound ridiculous. “We
measured the stretch of the spring using a meter stick” is much better.
 Write in the past tense and active voice: Many students have the idea that scientific
writing should be indirect, written in the passive voice. While there are times when the
passive voice is appropriate, the active voice is much more direct and effective. When
you are writing a report, you are describing what you did, and you should do that as
directly as possible: “We measured the length of the spring using a meter stick” is much
more direct and effective than “A meter stick was used to measure the length of the
spring.”

81
  Proofread your report carefully: There are very few better ways to convince someone
that you don’t know what you’re talking about than to have badly misspelled words in
your report. Before you hand in your report, read it over carefully, and make sure that
what you have written is clear and correctly written.

II. A few general items to keep in mind when writing lab reports:
Uncertainty: All measured quantities have uncertainty associated with them, and all
numbers calculated from measured values will have some uncertainty due to the
uncertainty in the underlying measurement. Any time you give the value of a measured
or calculated quantity, you should also give the uncertainty.

Units: All measured quantities have units. Almost all quantities calculated from
measured values will have units, with the exception of some ratios and fractions, which
are dimensionless. Any time you give the value of a measured or calculated quantity,
you should also give the associated units, along with the uncertainty. The usual format
is: v = 6.13±0.02 m/s.

Significant Figures: The general rule for reporting numbers with uncertainty is to
round the uncertainty to one significant digit, and round the reported value to the same
decimal place as the uncertainty. Thus, 6.12384756 ± 0.00314 m/s becomes 6.124
±0.003 m/s, and 9192.45 ± 28.39 kg becomes 9190 ± 30 kg.

No human error:“Human error” is not an acceptable source of uncertainty. When

discussing the sources of the uncertainties in your measurement, you should assume
that you have made the measurement as well as it could possibly be made, given the
tools you used. If you are discussing an uncertainty in the height of some object, it is
appropriate to say that you have an uncertainty of half a centimeter because there were
only 1cm marks on the meter stick used; it is not acceptable to say that the uncertainty
was half a centimeter because the person reading the meter stick might have read it
incorrectly. If you suspect that the measurement was made incorrectly, you should re-
do the measurement, not report it with an uncertainty attributed to “human error.”

82
Analog vs. Digital: Electronic read-outs showing many digits give the illusion of very
high precision, but they are subject to all the same uncertainties as measurements made
using analog gauges where a needle points to a numbered scale. Do not assume that a
digital read-out or a computer-based measurement will automatically be better than an
analog device.

References: In reports which require references to external sources (books or articles

beyond the lab handout), material drawn from these sources should be clearly marked,
and the lab should include a list of references at the end. References should be listed in
the order in which they appear, and referred to by number, by placing the reference
number in square brackets at the appropriate point in the text: “As shown by Lastname
and Surname [4], the force increases as…” Citations of books are in the form: author
name(s), title, edition, publisher, (year): “[3] First name Last name, Physics Book (2nd
edition), AIP Press (2003).” Citations of journal articles are in the form: author
name(s), journal name, volume number (in bold), page number, (year): “[4] Last
name, F. and Surname, G. N., J. Irrep. Results 17, 289 (1997).”

83
References

1. Bevington, Philip R., and D. Keith Robinson Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the
Physical Sciences, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.
2. Barford, N. C., Experimental Measurements: Precision, Error and Truth, Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, Massachusetts, 1967.
3. Beers, Yardly, Introduction to the Theory of Error, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., Reading, Massachusetts, 1953.
4. Hawkins, C. E., and Niewahner, J. H., Data Analysis, Graphing and Report Writing, 1st
ed., Mohican Publishing Co., Loudonville, Ohio, 1983.
5. physics 133 spring 2006 experiment no. 5 conservation of linear momentum in one
dimension
6. http://dev.physicslab.org/DocumentPrint.aspx?doctype=3&filename=Oscil.
7. Dr. James E. Parks, The Simple Pendulum, Department of Physics and Astronomy, The
University of Tennessee
8. http://University Physics, Exp 12: Archimedes’ Principle

84