MPT00203

TOPIC 3
- Cells STRUCTURE
- Organelles AND
- Membrane TRANSPORT (I)
 All living things are made of one or more
cells. According to the modern cell theory:
a) Cells are the basic unit of structure and
function in all living things.
b) One or more cells make up all living
things.
CELL c) Existing cells produce new cells via a
process called cell division.
d) Genetic information in the cells can be
passed from parent to daughter cells.
e) Metabolic reactions occur in cells of
similar species that have the same
chemical compositions and cell activities.
 • A cell is a cytoplasm mass bound
externally by a plasma (or cell) membrane.
• A cell contains different organelles with
specific functions for normal cell
operation. Primarily, cells can be
categorised as prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells.
CELL
• Prokaryotic cells (or unicellular
organisms) can be found in Prokaryotes
(pro, before; karyon, nucleus).
• Eukaryotic cells can be found in
Eukaryotes (eu, true). Eukaryotes may be
composed of only one cell (unicellular) or
many cells (multicellular).
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Cell size is usually very small (0.5 – 10 m Cell size is usually larger (10 – 100 m in
in diameter). diameter).
No nucleus. Double helix circular DNA is Have a nucleus surrounded by a double-
present in the nucleoid region of the membraned nuclear envelope. DNA is
cytoplasm. associated with protein histone to form
chromosomes. Circular DNA is present in
mitochondria and chloroplasts only.
No membrane-bounded organelles. Present of membrane-bounded organelles (e.g.,
endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts and
mitochondria).
Cell walls contain murein (peptidoglycan). Cell walls are present in plants (cellulose), algae
and fungi (chitin). Absent in animal cells.
No mitosis, meiosis and spindle formation. Mitosis and/or meiosis occur with spindle
formation.
 Prokaryotic cells Eukaryotic cells
Smaller 70S ribosomes occur in cytoplasm, Larger 80S ribosomes are present in the cell.
freely. 70S ribosomes are found in mitochondria
and chloroplasts only.
Some cells have simple flagella made up of ‘9+2’ arrangement of microtubules when
flagellin with no microtubules. flagella is present in some cells.
Respiratory enzymes are present in the No mesosomes. Mitochondria are sites of
mesosomes of bacteria and the plasma aerobic respiration that produce energy
membrane of cyanobacteria. No (ATP).
mitochondria.
Capsules are present in some bacteria to No capsule.
prevent dehydration and to protect against
attacks by their hosts’ immune system.
Pili and shorter fimbriae may be present in No pili and fimbriae.
some cells.
In general, all living things can be classified by
the five-kingdom classification as proposed
by Margulis and Schwartz in 1982:
a) Prokaryotae,
b) Fungi, PROKARYOTES
AND
c) Plantae, EUKARYOTES
d) Animalia, and
e) Protoctista (organisms that cannot be
classified under other kingdoms).
 THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY

According to the endosymbiotic theory, the eukaryotic cells consist

of organelles originating from prokaryotic microbes:
• Mitochondrion was formed due to the ingestion of aerobic
respiration bacterium.
• Chloroplast was formed due to the ingestion of photosynthetic
bacterium.
• The ingested bacteria lost cell walls and most DNA materials
because of no functions within the host cells.
 THE ENDOS YMBIOTIC THEORY

The endosymbiotic theory consists of the following

evidence:
• The sizes of chloroplast and mitochondrion are the
same as those of prokaryotic cells, and both can be
divided by binary fission-like bacteria.
• Chloroplast and mitochondrion have their own
circular DNA.
• Chloroplast and mitochondrion have 30S and 50S
subunits of ribosomes but not 40S and 60S.
• Several primitive eukaryotic microbes have no
mitochondria but a nuclear membrane, e.g., Giardia
Giardia is a tiny parasite (germ) that causes
and Trichomonas. the diarrheal disease giardiasis.
THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
 TISSUES AND ORGANS IN ORGANISMS

In multicellular A collection of Different organs

organisms, a group of tissues works can work
cells works together, together as a unit together as an
forming a tissue that to perform the organ system to
has a similar embryonic functions of an contribute to the
origin and organ. overall health of
differentiation for multicellular
particular functions. organisms.

E.g., heart, lungs

and kidneys. E.g., respiratory,
E.g., connective,
digestive, muscular,
epithelial, muscle
urinary, nervous
and nervous
and reproductive
tissues.
systems
 ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

• Both plant and animal cells are

eukaryotic, hence, they contain
membrane-bound organelles, e.g.,
nucleus and mitochondria.
• However, plant and animal cells do
not exactly have the same organelles
due to their different needs.
 CELL ORGANELLES

• Organelles are specific structures present in a cell

with specialised functions.
• They are anchored in the cytoplasm via a cytoskeleton
and protected by the cell membrane.
• They can be enclosed separately in their lipid bilayers
(i.e., membrane-bound organelles) or as distinct
functional units without a surrounding lipid bilayer (i.e.,
non-membrane-bound organelles).
• Almost all organelles are suspended in the cytosol of
cytoplasm, but some may occur as functional units
extending outside of the cells (e.g., cilia and flagellum).
 In general, the cytosol (intracellular fluid) consists
of:
a) About 90% of water and solutes (e.g., amino
acids, enzymes, fatty acids, nucleotides, ATP,
sugars and dissolved gases).
b) Large molecules (e.g., proteins) which form
colloids.
ORGANELLES
c) Microfilaments and microtubules form the
cytoskeleton and provide strength and support
to the cells. They provide shape to the cell
while preventing it from collapsing.
d) Biochemical reactions transform one molecule
to a different type of molecule (mediated by
enzymes) inside the cells, for example,
glycolysis.
 NUCLEUS

• The nucleus controls

cell activities and cell
division.
• The nucleus produces
mRNA, tRNA and
rRNA, which are
needed for protein
and enzyme synthesis.
 ENDOPLASMIC
RETICU LUM (E R)

• Rough ER is abundant in
growing rapidly or secretory
cells (e.g., pancreatic cells),
where modified proteins are
budded off and transported to
the Golgi apparatus.
• Smooth ER is the site that
syntheses lipids (e.g.,
phospholipids, cholesterol,
triglycerides and steroid
hormones) and carries out
carbohydrate metabolism.
 GO LGI
APPARATUS

• Golgi apparatus receives, stores and

modifies transport vesicles
(containing proteins and lipids) from
the ER.
• The fusion of Golgi vesicles with
cytoplasmic membrane maintains
the membrane that forms pinocytic
vesicles and phagocytic vacuoles.
• Produce lysosomes containing
hydrolytic enzymes.
• Produce peroxisomes containing
enzymes involved in metabolic
activities.
• Secrete polysaccharides that form
cell walls and cell plates in plants.
 LYSOSOMES

• Primary lysosomes fuse with food

vacuole to form secondary
lysosomes, where hydrolytic
enzymes are released to break
down the food into smaller particles
for absorption.
• SER can surround worn-out
organelles to form an
autophagosome, which fuses with a
lysosome to break down the
organelles in autophagy. E.g.,
mitochondria.
• Enzymes are released to digest the
old or damaged cells during
autolysis.
 RIBOSOMES

• Site of protein synthesis.

• Ribosome moves along mRNA strands
to translate the genetic code and to
synthesise a polypeptide chain.
• On RER, ribosomes produce proteins
to be transported to the Golgi
apparatus and then processed into
hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes,
digestive enzymes and some hormones
for exocytosis.
• Free ribosomes in the cytoplasm
synthesise proteins and enzymes for
intracellular use.
 M ITO CHO N DR ION
(P LUR AL: MITO CHO ND RIA )

• Sites of cellular aerobic respiration.

• The largely folded cristae increase the
surface area for the electron
transport chain reactions.
• Energy is harnessed in the ATP
synthesis for energy-consuming
activities within the cell.
• The presence of DNA enables
mitochondria to replicate during cell
division.
• Plant vacuoles store food substances, e.g., VACUO LE
sugars, amino acids and mineral ions.
• The cell sap causes water to enter via
osmosis, and plant cells become turgid. It
controls cell shape and volume, supports
herbaceous plants and allows for the
enlargement and growth of young cells.
• Some cell vacuoles contain pigments to
attract insects for pollination, e.g., flower
petals.
• Waste products accumulated in vacuoles will
be removed from the plant when leaves fall.
• Food vacuoles enable bulk intake of large
food particles via endocytosis.
• Contractile vacuoles in the unicellular
organisms help to regulate water content
(e.g., Amoeba and Paramecium).
 CHLOROPLAST

• Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.

• Thylakoids and grana increase the
surface area for chlorophyll and
accessory pigments to capture light
energy and produce ATP and
NADPH.
• Stroma contains enzymes that carry
out the Calvin cycle.
 MICROBODIES

• Peroxisomes contain
oxidative enzymes, e.g.,
catalase breaks down
hydrogen peroxide into
water and oxygen.
• Glyoxysomes catalyse the
conversion of fat and oils
into sugars using enzymes
until the germinating
seedlings can produce
sugars via photosynthesis
(e.g., peanut plants).
 CENTRIOLES

• Centrioles are the

organisers of microtubules
spindle fibres, which
separate sister chromatids
or chromosomes during
cell division.
• In certain cells, centrioles
divide to produce basal
bodies that can develop
into flagella and cilia.
 FLAGELLA
AND CILIA

Flagella and cilia are important in:

• cell motility (e.g., Euglena and
Chlamydomonas), acquiring food
(e.g., Paramecium cilia), and
• propelling fluids (e.g., cilia
lining in the respiratory tract to
move trapped particles and
mucus).
 CE LL ME MB RANE

• The cell membrane is semi-

permeable.
• It protects the cell contents (or
cytoplasm) from the
extracellular environment.
• The cell membrane consists of a
phospholipid bilayer, where
protein molecules are embedded
partially on the outer and inner
surfaces or penetrate through
the membrane.
• Cell membranes generally vary
across different types of cells FOUR MA JOR
COMP ONE NTS OF TH E
with their own protective CE LL ME M BRANE
mechanisms.
 PROPERTIES OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

The level of membrane fluidity is affected by the composition of:

• Phospholipid molecules and some proteins that can move
laterally or change their positions;
• Unsaturated fatty acids can form kinks due to their double
bonds, prevent close packing of phospholipid molecules and
promote the movement of substances across the membrane;
 PROPERTIES OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

The level of membrane fluidity is affected by the composition of:

• Cholesterols can reduce the movement of phospholipid
molecules and decrease the fluidity at moderate temperatures. They
can prevent the close packing of phospholipid molecules at low
temperatures and slow down membrane solidification. Higher
temperatures can increase the membrane fluidity.
• Scattered proteins in the phospholipid bilayer give a mosaic
appearance while having different structures and functions.
 In general, substances can move in and
out of a cell via:
• passive transport (diffusion,
DIFFERENT facilitated diffusion and osmosis),
TYPES OF • active transport,
MEMBRANE
TRANSPORT • endocytosis (phagocytosis,
pinocytosis and receptor-mediated
endocytosis) and
• exocytosis.
 PASSIVE TRANSPORT

Passive transport
consists of three types
Passive transport is the
This process does not of movements:
movement of ions and
require ATP and energy • Diffusion
molecules down their
expenditure.
concentration gradient. • Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
 DIFFUSION

• Permeable to very small uncharged

molecules (e.g., O2, CO2) and
hydrophobic substances (e.g.,
steroids).
• The concentration gradient, surface
area, temperature, size and nature of
the diffusing molecules influence the
diffusion rate.
• The net movement of solutes will
stop when the solute concentrations
between the inner and outer plasma
membrane have equilibrated.
• It is aided by transmembrane protein
channels and carrier proteins that FACILITATED DIFFUS ION
create channels to facilitate the diffusion,
thus increasing the diffusion rate.
• Some protein channels can form specific
water-filled hydrophilic channels (charged
ions, e.g., K+, Na+, Ca2+, CI- and HCO3-),
gated-channels (e.g., ligand-gated and
voltage-gated channels) and aquaporins
(specified channels for water).
• Carrier proteins allow small hydrophilic
organic molecules (e.g., glucose and
amino acids) to pass through a plasma
membrane.
• The number of carrier proteins limits
the rate of facilitated diffusion so that
saturation can occur due to increased
solute concentrations.
 OSMOSIS
• Water molecules passively move from a
region of higher water concentration to a
region of lower water concentration across
a semipermeable plasma membrane.
• Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure
needed to achieve no net movement of
water molecules across the membrane.
This is important to stop the excessive
inward flow of water molecules into the
cells.
• Osmotic pressure between the cell’s
content and its hypotonic environment can
maintain a cell's turgor (or hydrostatic)
pressure.
 • Involves the movement of molecules or ions
against their concentration gradients across a
plasma membrane with a protein pump.
• This process requires energy expenditure
provided by ATP.
ACTIVE • Higher respiratory rates and a larger number
TRANSPORT of mitochondria are found in the cells that
carry out active transport to generate a large
amount of ATP.
• Active transport can be slowed down (or
inhibited) due to a lack of oxygen (e.g.,
respiratory and cyanide poisons).
 1. Direct (primary active transport)
• Directly use metabolic energy to transport
substances or molecules across a plasma membrane.
• For example, ATP is hydrolysed using a sodium-
potassium pump (Na+-K+ pump).
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT 2. Indirect (secondary active transport)
• ATP is used by Na+ protein pumps to pump Na+
ions out of the cells.
• The Na+ ion and glucose molecule bind to the
same transmembrane protein (cotransport
proteins) to enter the cell.
 • The binding of a phosphate
NA+-K+ PU MP group to the protein pump
changes the protein
conformation.
• 3Na+ ions are actively
transported out of the cell for
every 2K+ ions pumped against
their concentration gradient
into the cell.
• This generates different ionic
charges between the inner and
outer membrane, which is
important for transmitting
nerve impulses.
• The Na+ concentration
gradient is also used for the
coupled uptake of solutes (e.g.,
glucose) against their
concentration.
 TYPES OF MEMBRANE PROTEINS INVOLVED IN AC TIVE
TRANSPORT

a) Uniport carriers: a single ion or molecule transported in only one direction;

b) Symport carriers: two substances transported in the same direction and
c) Antiport carriers: two substances transported in opposite directions.
 ENDOCYTOSIS

Endocytosis is the bulk transport of material into a cell.

This process requires energy from ATP. Three types of
endocytosis in animal cells:

I. Phagocytosis:
• Formation of cytoplasmic projections by the
extension of plasma membrane and cytoplasm around
solid particles.
• The projections will fuse together and trap the solid
particles within a vacuole.
• The vacuole moves into the cell and fuses with a
lysosome, where hydrolytic enzymes are released to
digest the solid particles into smaller particles, which
will be absorbed into the surrounding cytoplasm.
 ENDOCYTOSIS

2. Pinocytosis:
• Formation of small flask-shaped vesicles by
the inward invagination of the plasma
membrane.
• The vesicle is pinched off to form a
pinocytic vesicle and then fuses with a
lysosome to break down the contents.
• The pinocytic vesicles are smaller than
phagocytic vacuoles, containing dissolved
solutes and fluid from the extracellular
environment.
 ENDOCYTOSIS

3. Receptor-mediated endocytosis:
• Selective uptake of specific
macromolecules.
• For example, a cholesterol molecule
binds to a specific receptor protein on
the plasma membrane that triggers the
inward folding of the membrane,
followed by the formation of a vesicle
that carries the cholesterol molecule
into the cell.
 EX OCYTOSIS

• Exocytosis is an active transport process

that moves materials in bulk out of a cell,
which requires energy from ATP.
• A vesicle membrane becomes incorporated
into the plasma membrane, which can
restore the membrane surfaces used in
endocytosis.
• The vesicle releases materials such as
hormones, enzymes and excretory
products.
 a) supply cells with raw materials for
anabolism and oxygen for
IMPORTANCE respiration;
OF THE b) excrete toxic waste substances;
MOVEMENT
OF c) secrete useful substances for cell
SUBSTANCES activities and
VI A CELL d) regulate the pH level and solute
MEMBR ANE concentration to maintain a stable
internal environment that allows
enzymes to function optimally.
 THANK YOU FOR
YOUR ATTENTION
 TUTORIAL 3 (5%)
ROLES OF OSMOSIS
Explain ONE (1) osmosis role for each animal and plant, using relevant
examples.