COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

AND
ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE
Questions

Prepared by Asifa Khaliq

Question 1-What is Assembly Language? Also describe why we learn it, discuss some benefits.
What is Assembly Language?
Assembly language is a low-level programming language that uses symbolic codes, known as
mnemonics, to represent machine-specific instructions. It is the closest human-readable
representation of machine code, which is the binary code that a computer's processor
understands. Assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture, such as x86,
ARM (Advanced RISC Machines.), or MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second). It uses a syntax that
is similar to human language, but it is still a very low-level language that requires a good
understanding of computer hardware and architecture.
Why do we learn Assembly Language?
We learn assembly language for several reasons:
1. Understanding Computer Architecture: Assembly language helps us understand how
computers work at a fundamental level. It teaches us about the processor, memory, and
input/output devices.
2. Low-Level Programming: Assembly language is the closest language to machine code. It
allows us to write code that is highly optimized for performance and efficiency.
3. Embedded Systems: Assembly language is often used in embedded systems, such as robotics,
automotive systems, and medical devices, where resources are limited and efficiency is critical.
4. Reverse Engineering: Knowledge of assembly language is essential for reverse engineering,
which involves analyzing and modifying existing software or hardware.
5. Security: Understanding assembly language is important for security professionals, as it helps
them analyze and exploit vulnerabilities in software.
Benefits of Learning Assembly Language
1. Improved Understanding of Computer Systems: Learning assembly language helps you
understand how computers work at a fundamental level.
2. Better Programming Skills: Learning assembly language teaches you how to write efficient,
optimized code, which is a valuable skill for any programmer.
3. Career Opportunities: Knowledge of assembly language is a valuable skill in many industries,
including embedded systems, security, and reverse engineering.
4. Problem-Solving Skills: Learning assembly language requires you to think critically and solve
problems at a low level, which helps develop your problem-solving skills.
5. Foundational Knowledge: Assembly language provides a foundation for learning higher-level
programming languages and understanding how they work.
Question 2-Differentiate between CISC and RISC design approaches.
CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing) and RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing)
CISC Design Approach Characteristics
1. Complex Instruction Set: CISC processors have a large number of instructions, often with
complex and specialized functions.
2. Microcode: CISC processors use microcode to implement complex instructions, which can
lead to slower execution times.
3. Variable Instruction Length: CISC instructions can have varying lengths, making it harder to
predict instruction execution times.
4. Hardware-Based Implementation: CISC processors rely heavily on hardware to implement
instructions, which can make them more complex and power-hungry.
Advantages
1. Improved Code Density: CISC processors can execute complex tasks with fewer instructions,
resulting in more compact code.
2. Better Performance for Specific Tasks: CISC processors can be optimized for specific tasks,
such as string manipulation or encryption.
RISC Design Approach Characteristics
1. Reduced Instruction Set: RISC processors have a smaller number of instructions, often with
simple and general-purpose functions.
2. Load/Store Architecture: RISC processors use a load/store architecture, where data is loaded
into registers before being processed.
3. Fixed Instruction Length: RISC instructions typically have a fixed length, making it easier to
predict instruction execution times.
4. Software-Based Implementation: RISC processors rely more on software to implement
instructions, which can make them more flexible and efficient.
Advantages
1. Improved Performance: RISC processors can execute instructions faster due to their simpler
and more predictable architecture.
2. Lower Power Consumption: RISC processors tend to consume less power due to their simpler
hardware implementation.
3. Easier Design and Testing: RISC processors are generally easier to design and test due to their
simpler architecture.
Question 3-Briefly explain Virtual Machine concept.
A virtual machine (VM) is a virtual environment which functions as a virtual computer system
with its own CPU, memory, network interface, and storage, created on a physical hardware
system.
VMs are isolated from the rest of the system, and multiple VMs can exist on a single piece of
hardware, like a server. That means, it as a simulated image of application software and operating
system which is executed on a host computer or a server.
Characteristics of virtual machines
The characteristics of the virtual machines are as follows –
Software-based: VMs are implemented in software, rather than hardware.
Multiple OS systems use the same hardware and partition resources between virtual
computers.
Separate Security and configuration identity.
Portability: VMs can run on any host machine that supports the VM software.
Question 4-What are the x86 processors three basic modes of operations?
The x86 processors have three basic modes of operation:
1. Real Mode: This is the original mode of operation for the 8086 processor. In Real Mode, the
processor uses a 16-bit address bus, allowing it to access up to 1 MB of memory.

2. Protected Mode: Introduced with the 80286 processor, Protected Mode allows the processor
to access up to 16 MB of memory using a 24-bit address bus. This mode provides memory
protection, multitasking, and virtual memory capabilities.

3. Long Mode: Introduced with the AMD64 (x86-64) architecture, Long Mode allows the
processor to access up to 2^64 bytes of memory using a 64-bit address bus. This mode provides
additional registers, improved performance, and enhanced security features.
Question 5-Differentiate between instruction and directive.
In assembly language programming, instructions and directives are two distinct types of
statements:
Instructions
1. Machine-specific code: Instructions are machine-specific code that the processor executes
directly.
2. Perform operations: Instructions perform specific operations, such as data transfer,
arithmetic, logical, or control flow operations.
3. Generated machine code: When assembled, instructions are translated into machine code
that the processor can execute.
Directives
1. Assembly language statements: Directives are assembly language statements that provide
instructions to the assembler.
2. Control assembly process: Directives control the assembly process, telling the assembler how
to assemble the code.
3. Do not generate machine code: Directives do not generate machine code and are not
executed by the processor.
Question 6-Addressing mods
In assembly language, addressing modes are used to specify how the processor accesses and
manipulates data in memory. Here are the common addressing modes:
1. Immediate Addressing Mode
- The data is embedded directly in the instruction.
- Example: MOV AX, 10 (Move the value 10 into the AX register)
2. Register Addressing Mode
- The data is stored in a register.
- Example: MOV AX, BX (Move the value in the BX register into the AX register)
3. Direct Addressing Mode
- The memory address is specified directly in the instruction.
- Example: MOV AX, [1000H] (Move the value at memory address 1000H into the AX register)
4. Indirect Addressing Mode
- The memory address is stored in a register.
- Example: MOV AX, [BX] (Move the value at the memory address stored in the BX register into
the AX register)
5. Indexed Addressing Mode
- The memory address is calculated by adding a base address and an index register.
- Example: MOV AX, [BX+SI] (Move the value at the memory address calculated by adding the
BX and SI registers into the AX register)
6. Relative Addressing Mode
- The memory address is specified relative to the current instruction pointer.
- Example: JMP LABEL (Jump to the label relative to the current instruction pointer)
Question 7- Explain CMP instruction. Also discuss the effects on flag registers.
The CMP (Compare) instruction is a fundamental instruction in assembly language programming.
It compares the values of two operands and sets the flags in the flag register accordingly.
Syntax
The general syntax of the CMP instruction is:
CMP destination, source
Operation
The CMP instruction subtracts the source operand from the destination operand and sets the
flags based on the result of the subtraction. However, the flags are set based on the result of the
subtraction, but the result itself is not stored anywhere.
Effects on Flag Registers
The CMP instruction affects the following flags in the flag register:
- Zero Flag (ZF): Set if the result of the subtraction is zero.
- Carry Flag (CF): Set if the result of the subtraction requires a borrow (for unsigned numbers).
- Overflow Flag (OF): Set if the result of the subtraction overflows (for signed numbers).
- Sign Flag (SF): Set if the result of the subtraction is negative.
- Parity Flag (PF): Set if the result of the subtraction has an even number of 1 bits.
Example

Suppose we want to compare the values of two variables, AX and BX.

CMP AX, BX

If AX is equal to BX, the ZF flag will be set. If AX is greater than BX, the CF flag will be clear. If AX
is less than BX, the CF flag will be set.