DIT 0408

NETWORK DESIGN ADMINISTRATION

MAY-AUGUST, 2025

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Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK DESIGN ........................................................................... 3
1.1 Network Essentials recap ........................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Computer network .................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.2 Network Topology.................................................................................................................. 5
1.1.3 Network Communication media .......................................................................................... 5
1.1.4 Types of networks ................................................................................................................... 7
2. NETWORK DESIGN ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.1 Description.................................................................................................................................... 7
2.2 Network Design administration entails.................................................................................... 8
2.3 Network Infrastructure explained ............................................................................................. 8
2.4 Network Services: ........................................................................................................................ 8
2.5 Network and system administration defined .......................................................................... 8
2.6 Designing a network administration component ................................................................... 9
2.7 Network design administration roles and responsibilities .................................................. 10
2.8 Network Design Administrator Activities ............................................................................. 11
2.9 Scope of Network administration ........................................................................................... 11
2.10 The goal of Network administration ...................................................................................... 12
2.11 The challenges of network administration ............................................................................ 12
2.12 Types of Network Design ........................................................................................................ 13
2.13 Network design approaches ..................................................................................................... 13
2.13.1 Top-Down Approach: ..................................................................................................... 13
2.13.2 Bottom-Up Approach:..................................................................................................... 14
2.14 The network development lifecycle ........................................................................................ 16
2.1.1 Assignment 1.......................................................................................................................... 17
2.15 TCP/IP Reference Model ........................................................................................................ 18
2.15.1 OSI Reference Model Open system interconnect reference model ........................ 18
2.15.2 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations .................................................... 19
2.15.3 OSI Layer protocols ......................................................................................................... 19
2.15.4 TCP/IP Protocols ............................................................................................................ 20
2.15.5 Osi Model Layer Devices ................................................................................................ 22

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1. INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK DESIGN

1.1 Network Essentials recap

1.1.1 Computer network

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are linked together
through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users.

Information transfer process

Types of networks based on their geographic extension.

a. Personal Area Network (PAN)
A computer network used for communication among computers and different information technological devices close
to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines &
telephones.
❖ Scale – occupy the space of a room or a building.
❖ Elements: Clients, server, switches, access points, printers and router to exit the LAN.
❖ Typical speed: 100mbps to 1gbps – meant for nearby communication between devices.

b. Wide Area Networks (WAN)

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In a site you can have multiple buildings.
❖ Scale: less than a few kilometres
❖ Elements: LANs, high speed switches or routers, high speed circuits (on fiber optic cable) to
interconnect LANs on different buildings.
❖ Typical speed: from 1 gbps to 40 gbps.
*A backbone is a part of computer network that tie together diverse networks in the same building, in
different buildings in a campus environment, or over wide areas.

c. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Broader extension covering a town, a city or a region. (e.g., a firm having multiple branch offices in multiple locations
within a region or city).
❖ Scale: more than a few kilometres.
❖ Elements: LANs, Backbone Networks, Circuits are normally leased to Network providers (eg cable companies).
It is less expensive to lease than to privately lay down fiber optic cables over long distances.
**The alternatives Networks
i Point-To-Point Connection
To have a point-to-point connection through microwaves – this requires a straight line of sight for it to work. This is
generally expensive.
ii VPN tunnels
A cheaper alternative would be the use of VPN tunnels as a way to communicate between one branch office and
another.
Typical speeds: from 64 Kbps to 10 Gbps
**Note: 64kbps is the lowest rate to have VOIP conversation.

d. Campus Area network (CAN)

This is a set of LAN segments and building networks in an area that is generally less than a mile in diameter.
e. Home Area network (HAN)

is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small
number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices.

f. Storage Area network (SAN)

This is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block level data storage & used to make storage
devices, such as disk arrays and tape libraries.

g. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Extends MANs to a much bigger scale.

WANs are used to interconnect multiple operations across the globe for a single firm.

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Scale: more than tens or hundreds of kilometres, usually international.
Elements: same as MANs, but a greater distance
Typical speeds: from 64Kbps to 10Gbps
WANs can be further classified into two categories:
Enterprise WANs.
i An enterprise WAN is a WAN that connects the widely separated computer resources of a single
organization. An organization with computer operations at several distant sites can employ an enterprise
WAN to interconnect the sites. An enterprise WAN can use a combination of private and commercial
network services but is dedicated to the needs of a particular organization.

ii A global WAN interconnects networks of several corporations or organizations. An example of a global

WAN is the Internet.

1.1.2 Network Topology

Network topologies are classified into star, bus, ring, tree, full-mesh, and partial-mesh network
topologies.

1.1.3 Network Communication media

Network communication media refers to the physical or logical channels through which data is transmitted from
one device to another in a network. These media can be categorized into guided (wired) and unguided (wireless)
transmission media.

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Wired transmission mediums

a) Twisted pairs: most common transmission media used on Ethernet networks. Twisted pairs can be
classified into the following types based on their anti-electromagnetic interference capabilities:

STP: shielded twisted pairs

UTP: unshielded twisted pairs

b) Coaxial Cable: Copper core with insulating layer, metallic shield, and plastic outer cover.

✓ They use older Ethernet, cable television.

✓ They have better shielding than twisted pair.
✓ They are bulkier and more expensive than twisted pair.

c) Fiber Optic Cable: Optical fiber transmission can be classified into the following types based on
functional components:
✓ Fibers: optical transmission media, which are glass fibers, used to restrict optical transmission channels. Uses
strands of glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light signals.
✓ Optical modules: convert electrical signals into optical signals to generate optical signals.

Types:

• Single-mode – long-distance, higher cost, faster.

• Multi-mode – shorter distances, cheaper.

Wireless transmission mediums

Serial cables are widely used on wide area networks (WANs). The types of interfaces connected to serial cables
vary according to WAN line types. The interfaces include synchronous/synchronous serial interfaces, ATM
interfaces, POS interfaces, and CE1/PRI interfaces.

Wireless signals may be transmitted by using electromagnetic waves. For example, a wireless router modulates
data and sends the data by using electromagnetic waves, and a wireless network interface card of a mobile terminal
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 demodulates the electromagnetic waves to obtain data. Data transmission from the wireless router to the mobile
terminal is then complete.

Types:

• Radio Waves: Wi-Fi, radio broadcasting, cordless phones.

• Microwaves: Satellite communication, point-to-point links.
• Infrared (IR): Remote controls, some short-range communication.
• Satellite Communication: Global coverage, GPS, broadcasting.

Comparison Summary

Medium Speed Cost Distance Interference Resistance

Twisted Pair Moderate Low Short Low

Coaxial Moderate Medium Medium Moderate

Fiber Optic Very High High Long Very High

Radio Moderate Low Medium Low

Microwave High Medium Long Low

Satellite High Very High Very Long Moderate

1.1.4 Types of networks

Based on who can access the network.

a. Intranet
This is only accessible by internal members of the organization.
The employees can collaborate using a central information system (e.g ERP through an intranet)
The employees can collaborate on a LAN or WAN
The employees on the move can access sensible data from a remote location through a VPN
b. Extranet
This is a network that is accessible for people or entities external to the organization.
E.g. clients and providers logging into an inventory system over the extranet.
Public e-commerce websites
WIFI network for customers

2. NETWORK DESIGN

2.1 Description

Network design refers to the planning of the implementation of a computer network infrastructure.
Network design involves evaluating, understanding and scoping the network to be implemented. The whole
network design is usually represented as a network diagram that serves as the blueprint for implementing the network
physically.

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 2.2 Network Design administration entails

Typically, network design includes the following:

a. Logical map (displays how information flows through a network) of the network to be designed. To achieve
this, you need to have gathered information about network devices, routing protocols and subnets.
b. Cabling structure
c. Quantity, type and location of network devices (routers, switches, servers, Clients etc)
d. IP addressing structure
e. Network security architecture and overall network security processes
f. Network design is generally performed by network designers, network engineers, network administrators
and other related staff.
***NOTE: Network design is done before the implementation of a network infrastructure.

2.3 Network Infrastructure explained

Network infrastructure refers to the hardware and software resources of an entire network.
A typical network infrastructure includes several devices like;
a. Networking Hardware: Routers, Switches, LAN cards, Network cables, Access points etc
b. Networking Software: This includes but not limited to;
o Network monitoring and control softwares e.g., Network operations and management/NOC,
Nagios, cacti, smokeping etc
o Operating systems: e.g., Debian, Ubuntu, Windows server
o Firewalls solutions: e.g., WatchGuard, Forcepoint, Fortinet, Barracuda Networks,
SonicWall, Versa Networks, Palo Alto Networks,
o Network security applications/Tools e.g. Intrusion detection and prevention system, Anti-
malware etc

2.4 Network Services:

o T-1 Line – a dedicated transmission connection between a service provider and client
o Digital subscriber line (DSL) – used to transmit digital data over telephone lines.
o Satellite
o Wireless protocols
o IP addressing

2.5 Network and system administration defined

• Network and system administration is a branch of engineering that concerns the operational management of
human –computer systems.

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• It is about putting together a network of computers(workstations, PCs and supercomputers), getting them
running and then keeping them running in spite of the activities of users who tend to cause the systems to
fail.
• A system administrator works for users, so that they can use the system to produce work.
• However, a system administrator should not just cater for one or two selfish needs, but also work for the
benefit of a whole community.

2.6 Designing a network administration component

1) Designing a network administration system involves several major components, each with distinct
requirements to ensure effective management and operation of the network. Here are the key components:
2) Network Infrastructure: This includes the physical components such as routers, switches, cables, and
wireless access points that form the backbone of the network. Design requirements here focus on scalability,
reliability, and performance to support current and future needs.
3) Network Security: Security is paramount in network administration. Components such as firewalls, intrusion
detection systems (IDS), intrusion prevention systems (IPS), and VPNs are essential. Design requirements
emphasize the need for robust security measures to protect against threats, including unauthorized access,
malware, and data breaches.
4) Network Management Tools: Administration requires tools for monitoring, configuring, and
troubleshooting the network. These tools include network management systems (NMS), configuration
management tools, and performance monitoring software. Design requirements focus on usability, scalability,
and integration capabilities to streamline administrative tasks.
5) User Management: User access control, authentication, and authorization mechanisms are critical
components. Requirements include centralized user directories (such as Active Directory or LDAP),
authentication protocols (e.g., RADIUS, TACACS+), and role-based access control (RBAC) systems to
manage user permissions efficiently.
6) Policy and Compliance Management: Networks must comply with regulatory requirements and
organizational policies. Design requirements involve implementing policy enforcement mechanisms, logging
and auditing systems, and ensuring compliance with standards such as PCI DSS, HIPAA, or GDPR.
7) Disaster Recovery and Business Continuity: Planning for network failures and disasters is essential for
maintaining operations. Design requirements include redundant hardware, data backups, failover
mechanisms, and disaster recovery plans to minimize downtime and data loss.
8) Scalability and Flexibility: Networks must be designed to accommodate growth and changes in technology
and business requirements. Scalability requirements involve designing modular architectures, using standards-
based protocols, and implementing flexible configurations that can adapt to evolving needs.
9) Performance Optimization: Network performance is crucial for delivering reliable services. Design
requirements include optimizing network protocols, traffic prioritization mechanisms (QoS), bandwidth
management, and implementing caching and acceleration techniques to enhance performance.

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 10) Documentation and Documentation Management: Comprehensive documentation is essential for
efficient network administration. Design requirements involve creating detailed network diagrams,
configuration guides, and process documentation. Additionally, implementing a documentation management
system facilitates easy access to and maintenance of documentation.
11) Training and Skills Development: Network administrators require ongoing training and skill development
to effectively manage and troubleshoot the network. Design requirements involve providing access to training
resources, certification programs, and professional development opportunities to ensure administrators stay
current with emerging technologies and best practices.

2.7 Network design administration roles and responsibilities

Network design administration encompasses several roles and responsibilities essential for the planning,
implementation, management, and optimization of a network infrastructure.

Here are the key roles involved:

Network Architect: Designs the overall network structure, including layout, topology, and technology,
ensuring it meets business needs for performance, scalability, security, and reliability.

Network Engineer: Implements the architect’s design by configuring routers, switches, and other
devices. They optimize performance and troubleshoot network issues.

Network Administrator: Manages daily network operations like user access, device configuration,
software updates, and monitoring to ensure smooth and secure network functioning.

Security Specialist: Protects the network by deploying security tools like firewalls and IDS, conducting
audits, and handling incident response to prevent cyber threats and breaches.

Systems Administrator: Maintains servers and IT infrastructure, handles installations, backups, disaster
recovery, and ensures systems support network operations effectively.

NOC Technician: Monitors network performance, responds to outages and alerts, and performs routine
maintenance to ensure network uptime.

Change Management Specialist: Manages infrastructure changes (e.g., updates, upgrades) using
controlled processes to minimize disruptions and risks.

Documentation Specialist: Creates and updates network-related documents like diagrams and
procedures to support efficient management and troubleshooting.

Training and Development Specialist: Conducts training and certification programs to enhance IT
staff’s technical skills and knowledge.

Vendor and Supplier Liaison: Coordinates with vendors for network products and services, manages
contracts, and ensures quality and cost-effectiveness.

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These roles collaborate closely to ensure the successful design, implementation, operation, and maintenance of the
network infrastructure, enabling organizations to achieve their business objectives effectively and securely.

2.8 Network Design Administrator Activities

1) Monitoring the network capacity to ensure that all transmission requirements can be met.
2) Adding capacity to the network by increasing bandwidth interconnecting additional modes, or creating and
interconnecting additional networks.
3) Training people to use the network effectively
4) Assisting IT professionals in organizational applications that will make good use of the network’s capabilities.
5) Backing up the network software and data regularly to protect against the failure of network or any of its
components
6) security procedures in place to make certain that only authorized users have access to the network and
ensuring that all security procedures are followed
7) Making sure the network personnel can respond quickly and effectively in the event of a network operational
or security failure.
8) Diagnosing and troubleshooting problems on the network and determining the best course of action to take
to solve them

2.9 Scope of Network administration

The scope of network design administration encompasses a wide range of activities involved in planning,
implementing, managing, and optimizing network infrastructure to meet the needs of an organization effectively.
Here's an overview of the key aspects within the scope of network design administration:

1) Requirements Analysis: Understand business needs, user demands, and technical limits influencing
network design.
2) Network Design: Develop a network layout with suitable topology, technologies, protocols, and security
features.
3) Hardware and Software Selection: Choose cost-effective network devices and tools aligned with needs
and budget.
4) Configuration and Deployment: Set up and deploy devices per design, covering routing, VLANs, QoS,
and security.
5) Security Implementation: Apply tools like firewalls, IDS, VPNs, and encryption to protect the network.
6) Network Monitoring and Management: Track and manage network performance and security in real
time.
7) Troubleshooting and Support: Diagnose and fix connectivity, performance, and security issues.
8) Change Management: Control infrastructure changes to ensure stability and reduce risk.
9) Documentation Management: Keep accurate network records like diagrams, configs, and procedures.
10) Capacity Planning: Predict growth and scale the network to meet future demand.

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 11) Performance Optimization: Improve speed and reliability using QoS and tuning for critical apps.
12) Compliance and Governance: Ensure the network follows legal, industry, and internal standards.
13) Vendor and Stakeholder Management: Work with vendors and stakeholders to secure reliable services
and products.
14) Training and Development: Provide ongoing training to enhance IT staff’s skills and tool proficiency.

2.10 The goal of Network administration

The overarching goal of network design administration is to create, manage, and optimize a network infrastructure
that effectively supports the goals and objectives of an organization. These are;

1) Reliability: Use redundancy, failover, and monitoring to prevent and quickly fix network failures.
2) Scalability: Design for future growth with flexible, scalable hardware and software.
3) Performance: Optimize bandwidth, QoS, and protocols to reduce latency and packet loss.
4) Security: Protect data with strong authentication, encryption, access control, and security policies.
5) Efficiency: Use management tools and standardized practices to streamline network operations.
6) Flexibility: Apply technologies like virtualization, SDN, and cloud to support agile network management.
7) Cost-effectiveness: Choose affordable solutions, minimize unnecessary costs, and align spending with
ROI.
8) Compliance: Ensure the network meets legal and policy standards through security controls, audits, and
documentation.
9) User Experience: Design for mobility, simple access, and prioritize services based on user needs.
10) Business Alignment: Align network plans with business goals through stakeholder collaboration and
strategic prioritization.

2.11 The challenges of network administration

System administration is not just about installing operating systems and setting up the networks. It is about planning
and designing an efficient community of computers so that real users will be able to get their jobs done.

Key challenges of system administration

1) Security Risks – Constant threats like malware and unauthorized access.

2) Downtime – System failures can disrupt operations.
3) User Management – Handling access, permissions, and support efficiently.
4) Backup & Recovery – Ensuring reliable data protection and quick restoration.
5) System Updates – Applying patches without causing disruptions.
6) Limited Resources – Budget, staffing, and infrastructure constraints.
7) Complexity – Managing diverse and hybrid systems.
8) Performance Issues – Maintaining system speed and reliability.
9) Compliance – Meeting legal and policy requirements.
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 10) Automation Challenges – Creating reliable scripts and workflows.
11) User Errors – Fixing issues caused by mistakes.
12) Tech Changes – Keeping up with evolving technologies.

2.12 Types of Network Design

1) New Network Design

a) Designing a network from scratch

b) No legacy systems or compatibility issues

c) Budget is often the primary constraint

d) Less common in today’s environments

2) Network Expansion Design

a) Expanding an existing network’s capacity

b) Includes adding users, devices, or upgrading technologies

c) Common when businesses grow or scale operations

3) Network Re-engineering Design

a) Redesigning an existing network to fix design flaws or support new requirements

b) Often driven by changes in applications, user needs, or performance issues

c) More common today due to evolving business and technical needs

2.13 Network design approaches

There are two contrasting methodologies (approaches) used in network design.

1) Top-down approach
2) Bottom-up approach

Here's a comparison between the two:

2.13.1 Top-Down Approach:

Overview:
The top-down approach methodology for designing networks that begins at the upper layers of the OSI reference
model before moving to the lower layers.
This means that it focuses on applications, sessions, and data transport before the selection of routers, switches,
and media that operate at the lower layers (layer 3, layer 2 and layer 1 respectively)
The application layer is the starting point, and the applications and services that are desperately needed are
analyzed for their specific requirements first.

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Top-down network design also is iterative (repeated cycle of operations). A process for arriving at the desired
results by repeating rounds of analysis, i.e., the approach starts with a broad view of the network's requirements
and objectives before delving into the specifics. It emphasizes understanding the organization's business goals, user
needs, and high-level design considerations before getting into technical details.
1. Process: The process begins with gathering requirements from stakeholders and conducting a
comprehensive analysis of the business environment. This involves defining the scope, goals, constraints, and
success criteria for the network project.
2. Design: Once the requirements are understood, the design phase focuses on creating a high-level network
architecture that addresses the organization's needs. This includes defining the overall network topology,
addressing scheme, security policies, and performance requirements.
3. Implementation: After the design is finalized, the network infrastructure is implemented according to the
specifications outlined in the design phase. This involves procuring hardware and software, configuring
network devices, and deploying security measures based on the high-level design.
Advantages:
a) Provides a clear understanding of business requirements and objectives.
b) Ensures alignment between network design and organizational goals.
c) Allows for a systematic approach to planning and design.
Disadvantages:
a) May overlook technical details and constraints.
b) Could lead to delays if requirements change during implementation.
c) Requires effective communication and collaboration between stakeholders.

2.13.2 Bottom-Up Approach:

Overview:
The bottom-up approach begins with the physical layer of the OSI model and works its way up. New, higher
bandwidth links might be purchased, as well as new routers, switches, firewalls, etc. Designing a network with a bottom-
up approach enables you to get your network set up much faster i.e., the approach starts with specific technical details
and gradually builds up to the overall network architecture. It focuses on understanding the capabilities and limitations
of existing technology and infrastructure before defining higher-level design considerations.
1. Process: The process begins with an assessment of existing network infrastructure, including hardware,
software, and configurations. This involves identifying technical requirements, constraints, and opportunities
for improvement.
2. Design: Based on the assessment, the design phase focuses on creating detailed technical specifications for
the network infrastructure. This includes selecting specific hardware and software components, defining
network protocols and configurations, and addressing security vulnerabilities.
3. Implementation: Once the technical specifications are finalized, the network infrastructure is implemented
according to the detailed design. This involves configuring network devices, deploying software applications,
and integrating various components to meet technical requirements.
Advantages:
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 a) Provides a detailed understanding of technical requirements and constraints.
b) Allows for leveraging existing infrastructure and technologies.
c) Facilitates incremental deployment and optimization.
Disadvantages:
a) May lack alignment with business goals and objectives.
b) Could lead to fragmentation if technical details are not integrated into a cohesive architecture.
c) Requires careful coordination to ensure compatibility and interoperability between components.
In practice, a combination of both approaches, known as the hybrid approach, is often used to take advantage of
their respective strengths and mitigate their weaknesses.

Compare and contrast the top-down and bottom-up design approaches

Choosing the design approach that best fits your needs will result in a stronger network.
Recognizing the pros and cons of each approach can help you build the case for the appropriate choice, giving you the
opportunity to build a network that will meet the needs of the project or organization — and improve network
performance.

The top-down and bottom-up design approaches comparison diagram

Top bottom
approach

Bottom-up
approach

OSI Reference Model

Comparison summary:

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 • Approach: Top-down approach starts with high-level requirements and objectives, while bottom-up
approach starts with detailed technical specifications.
Top-down approach focuses on applications, sessions, and data transport layers.
Bottom-up approach focuses from the lowest layer of the OSI model upwards i.e., Physical, data link and
network layers
• Focus: Top-down approach focuses on business goals and user needs, while bottom-up approach focuses
on technical capabilities and constraints.
• Risk: Top-down approach may overlook technical details and constraints, while bottom-up approach may
lack alignment with business goals.
• Flexibility: Top-down approach allows for adaptability to changing requirements, while bottom-up approach
facilitates leveraging existing infrastructure and technologies.

2.14 The network development lifecycle

The network development lifecycle outlines the stages involved in the planning, design, implementation, operation,
and optimization of a network infrastructure. While I can't provide diagrams directly, I can describe the stages and
suggest how they might be represented visually.
1. Requirements Gathering: The lifecycle begins with gathering requirements from stakeholders, including
business needs, user requirements, and technical constraints. This stage involves conducting interviews,
surveys, and assessments to understand the organization's goals and objectives. A visual representation might
include a flowchart or diagram showing the various sources of requirements and their relationships.
2. Planning and Analysis: In this stage, the gathered requirements are analyzed to develop a comprehensive
network plan. This involves defining the scope, objectives, constraints, and success criteria for the network
project. A visual representation might include a project charter or roadmap outlining the key milestones,
deliverables, and timelines for the project.
3. Design: The design stage involves creating a detailed network architecture based on the requirements and
objectives identified in the previous stages. This includes defining the network topology, addressing scheme,
hardware and software components, security measures, and performance requirements. A visual
representation might include network diagrams, topology maps, and system designs illustrating the planned
network infrastructure.
4. Implementation: Once the design is finalized, the network infrastructure is implemented according to the
specifications outlined in the design phase. This involves procuring hardware and software, configuring
network devices, deploying security measures, and integrating network services and applications. A visual
representation might include deployment diagrams or workflow charts illustrating the steps involved in
implementing the network.
5. Testing and Validation: After implementation, the network is tested to ensure that it meets the
requirements and performs as expected. This includes conducting functional tests, performance tests, security

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 audits, and user acceptance tests. A visual representation might include test plans, test matrices, and test
results showing the outcomes of various testing activities.
6. Deployment: Once testing is complete and any issues are addressed, the network infrastructure is deployed
into production. This involves migrating users, devices, and data to the new network environment and
ensuring a smooth transition from the old infrastructure. A visual representation might include a deployment
schedule or cutover plan outlining the steps and timelines for deploying the network.
7. Operation and Maintenance: With the network in production, ongoing operation and maintenance
activities are performed to ensure its continued reliability, security, and performance. This includes
monitoring network performance, managing configurations, applying updates and patches, and
troubleshooting issues as they arise. A visual representation might include a network operations center (NOC)
dashboard or network management system (NMS) interface showing real-time network status and
performance metrics.
8. Optimization and Evolution: Finally, the network is optimized and evolved over time to meet changing
business requirements, technological advancements, and emerging threats. This involves conducting periodic
reviews, performance tuning, capacity planning, and implementing upgrades or expansions as needed. A
visual representation might include a feedback loop or iterative process showing how the network
development lifecycle feeds into continuous improvement efforts.
These stages form a cyclical process, with each iteration leading to further refinement and enhancement of the network
infrastructure. Visual representations such as diagrams, flowcharts, and models can help stakeholders understand the
lifecycle stages, dependencies, and outcomes of network development efforts

2.1.1Assignment 1
Intensively describe, compare and contrast the different Network Design/system Development Life Cycles

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 2.15 TCP/IP Reference Model

The TCP/IP model is similar to the OSI model in structure and adopts a hierarchical architecture. Adjacent TCP/IP
layers are closely related.

The standard TCP/IP model combines the data link layer and physical layer in the OSI model into the network access
layer. This division mode is contrary to the actual protocol formulation. Therefore, the equivalent TCP/IP model that
integrates the TCP/IP standard model and the OSI model is proposed. Contents in the following slides are based on
the equivalent TCP/IP model.

Application Layer
Application Layer
Application Layer Presentation Layer

Session Layer
Host-to-Host Layer Transport Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer Network Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Access Layer Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Physical Layer

Standard TCP/IP OSI Model Equivalent TCP/IP

2.15.1 OSI Reference Model Open system interconnect reference model

7. Application Layer
Provides interfaces for applications.

6. Presentation Layer
Translates data formats to ensure that the application-layer data of one system can be
identified by the application layer of another system.
5. Session Layer
Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between communicating parties.

4. Transport Layer
Establishes, maintains, and cancels an end-to-end data transmission process; controls
transmission speeds and adjusts data sequences.
3. Network Layer
Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.
2. Data Link Layer
Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode, and
implements error checking.
1. Physical Layer
Transmits bitstreams over transmission media and defines electrical and physical
specifications.

2.15.2 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations

1) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)

a. IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting Internet protocols
(especially protocols that constitute the TCP/IP protocol suite), and releasing new or replacing
old protocol standards through RFCs.

2) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

b. IEEE has formulated about 30% of standards in the electronics, electrical, and computer science
fields worldwide. Those standards include well-known IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and IEEE802.11
(Wi-Fi).

3) International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

c. ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the formulation of computer
network standards, such as the OSI model defined in ISO/IEC 7498-1.

2.15.3 OSI Layer protocols

Layer Protocols
Application • HTTP 80 (TCP)
(Data) Hypertext transfer protocol, which provides web browsing services.
• Telnet 23 (TCP)
Remote login protocol, which provides remote management services.
• FTP 20 and 21 (TCP)
File transfer protocol, which provides Internet file resource sharing services.
• SMTP 25 (TCP)
Simple mail transfer protocol, which provides Internet email services.
• TFTP 69 (UDP)
Simple file transfer protocol, which provides simple file transfer services.
TRANSPORT TCP: a connection-oriented reliable protocol defined by IETF in RFC 793.
(Segment) UDP: a simple connectionless protocol defined by IETF in RFC 768.
Network ➢ The network layer is also called the Internet layer:
 (Packets) - It sends packets from source hosts to destination hosts.
➢ Functions of the network layer:
- Provides logical addresses for network devices.
- Routes and forwards data packets.
- Common network layer protocols include IPv4, IPv6, ICMP, and IGMP.
Data Link The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer.
(Frames) • The data link layer provides intra-segment communication for the network layer.
• The functions of the data link layer include framing, physical addressing, and error
control.
• Common data link layer protocols include Ethernet, PPPoE, and PPP.
Physical Layer The physical layer is at the bottom of the model.
(Bitstream) • This layer transmits bitstreams on media.
• It standardizes physical features such as cables, pins, voltages, and interfaces.
• Common transmission media include twisted pairs, optical fibers, and
electromagnetic waves.

PDU (Protocol Data Units)

This is a generic term used to describe layer’s information for tra In networking, a protocol data unit (PDU) is the
generic term used the describe the basic unit of exchange between entities that communicate using a specified
networking protocol.
Each TCP/IP layer has a PDU associated with it as follows;
➢ Application - PDU - Data
➢ Network - PDU - Packets
➢ Transport - PDU - Segment
➢ Data Link - PDU - Frames
➢ Physical Layer - PDU – Bitstream

2.15.4 TCP/IP Protocols

Application Layer Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP
Transport Layer TCP UDP

Network Layer ICMP IGMP

IP
 Data Link Layer PPPoE
Ethernet PPP
Physical Layer ….

TCP/IP Protocols explained.

• Application Layer
▫ Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): is used to access various pages on web servers.
▫ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): provides a method for transferring files. It allows data to be
transferred from one host to another.
▫ Domain name service (DNS): translates from host domain names to IP addresses.
• Transport layer
▫ Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): provides reliable connection-oriented communication
services for applications. Provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data between two
devices. It establishes a connection, ensures data integrity, retransmits lost or corrupted packets, and
guarantees that data arrives in the correct order. TCP is commonly used for applications where data
accuracy and completeness are crucial, such as web browsing, email, and file transfers. Currently,
TCP is used by many popular applications.
▫ User Datagram Protocol (UDP): provides connectionless communication offers minimal services
compared to TCP and does not guarantee the reliability of packet transmission. The reliability can
be ensured by the application layer.
▫ It provides a simple, lightweight way to send data between devices without the overhead of
establishing and maintaining connections or ensuring reliability. UDP is often used for real-time
applications, such as voice and video streaming, online gaming, and certain types of IoT (Internet
of Things) communications, where some data loss can be tolerated, and low latency is essential.

• Network layer
▫ Internet Protocol (IP): encapsulates transport-layer data into data packets and forwards packets
from source sites to destination sites. IP provides a connectionless and unreliable service.
▫ Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP): manages multicast group memberships.
Specifically, IGMP sets up and maintains memberships between IP hosts and their directly
connected multicast routers.
▫ Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): sends control messages based on the IP protocol
and provides information about various problems that may exist in the communication
 environment. Such information helps administrators diagnose problems and take proper measures
to resolve the problems
• Data link layer
▫ Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): is a data link layer protocol that works in point-to-point mode.
PPP is mainly used on wide area networks (WANs).
▫ Ethernet: is a multi-access and broadcast protocol at the data link layer, which is the most widely
used local area network (LAN) technology.
▫ Point-to-Point Protocol over Ethernet (PPPoE): connects multiple hosts on a network to a
remote access concentrator through a simple bridge device (access device). Common applications
include home broadband dialup access.

2.15.5 Osi Model Layer Devices

➢ Application layer => application Layer Gateway (ALG) – data

➢ Transport layer => firewalls make decisions based on the port number.
➢ Internet/network layer = routers and layer 3 switches examine the packets and make decisions based
on the IP address – to forward or not to forward the packets
➢ Data link layer => Bridges and switches – make decisions based on the physical address of the source or
destination address – to forward or not to forward a frame
➢ Physical layer => repeaters (transceivers) and hubs - Bits