Module- 1

Introduction to Cognitive
Psychology
Definition
Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology focused on the study of mental
processes. It explores how people perceive, think about, learn, remember, and
understand information. This field seeks to understand the internal processes that
underpin behaviors and how individuals interact with the world around them through
cognitive functions.
Cognition (Ashcraft, 2002)
The collection of mental processes and activities used in perceiving, learning,
remembering, thinking, and understanding, and the act of using those processes
 Perception: How we interpret sensory information to understand the world.
For instance, studying why objects look farther away on foggy days due to perceptual
distortions.
 Memory: How we encode, store, and retrieve information.
Examples include why we remember some events vividly while forgetting others, and
factors influencing memory recall.
 Learning: Mechanisms and theories of how we acquire new knowledge or skills,
including language acquisition and the role of practice and feedback.
 Thinking and Problem-Solving: How we use cognitive processes to make
decisions, solve problems, and understand complex concepts. This includes
examining heuristics like the availability heuristic, which affects how we judge
the likelihood of events based on their recall.

Historical Perspective:
 Studying the history of cognitive psychology helps understand its development
and avoid repeating past mistakes.
 The field evolves through a dialectic process:
o Thesis: Initial belief or statement.
o Antithesis: Counter-argument to the thesis.
o Synthesis: Integration of thesis and antithesis to form a new
understanding.
Nature vs. Nurture:
The "nature vs. nurture" debate is a longstanding discussion in psychology and
other fields about the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and
environmental factors (nurture) to human development and behavior.
Nature (Genetics) - Nature refers to the genetic or hereditary influences on
behavior and development. It emphasizes the role of biological factors, such as genes
and brain structures, in shaping who we are.
 Genetic Predispositions: Traits and behaviors can be inherited from our
parents through genes. For instance, certain genetic conditions, like cystic
fibrosis, are directly caused by inherited mutations.
 Innate Abilities: Some psychologists argue that abilities such as intelligence or
temperament have a strong genetic basis. For example, studies of twins raised
apart have shown that identical twins often exhibit similar traits, suggesting a
genetic influence.
 Evolutionary Psychology: This approach suggests that many human
behaviors are the result of evolutionary adaptations. For instance, fear
responses to certain stimuli might have evolved as survival mechanisms.

Nurture (Environment) - Nurture encompasses the environmental influences on

behavior and development. This includes the impact of upbringing, culture, education,
and experiences.
 Learning and Experience: Behavior is shaped by interactions with the
environment. For example, language acquisition is heavily influenced by the
linguistic environment a child is exposed to.
 Cultural and Social Factors: Our behaviors and attitudes are often influenced
by the cultural and social contexts in which we live. For instance, social norms
and cultural practices can shape our values and behaviors.
 Critical Periods: Certain aspects of development, such as language learning,
are thought to be most effective during specific time windows in early
childhood, highlighting the importance of environmental factors during these
periods.

Dialectic Progression:
 Ideas evolve through thesis-antithesis-synthesis cycles, leading to refined
understanding and new theses. This process helps advance cognitive
psychology and address complex questions about human thought and behavior.

Unit 1: History of Cognitive Psychology.

The study of cognitive psychology is rooted in two broad approaches: philosophy and
physiology.
 Philosophy: Uses introspection to understand inner ideas and experiences.
 Physiology: Employs empirical methods (based on observation) to study life-
sustaining functions.

Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology:

Early philosophical conceptions of consciousness were shaped by Greek philosophers
like Plato and Aristotle.
Plato, in his exploration of mentally disturbed individuals who had committed
criminal acts, believed that they should not be held responsible for their actions in the
same way as normal individuals.
 He advocated for community care and psychological treatment for those with
mental disorders, showing an early understanding of individual differences and
sociocultural influences on behavior.
Plato's approach included "hospital" care and therapeutic conversations to promote
the well-being of individuals' souls. However, he, like many of his time, still believed
that some mental disorders had divine causes.
Aristotle, a student of Plato, made significant contributions to psychology,
particularly in his descriptions of consciousness.
He believed that directed thinking could alleviate pain and lead to pleasure.
Aristotle argued against psychological factors causing mental disorders, focusing
on the Hippocratic theory of bodily fluid disturbances, particularly bile, as the root
cause.
He associated very hot bile with amorous desires, verbal fluency, and even suicidal
impulses.
Early philosophical ideas laid the groundwork for comprehending the intricacies of
human consciousness and mental disorders, paving the way for future
advancements in this field.

Rationalism vs. Empiricism:

Rationalism is the belief that knowledge comes primarily from logical
reasoning and intellectual analysis rather than sensory experience.
René Descartes (1596-1650), a French philosopher, is a notable rationalist. He
argued that introspection and reflective thought were superior methods for
uncovering truths about the human mind. Descartes famously declared, "Cogito, ergo
sum" ("I think, therefore I am"), emphasizing the importance of thought and reason in
understanding existence.
Contribution: Rationalism has influenced the development of theories in cognitive
psychology by providing a framework for logical analysis and conceptual clarity.
However, without empirical validation, rationalist theories could remain speculative.
Empiricism posits that knowledge is acquired through sensory experience and
observation. Empiricists rely on evidence gathered through the senses to form
conclusions about the world.
John Locke (1632-1704), a British philosopher, championed empiricism. Locke
introduced the concept of tabula rasa (Latin for "blank slate"), arguing that humans
are born without innate ideas and that knowledge is gained through experience. For
Locke, understanding the mind required studying how experiences shape knowledge.
Contribution: Empiricism has laid the foundation for scientific methods in
psychology, emphasizing observation, experimentation, and evidence-based
conclusions.
The Dialectical Synthesis
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
 Contribution: Kant provided a synthesis of rationalism and empiricism. He argued
that both introspective reasoning (rationalism) and sensory experience
(empiricism) are essential for acquiring knowledge. According to Kant, while
 sensory data provide raw information, rational processes are necessary to organize
and interpret this information.
 Impact: Kant's dialectical approach helped shape modern psychology by
advocating for a balanced integration of theoretical frameworks and empirical data.
His ideas influenced subsequent psychological theories and research
methodologies, emphasizing that empirical observations should be guided by
theoretical constructs.
Modern Psychology
 Synthesis in Contemporary Psychology: Today’s cognitive psychology
reflects a synthesis of rationalist and empiricist approaches. Psychologists use
empirical methods to collect data and test hypotheses while also relying on
theoretical frameworks to interpret and understand their findings.
 Integration of Theory and Data: Modern cognitive psychology often involves
developing theoretical models that are then tested and refined based on
empirical research. This approach helps ensure that theories are grounded in
observable phenomena and that empirical observations are meaningfully
interpreted within theoretical contexts.

Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology: Early

Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition
The early dialectic in psychology involved structuralism and functionalism, two
foundational approaches to understanding the mind.

Structuralism
Structuralism is the first major school of thought in psychology, aimed at
understanding the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their
most basic components.
 This approach sought to identify the fundamental elements of consciousness and
how they combine to form complex perceptions.
 The primary method employed by structuralists was introspection, which
involved examining one's own conscious experiences in a controlled manner.
For instance, when perceiving a flower, structuralists would analyze the experience in
terms of basic sensory components like color, shape, and size.
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Contribution: Often considered the founder of experimental psychology, Wundt
established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in Germany in
1879. He used introspection to study sensory experiences and mental processes.
Approach: Wundt's approach was systematic and focused on understanding the basic
elements of consciousness through rigorous experimental methods. His work laid the
groundwork for psychology as an experimental science.
Criticism: Wundt’s reliance on introspection was criticized for its subjectivity and lack
of reliability. Critics argued that introspective reports were often inconsistent and
difficult to verify across different individuals.
 Edward Titchener (1867-1927)
Contribution: A student of Wundt, Titchener brought structuralism to the United
States and further developed the approach. He focused on cataloguing the
components of consciousness and their associations.
Approach: Titchener emphasized the analysis of conscious experiences into basic
elements, like sensations, images, and feelings. He also faced criticism for the limited
scope of introspection and the difficulty in measuring complex mental processes.

Criticisms and Decline

 Methodological Issues: Structuralism’s reliance on introspection was criticized
for its subjective nature. Introspective reports varied widely between individuals,
making it difficult to establish objective, replicable results.
 Focus on Elementary Processes: Critics also argued that structuralism’s focus
on the basic elements of sensation and perception overlooked the functional
aspects of mental processes—how they adapt to and interact with the
environment.

Contrast with Functionalism: functionalism emerged as a counterpoint to

structuralism, focusing on the purpose of mental processes and behaviors (how they
help individuals adapt to their environment) rather than just their structure.

Functionalism
Functionalism seeks to understand the processes of thought rather than its
contents. It is concerned with how mental processes work and why they function
the way they do.
 Functionalists sought to understand the processes of the mind and behavior rather
than just the elements or structures.
 They were interested in how and why mental processes work the way they do, and
how these processes help individuals adapt to their environments.
Pragmatism:
 Functionalism is closely associated with pragmatism, a philosophical approach that
values knowledge based on its practical usefulness and applications.
 Pragmatists ask not only what knowledge can tell us but also how it can be applied
to solve real-world problems.
 Functionalists emphasize the practical applications of psychological research, such
as improving educational practices, enhancing memory, and understanding
behavioral adaptation.
William James (1842-1910)
Contribution: William James is considered one of the leading figures in the
development of functionalism. His landmark work, "The Principles of Psychology"
(1890), is a foundational text that explores various aspects of mental processes from
a functional perspective.
Influence: James’s work addressed topics like attention, consciousness, and
perception. He argued that mental processes should be studied in terms of their
functions and purposes, rather than just their components.
Impact: James’s emphasis on the practical implications of psychological research
influenced the development of applied psychology and cognitive psychology. His ideas
remain relevant in contemporary discussions on topics such as attention and
consciousness.
John Dewey (1859-1952)
Contribution: John Dewey was another prominent figure in the functionalist
movement who significantly influenced educational psychology and the pragmatic
approach to thinking.
Philosophy: Dewey’s pragmatic approach emphasized the role of experience and
experimentation in education. He believed that learning should be based on real-life
experiences and problem-solving, which influenced modern educational practices.
Impact: Dewey’s ideas contributed to the development of educational psychology
and continued to shape discussions on effective teaching methods and learning
processes.

Associationism: An Integrative Synthesis

Associationism is an influential approach that explores how ideas and events
become linked in the mind, resulting in learning. It is less a formal school of thought
and more a framework for understanding mental processes.
 Contiguity: Associating items that occur together in time (e.g., thunder and
lightning).
 Similarity: Associating items with similar features or properties (e.g., associating
different types of fruits).
 Contrast: Associating items with polarities (e.g., hot/cold, light/dark).
Hermann Ebbinghaus:
 Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) was a pioneer in applying associationist
principles systematically.
 He conducted experiments on himself, measuring his errors and response times to
study memory and learning.
 Ebbinghaus introduced the concept of rehearsal (repetition of material to be
learned) and found that frequent repetition strengthens memory associations.
Edward Lee Thorndike:
 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) contributed significantly to associationism
with his law of effect (1905).
 The law of effect states that responses followed by satisfaction (rewards) are more
likely to be repeated, while those not followed by satisfaction are less likely to
recur.
 This principle explains how associations are formed through reinforcement, such as
a child solving math problems to receive rewards.

From Associationism to Behaviorism

 Behaviorism is a theoretical perspective that focuses solely on observable
behavior and its relationship with environmental stimuli, rather than internal
mental states.
 This approach aims to translate what were traditionally considered "mental"
processes into observable, physical phenomena.
 Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
Contribution: Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose research on classical
conditioning had a profound impact on the development of behaviorism. His work
began with the observation of dogs salivating at the sight of a lab technician, leading
to his exploration of involuntary learning.
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov discovered that dogs could learn to associate a
neutral stimulus (e.g., the sight of the technician) with a significant stimulus (e.g.,
food) through repeated pairings. This learning process involves creating an
involuntary response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Contingency and Temporal Contiguity: Pavlov’s work highlighted that effective
conditioning requires not only the temporal contiguity of stimuli but also contingency
—the association between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus
must be reliably present for learning to occur.
John B. Watson (1878-1958)
Role: Known as the "father" of radical behaviorism.
Viewpoint: Watson rejected the study of internal mental processes, focusing solely
on observable behavior.
Methodology: Watson shifted the focus of experimental research from humans to
animals, such as rats, due to the greater control it allowed over environmental and
behavioral variables.
Challenge: A key issue with animal research is determining its generalizability to
human behavior.
Famous Experiments: Watson conducted experiments such as the Little Albert
study, where he demonstrated that emotional responses could be conditioned in
humans. This work illustrated how behavior could be shaped by environmental
influences.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Role: A prominent radical behaviourist who extended behaviorism to explain a wide
range of human behaviors.
Viewpoint: Skinner argued that all human behavior could be understood through the
principles of operant conditioning, which involves the modification of behavior through
rewards (reinforcements) or punishments.
Research Focus: Skinner conducted extensive research with nonhuman animals and
applied his findings to various psychological phenomena, including learning, language
acquisition, and problem-solving.
Legacy: Skinner’s work greatly influenced psychology, and his focus on behaviorism
dominated the field for many decades.
Contribution: Skinner extended behaviorism with his development of operant
conditioning, focusing on how behaviors are shaped by their consequences.
Operant Conditioning: Skinner introduced the concepts of reinforcement and
punishment as key mechanisms in learning. He distinguished between positive and
negative reinforcement and various schedules of reinforcement.
Impact: Skinner’s work provided a comprehensive framework for understanding how
behavior is influenced by environmental factors and how it can be modified through
systematic reinforcement.

Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt psychology emerged as a significant critique of behaviorism, emphasizing a
holistic approach to understanding psychological phenomena. This approach
stands in contrast to behaviorism’s focus on breaking down behavior into smaller,
observable parts.
Holistic Understanding: Gestalt psychologists assert that psychological phenomena
should be understood as organized, structured wholes rather than as mere collections
of individual components. This perspective argues that the whole is different from,
and cannot be fully understood by analyzing, its individual parts.
Insight and Perception: Instead of focusing solely on observable behavior, Gestalt
psychology emphasizes insight and the mental processes involved in problem-solving.
For instance, while behaviorists might study problem-solving by examining subvocal
processes (internal verbalizations) and external behaviors, Gestalt psychologists are
interested in the moment of insight where a person suddenly grasps the solution to a
problem.
The Whole vs. the Sum of Its Parts: The Gestalt maxim "the whole differs from the
sum of its parts" highlights that understanding an experience or behavior requires
looking at the entire context rather than just the individual elements. For example, the
perception of a flower involves more than just its forms, colors, and sizes. It includes
the holistic experience of perceiving the flower in its entirety, which cannot be fully
captured by analyzing these individual attributes alone.
Gestalt psychologists employ various methods to study perception and cognition,
including:
 Experiments: Controlled experiments are used to investigate how people
perceive and interpret different stimuli and how these perceptions change
based on various factors.
 Observation: Detailed observational studies allow researchers to examine
natural behaviors and perceptual processes in real-world contexts, providing
insights into how individuals experience and organize sensory information.
Max Wertheimer (1880–1943): One of the founders of Gestalt psychology,
Wertheimer focused on perceptual phenomena and argued that the perception of
motion and form cannot be explained merely by analyzing the individual components.
Wolfgang Köhler (1887–1967): Another influential figure, Köhler studied problem-
solving and insight in animals, demonstrating that they could solve complex problems
through sudden insight rather than gradual trial-and-error processes.
Kurt Koffka (1886–1941): Koffka contributed significantly to the dissemination of
Gestalt principles, particularly in the context of perception and development.

Emergence of Cognitive Psychology

This approach focuses on understanding human behavior by examining internal
mental processes. It synthesizes elements from earlier theories like behaviorism and
Gestalt psychology. Cognitivism values internal cognitive processes, similar to
Gestaltism, but also employs precise, quantitative methods to study learning and
thinking, akin to behaviorism.

Early Role of Psychobiology

Karl Spencer Lashley (1890-1958)
Challenge to Behaviorism: Lashley, a former student of John B. Watson, challenged
the behaviorist view that the brain is a passive organ responding solely to
environmental stimuli. Instead, Lashley proposed that the brain actively organizes
behavior and plays a crucial role in complex activities.
Playing Piano Example
Lashley used complex behaviors, such as playing the piano, to illustrate his points. In
behaviorism, the sequence of playing piano notes from memory would be explained
through a series of stimulus-response associations. For example:
1. Stimulus: Seeing a music sheet or recalling a melody.
2. Response: Pressing the correct piano keys in sequence.
According to this view, each note or action is triggered by a specific stimulus and
leads to a specific response, forming an associative chain.
Research Focus: Lashley conducted experiments on brain lesions in animals to
understand the brain’s role in behavior and learning. He sought to identify how
different brain areas contribute to complex behaviors such as musical performance
and language use.
Findings: Lashley’s work suggested that cognitive functions are not localized to
specific brain areas but are distributed across the brain, a concept that influenced
later research on neural networks and cognitive processes.

Donald Hebb (1949)

Cell Assemblies: Hebb proposed that learning is based on the formation of "cell
assemblies," which are networks of neurons that become more efficient at firing
together through repeated stimulation. This concept contributed to the understanding
of neural mechanisms underlying learning and memory.
Influence: Hebb’s ideas provided a biological basis for understanding cognitive
functions, bridging the gap between behaviorist theories and the emerging cognitive
perspective.
Critique of Behaviorism: Noam Chomsky (1959)
Critique of Skinner: Chomsky’s review of B.F. Skinner’s book on language
acquisition challenged the behaviorist view that language learning could be explained
solely by environmental contingencies and reinforcement.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky proposed that humans have an
innate "language acquisition device" that enables them to acquire language.
According to Chomsky, this device allows children to generate and understand novel
sentences that they have not previously encountered, suggesting that language
acquisition is guided by innate cognitive structures rather than just external
reinforcement.
Generative Grammar: Chomsky introduced the concept of generative grammar,
which emphasizes the role of internal cognitive structures in understanding and
producing language. This theory highlighted the complexity of language and the
limitations of behaviorist explanations.
Impact on Cognitive Psychology
Shift in Focus: Chomsky’s work and the research of Lashley and Hebb contributed to
the development of cognitive psychology by emphasizing the importance of internal
mental processes and biological underpinnings of cognition.
Cognitive Revolution: The cognitive revolution emerged as researchers began to
explore how cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and language are
organized and function within the brain. This shift led to the development of cognitive
psychology as a distinct field, focusing on understanding mental processes through
empirical research and theoretical models.

Add a Dash of Technology': Engineering, Computation, and Applied

Cognitive Psychology
The emergence of cognitive psychology was significantly influenced by
advancements in technology, engineering, and computational theories. These
developments helped shape the field into what it is today.
Technological and Computational Influences
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
 Turing Test: Alan Turing (1950) proposed the Turing Test as a way to evaluate a
machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a
human. This concept highlighted the potential of machines to simulate human
cognitive processes, sparking interest in artificial intelligence (AI).
 AI Development: By the mid-1950s, AI emerged as a field focused on creating
systems capable of intelligent information processing. Early AI programs, like those
used for playing chess, demonstrated that machines could perform tasks that
required problem-solving and decision-making, further inspiring cognitive
psychology.

Information Theory
Shannon and Weaver (1963): Information theory, initially developed to address
engineering problems related to communication, explored how information is
processed, transmitted, and understood. This theoretical framework influenced
cognitive psychology by providing models for understanding how humans process
information, analogous to how computers process data.

Early Applied Problems

Donald Broadbent was motivated to explore cognitive psychology due to practical
problems like distinguishing aircraft levers, which led him to study attention and
information processing.
During World War II, many cognitive psychologists, including Wendell Garner, applied
their expertise to military problems, advancing fields like information theory.
Information theory explores how people process information similarly to computers.

Application in Advertising:
John Watson and Advertising: After leaving academia, John Watson applied
psychological principles to advertising, showcasing how cognitive psychology could
influence practical fields. His success in using psychological insights for marketing
highlighted the relevance of cognitive theories in everyday applications.
Rise of Cognitive Psychology:
George Miller (1956)
"The Magic Number Seven": Miller’s research revealed that the average number of
items people can hold in working memory is about seven. This finding led to the
concept of channel capacity, which describes the limits of cognitive processing.
Miller's work was pivotal in establishing cognitive psychology as a field concerned with
quantifying mental capabilities.
Ulric Neisser (1967)
Cognitive Psychology Book: Neisser’s book, Cognitive Psychology, was
instrumental in bringing attention to the new field. He defined cognitive psychology as
the study of how people acquire, structure, store, and use knowledge. This definition
helped solidify cognitive psychology’s place in the academic landscape.
Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (1972)
Models of Human Thinking: Newell and Simon developed comprehensive models of
human problem-solving and decision-making, demonstrating how cognitive processes
can be systematically analyzed. Their work illustrated the potential of cognitive
psychology to model complex mental activities.

Concepts of Modularity and Domain-General Processing

Jerry Fodor (1973)
Modularity of Mind: Fodor introduced the idea that the mind consists of specialized
modules or systems for processing different types of information, such as language or
perception. This concept suggested that cognitive functions are localized in specific
brain areas and operate independently.
Modular vs. Domain-General Processing: The debate between modularity and
domain-general processing continues. While modularity suggests specialized cognitive
systems, domain-general processing posits that cognitive processes are more flexible
and interrelated across different domains.
Historical Precedents
Phrenology: The concept of mental modularity has historical roots in phrenology, a
pseudoscience developed by Franz-Joseph Gall in the late 18th century. Phrenology
proposed that cognitive abilities were linked to specific areas of the skull. While
phrenology itself was scientifically invalid, its focus on localized cognitive functions
influenced later, more rigorous theories of mental modularity.

Unit 2: Cognitive Psychology an interdisciplinary field

Cognitive psychology has had an enormous influence on the discipline of psychology.
Most cognitive psychologists prior to the 1980s did indeed conduct research in
artificial laboratory environments, often using tasks that differed from daily
cognitive activities.
A by-product of the cognitive revolution is that scholars from categorically discreet
areas—including linguistics, computer science, developmental psychology, and
cognitive psychology—got together and focused on their common interests such as
the structure and process of cognitive abilities.
Collectively, these individuals created a united front to defeat behaviourism.
The various interdisciplinary fields in cognitive psychology are elaborated below.
Artificial intelligence
A branch of computer science aiming to model human cognitive processes to
exhibit "intelligent behavior" and perform tasks akin to human abilities
Human Cognitive Accomplishments: AI research attempts to understand and
replicate tasks such as facial recognition, mental imagery, and creative expression
Computer metaphor for human cognition:
 Computer Metaphor: Suggests that human cognitive processes resemble how a
computer functions—processing information rapidly and accurately within a
structured, multipurpose system.
 Similarities: Both humans and computers:
o Compare symbols and make decisions based on comparisons.
o Have processing capacities, with computers having limited memory and
humans having limited attention.
 Modeling Cognitive Processes:
o Computer models require structures (like ingredients) and processes (like
cooking instructions) to simulate cognition (Thagard, 2005).
o Researchers aim to create precise, logical software programs to emulate
human cognitive flexibility and efficiency (Boden, 2004).
 Representation in AI: Flowcharts help outline how information flows through
cognitive processes, allowing researchers to theorize that similar tasks could imply
similar processes in humans and computers (Carpenter & Just, 1999).
 Limitations of the Metaphor:
o AI systems lack the comprehensive background knowledge and complex
goals humans possess, making them less effective in tasks like language
understanding and goal-setting in social contexts.
Pure Artificial Intelligence:
 Aims to create programs that complete cognitive tasks as efficiently as possible,
without mirroring human processes.
 Distinct from Computer Simulation: Unlike simulations, pure AI does not
replicate human cognitive methods; it focuses solely on task optimization.
 Example in Chess: Advanced AI, like the chess program Hydra, evaluates
numerous potential moves rapidly, surpassing human capabilities by identifying
errors even top players miss (Michie, 2004; Mueller, 2005).
 Applications of Pure AI: Systems can be designed for specific tasks such as
playing chess, speaking English, or diagnosing illnesses, although they are
specialized and not cross-functional (Franklin, 1995).
Computer Simulation:
 Seeks to replicate human cognitive processes by accounting for human limitations,
aiming for the computer to perform tasks similarly to humans, including producing
errors and correct responses (Carpenter & Just, 1999; Thagard, 2005).
 Focus Areas: Primarily used in research areas such as memory, language
processing, problem-solving, and logical reasoning (Bower, 2008; Eysenck & Keane,
2010; Thagard, 2005).
 Example in Language Processing: Carpenter and Just (1999) developed a
model that mirrors how humans read complex sentences, predicting slower
processing for challenging sections. Human data closely matched this simulation.
 Limitations of Computer Simulation: Many tasks, such as searching a cluttered
room, identifying objects in varied environments, or learning language, remain
beyond computer simulation capabilities due to the complexity and creativity
involved (Jackendoff, 1997; Sobel, 2001).
The Connectionist Approach:
 The connectionist approach (also known as parallel distributed processing or
neural-network approach) models cognitive processes as interconnected networks
that operate in parallel, unlike the linear, stage-by-stage (serial) processing in
classical AI.
 Parallel Processing: Emphasizes that many cognitive tasks happen
simultaneously rather than sequentially, enabling quick and accurate task
completion (Barrett, 2009; Gazzaniga et al., 2009).
 Neural Basis: Inspired by the structure of the brain’s cerebral cortex, where
information is distributed across neuron networks rather than localized in single
spots (Bermúdez, 2010; Rolls, 2004; Thagard, 2005).
 Advantages Over Classical AI: Unlike classical AI, which processes tasks serially,
the connectionist approach explains fast, subconscious cognitive tasks (e.g.,
instant visual perception) that cannot be managed efficiently through serial
processing (Bermúdez, 2010; Leahey, 2003).
 Application in Psychology: Widely adopted for various psychological models,
including studies on stereotypes and language acquisition, due to its ability to
simulate complex and flexible brain functions.
 Brain-Based Model: Uses the brain as a model instead of a computer, allowing it
to better capture the intricacies of human cognition and provide a more
sophisticated framework for understanding complex mental tasks (Woll, 2002).

Cognitive science
 Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand the mind,
integrating cognitive psychology, neuroscience, artificial intelligence,
philosophy, linguistics, anthropology, sociology, and economics.
 Focus on Internal Representations: Unlike behaviorism, which centers on
observable stimuli and responses, cognitive science emphasizes understanding
the internal representations of the external world.
 Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Cognitive scientists aim to connect various
academic disciplines to gain comprehensive insights, as no single field can
capture the complexity of cognition alone (Bermúdez, 2010; Sobel, 2001;
Thagard, 2005).
 Challenge of Breadth: The field is vast, and no individual can master all areas,
making collaboration essential to advance understanding in cognitive science.
 Unit 4: Introduction to models of cognitive Psychology:
Information Processing, connectionism.
Two paradigms of cognitive psychology
 Information processing approach
 Connectionist approach

Informational processing approach

The information-processing approach to memory, which began gaining traction in the
1960s, likens mental processes to computer functions. This approach proposes that
information flows through our cognitive system in stages, similar to data moving
through various stages in a computer. The foundational work of Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin in 1968 introduced a model that breaks down memory into three
primary components: sensory memory, short-term memory (now often referred to as
working memory), and long-term memory.
1. Sensory Memory: This is where external stimuli first arrive. Sensory memory
holds detailed information briefly (typically less than two seconds) for each
sense—like a fleeting visual or auditory impression. If not attended to, most of
this information fades quickly.
2. Short-Term (Working) Memory: Some sensory information transitions into
short-term memory, where only a limited amount of information is retained for a
short duration (around 30 seconds). This memory is somewhat more stable than
sensory memory, though it remains easily disrupted unless actively maintained
or rehearsed.
3. Long-Term Memory: From short-term memory, a small subset of information
makes it to long-term memory, where it can be stored indefinitely. Long-term
memory has a vast capacity and contains memories from recent events to those
formed decades ago.
While the Atkinson-Shiffrin model was highly influential, it has faced criticism and
evolution over the years. For example, cognitive psychologists now often view sensory
memory as more of a perceptual process than true memory. Additionally, the clear-cut
separation between short-term and long-term memory proposed by Atkinson and
Shiffrin has been challenged, with some researchers suggesting a more integrated
view of memory stages.
This model remains foundational in cognitive psychology, though researchers continue
to refine and expand upon its concepts to better understand how memory and
information processing function in the brain.

Connectionist approach
The connectionist approach, emerging in the 1980s as an alternative to the
information-processing model, seeks to explain cognition through networks of
interconnected processing units, often referred to as parallel-distributed processing
(PDP). This framework, inspired by the structure of neural networks, models cognitive
processes not as sequential steps but as simultaneous, interconnected activations
across many units or nodes. Each unit in a connectionist network represents a piece of
information and is linked to other units with "weights," which determine how much
influence one unit has on another.
Key Aspects of the Connectionist Model:
 1. Activation Levels and Connections: Units in a connectionist network have
activation levels that are influenced by both external input and their
connections to other units. Connections carry weights—positive (excitatory) or
negative (inhibitory)—that determine whether they activate or inhibit the units
they connect to. For instance, if one unit activates "Joe," this activation can
spread to associated attributes, like "professor" or "Subaru," while inhibiting
connections to incompatible units, like other individuals in the same category.
2. Parallel Processing: Unlike the step-by-step progression in information-
processing models, connectionist models assume parallel processing, where
multiple units can activate simultaneously. This enables a more dynamic
representation of cognition, as various processes unfold concurrently rather
than sequentially.
3. No Central Processor: Connectionism does not rely on a central processor to
direct the flow of information. Instead, cognitive processes emerge from
patterns of activation within the network itself. Knowledge is not stored in
discrete memory banks but is embedded within the connections between units,
meaning learning results from changes in these connective patterns.
4. Alignment with Neuroscience: The connectionist approach aligns more
closely with the structure and functioning of the brain than the information-
processing model, drawing on cognitive neuroscience to understand cognitive
functioning. It views neurons as computational units whose connections form
the basis for cognition, diverging from the conventional computer analogy of
information-processing models.
5. Subsymbolic Level of Explanation: Connectionist models focus on the
"subsymbolic" level, seeking to describe how cognitive processes are physically
implemented in the brain, as opposed to the more abstract explanations
provided by information-processing models.
Information Processing Connectionist

Computer metaphor Brain metaphor

Structuralism Functionalism
Serial processing Parallel processing
Explains processing on a Explains processing on a symbolic
symbolic level level
Computer science Cognitive neuropsychology,
cognitive neuroscience
Central processor Weighted connections
Cognition passing through a Cognition passing through a network
system

Unit 5: Limitations of laboratory studies and importance

of ecological validity.
Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
Goals of Research:
 Data Gathering: Collecting information about cognitive phenomena without initial
biases or preconceived notions.
 Data Analysis: Using statistical and other methods to interpret the data and
identify patterns.
 Theory Development: Creating general principles to explain cognitive
phenomena based on observations.
 Hypothesis Formulation: Generating testable predictions derived from theories.
 Hypothesis Testing: Conducting experiments to test these predictions and
determine their validity.
 Application: Applying research findings to practical situations to improve real-life
conditions.

Research Process:
 Describing Phenomena: Gathering data to describe cognitive processes, such as
face recognition or expertise development.
 Explaining Cognition: Moving beyond mere description to understanding how
and why cognitive processes occur.
 Theory Testing: Using theories to predict outcomes and generate hypotheses. For
example, understanding how people comprehend information from textbooks.
 Experimentation: Conducting experiments to test hypotheses and using
statistical analysis to assess the significance of the results. Statistical significance
helps determine if results are likely due to chance or reflect a true effect.
Revising Theories:
Feedback Loop: Experimentation and analysis can lead to further data gathering,
theory refinement, and hypothesis testing. Theories are revised based on
experimental findings and statistical analysis.
Applications:
Basic vs. Applied Research: Basic research aims to understand cognitive
processes, while applied research seeks to use this knowledge to address real-
world problems and improve conditions.

Ecological Validity
 Definition: Ecological validity refers to how well research findings apply to real-
world settings. High ecological validity means the research conditions closely
resemble those in everyday life.
 Example: A study where participants memorize unrelated words in a lab
environment is low in ecological validity because such tasks don’t reflect typical
real-life memory challenges.
 Historical Context: Earlier cognitive psychology experiments often had low
ecological validity, focusing on artificial tasks in controlled lab settings.
 Current Trends: Today, researchers frequently study real-world issues, like the
impact of cell phone use on driving (Chapter 3) and methods for improving
memory (Chapters 5-6). Cognitive psychology is also examining cognitive
processes in social interactions (e.g., Cacioppo & Berntson, 2005a).
 Conclusion: To advance, cognitive psychology should balance both ecologically
valid and laboratory-based research.
 Controlled Laboratory Experiments:
An experimenter conducts research in a laboratory setting in which he controls as
many aspects of the experimental situation as possible

Description of method – Obtain samples of performance at a specific place and

time within a controlled environment.
 To isolate and examine the effects of independent variables on dependent
variables while controlling for extraneous factors.

Validity of casual inferences:

 random assignment of subject – Ensures that each participant has an equal
chance of being assigned to any experimental group, reducing selection bias
and increasing internal validity.
 experimental control of independent variables– Researchers manipulate the
independent variables while keeping other variables constant to determine
causal relationships.

Sample size - Can vary from small to large, depending on the study's design and
objectives.

Sample representative - Samples may be representative, but this depends on how

the sample is selected and the extent to which it reflects the broader population.

Ecological validity – Not unlikely, but it largely depends on the task and context.
Ecological validity refers to how well findings generalize to real-world settings. It may
be compromised if the laboratory setting differs significantly from natural
environments.

Information about individual differences – Usually deemphasized in controlled

experiments, as the primary goal is to examine the effect of independent variables
rather than individual variability.

Strengths
 Ease of Administration: Controlled environments facilitate the management
of the experimental process.
 Scoring and Statistical Analysis: Relatively straightforward due to controlled
conditions, allowing for precise and reliable data analysis.
 High Probability of Valid Inferences: The rigorous control and random
assignment typically enhance the validity of causal inferences.

Weaknesses
 Generalizability Issues: Results may not always extend beyond the specific
experimental setting, time, and task. Findings may not accurately reflect real-
world behavior due to the artificial nature of laboratory conditions.
 Discrepancy with Real Life: The behavior observed in a controlled setting
might differ from behavior in naturalistic settings, potentially limiting the
applicability of the findings.
 Psychobiological Research:
Studies the relationship between cognitive performance and cerebral events and
structures

Description of method – Study brain structures and functions using postmortem

analyses and various psychobiological measures or imaging techniques. This can
involve:
 Postmortem Studies: Examination of brain tissues after death to understand
structural and biochemical properties.
 Imaging Techniques: Non-invasive methods such as MRI, fMRI, PET, or CT
scans to visualize brain activity and structure in living subjects.
 Other Measures: Includes electrophysiological recordings (e.g., EEG), or
psychobiological tests to assess brain function.

Validity of casual inferences:

 random assignment of subject – Not usual. In postmortem studies, subjects are
selected based on specific criteria, often related to pathology or research
questions. In imaging studies, random assignment is generally not feasible.

 experimental control of independent variables– Varies widely. In imaging

studies, researchers can control certain variables (e.g., task conditions) but are
limited by the technology's resolution and the subject's state. Postmortem
studies often involve less control over variables since the data are derived from
pre-existing conditions.

Sample size – Often small. Due to the complexity and expense of brain studies,
sample sizes are often limited, which can affect the generalizability of findings.

Sample representative – Particularly in postmortem studies, samples may be from

individuals with specific conditions, making it difficult to generalize findings to the
broader population. Animal studies may not always reflect human brain functions
directly.

Ecological validity – Postmortem studies lack ecological validity as they do not

capture the dynamic processes of living brains. Imaging studies can be more
ecologically valid if they simulate real-world tasks but may still be limited by
experimental conditions.

Information about individual differences – yes, These methods can provide

detailed insights into individual differences in brain structure and function, allowing
researchers to explore variability across different subjects

Strengths:
 Hard Evidence: Provides tangible evidence of cognitive functions by linking
them to physiological activity.
 Alternative Views: Offers insights into brain processes that might not be
available through other methods.
 Potential for Clinical Applications: Can lead to the development of
treatments for cognitive defects and neurological disorders.
Weaknesses:
 Limited Accessibility: Requires access to specialized equipment and often
involves high costs. For postmortem studies, access to suitable brain specimens
is a challenge.
 Generalizability Issues: Findings from studies of abnormal brains or animal
models may not always apply to the normal human brain population. The
specific conditions of the studies can limit the applicability of the results to
broader contexts.

Self-Reports:
Description of method – Collect participants' own reports of their cognitive
processes, either as they occur (verbal protocols), through self-assessment (self-
ratings), or through retrospective accounts (diaries and recollections).
 Verbal Protocols: Participants verbalize their thoughts while performing a
task, providing real-time insights into cognitive processes.
 Self-Ratings: Participants assess their own cognitive or emotional states using
standardized scales or questionnaires.
 Diaries: Participants record their thoughts, behaviors, or experiences over time,
providing detailed, longitudinal data.

Validity of casual inferences:

 random assignment of subject – Not applicable. Participants are not randomly
assigned; they self-select into the study or are assigned based on specific
criteria.
 Experimental control of independent variables– Probably not, Self-reports
generally do not involve controlling independent variables, as they focus on
capturing participants' subjective experiences rather than manipulating
experimental conditions.

Sample size – probably small. Due to the intensive nature of self-report methods and
potential burdens on participants, sample sizes are often smaller compared to other
research methods.

Sample representative - May be representative. The representativeness of the

sample depends on how participants are selected and their willingness to provide
detailed reports. While self-reports can reflect a range of experiences, they may not
always be generalizable to the broader population.

Ecological validity – may be strengths and weaknesses

Information about individual differences – yes, Due to the intensive nature of
self-report methods and potential burdens on participants, sample sizes are often
smaller compared to other research methods.

Strengths:
 Introspective Insights: Provides direct access to participants' introspective
experiences and cognitive processes, which might be unavailable through other
methods.
 Personal Perspective: Allows for understanding cognitive processes from the
participant’s own point of view, offering valuable qualitative data.
Weaknesses:
 Conscious Awareness Limitation: Participants may not be able to report on
cognitive processes occurring outside their conscious awareness, potentially
missing crucial aspects of cognition.
 Influence of Data Collection: The process of verbalizing thoughts or rating
experiences might influence the cognitive processes being reported, introducing
potential biases.
 Recollection Issues: Retrospective accounts (e.g., diaries) may suffer from
inaccuracies due to discrepancies between actual cognition and how it is
recalled, which can lead to biased or incomplete reports.

Case Studies:
Description of method – Conduct an in-depth and intensive study of a single
individual or a small group of individuals. The goal is to gain a comprehensive
understanding of their behaviors, experiences, or conditions and to draw conclusions
that may inform broader theories or practices.
 Techniques: Methods may include detailed interviews, observations,
psychological testing, and analysis of personal records or historical data.

Validity of casual inferences:

 random assignment of subject – Highly unlikely. Case studies focus on specific
individuals chosen based on particular characteristics or conditions, not through
random assignment.
 experimental control of independent variables– Highly unlikely, Case studies do
not typically involve manipulating independent variables or controlling
experimental conditions. They provide descriptive, rather than experimental,
data.

Sample size - Almost certain to be small. Case studies usually involve a very limited
number of subjects, often just one individual. This small sample size is intrinsic to the
method.

Sample representative - Not likely to be representative, Due to the focus on

specific individuals with unique characteristics or conditions, the findings from case
studies are not generally representative of the larger population.

Ecological Validity:
 High for Individual Cases: Case studies often have high ecological validity for
the individual or individuals being studied, as they provide a detailed and
nuanced understanding of their real-world context.
 Lower Generalizability: Findings from case studies may not generalize well to
other individuals or broader populations due to the unique nature of the cases
studied.

Information about individual differences – Yes, Provides richly detailed

information about individual differences, capturing unique aspects of the person’s
experiences, behavior, and context that might not be revealed through other
methods.
Strengths:
 Detailed Insight: Offers in-depth information about individuals, including their
historical and current contexts. This detailed perspective can uncover nuanced
insights that other methods might miss.
 Unique Cases: Can lead to the development of specialized applications or
interventions tailored to exceptional or atypical cases.
 Exploratory Value: Useful for exploring new or complex phenomena where
experimental methods might not be feasible or ethical.

Weaknesses:
 Limited Generalizability: The findings from case studies are often difficult to
generalize to other individuals or populations due to the small sample size and
the unique nature of the cases.
 Potential Biases: The intensive focus on individual cases can introduce biases
and make it challenging to maintain objectivity, especially when interpreting the
results or applying them more broadly.

Naturalistic Observation:
Description of method – Observes and records behavior in its natural context
without manipulating variables or introducing experimental conditions. This method
can be used in various settings such as classrooms, work environments, homes, or
public places.
 Techniques: Observers collect data by watching and recording behavior as it
naturally occurs, often using note-taking, video recording, or audio recording.

Validity of casual inferences:

 random assignment of subject – Not applicable. Naturalistic observation does
not involve random assignment since the focus is on observing behavior in its
natural context rather than conducting experiments.
 experimental control of independent variables– No control. Observers do not
manipulate independent variables or control experimental conditions, which
means they cannot establish causal relationships.

Sample size – Probably small. The sample size in naturalistic observation is often
limited by practical constraints, such as the observer's capacity to record behavior in
multiple settings or the availability of subjects.

Sample representative - May be representative. Depending on the context and

how subjects are selected, the sample may reflect real-world settings. However,
representativeness is not guaranteed and can vary based on the specific observations
made.

Ecological validity – yes, Naturalistic observation has high ecological validity

because it involves observing behavior in real-world settings, providing an accurate
reflection of how behavior occurs in everyday life.

Information about individual differences – Possible, While the primary focus is

on the environmental context and how it influences behavior, some information about
individual differences can be gathered. However, the emphasis is generally more on
the interaction between individuals and their environment rather than on individual
traits.
Strengths:
 Rich Contextual Information: Provides detailed insights into behavior as it
naturally occurs, capturing the complexities and nuances of real-life situations
that might be missed in controlled experiments.
 Real-World Relevance: The observations are directly relevant to everyday life,
making the findings applicable to real-world scenarios and practical contexts.

Weaknesses:
 Lack of Experimental Control: There is no control over variables or
conditions, which limits the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
The findings are descriptive rather than experimental.
 Observer Effect: The presence of an observer can influence participants'
behavior, potentially altering the naturalness of the observed interactions. This
is known as the observer effect or reactivity.
 Limited Generalizability: Findings from specific settings or small samples
may not generalize to other contexts or populations.

Computer Simulations and Artificial Intelligence:

Description of method
 Simulations: Use computer models to simulate human cognitive processes and
performance on various tasks. These models attempt to replicate how humans
solve problems, make decisions, or perform other cognitive functions.
To explore and understand cognitive processes by creating and testing computational
models of these processes.
 Artificial Intelligence (AI): Develops systems designed to demonstrate intelligent
behavior, which may or may not resemble human cognitive processes. AI systems
aim to perform tasks that typically require human intelligence, such as language
understanding, problem-solving, and learning.
To create machines that can perform tasks requiring cognition, regardless of whether
their processes align with human cognition.

Validity of casual inferences:

 random assignment of subject – Not applicable, These methods do not involve
random assignment, as they focus on modeling and simulating cognitive
processes rather than conducting experiments with human participants.
 eperimemtal control of independent variables– Full control of variables of
interest. In simulations and AI models, researchers can control and manipulate
the parameters and variables within the models, allowing for precise testing of
hypotheses.

Sample size - Not applicable In simulations and AI, the concept of sample size does
not apply as it does in empirical research. Instead, the focus is on the accuracy and
effectiveness of the computational models or algorithms.

Sample representative - Not applicable, Since these methods involve

computational models and algorithms, representativeness in the traditional sense
does not apply. The focus is on the model’s ability to accurately simulate cognitive
processes rather than on sampling from a population.
Ecological validity – Not applicable The ecological validity of computer simulations
and AI models is not directly relevant since these methods involve artificial
environments and scenarios. The primary concern is whether the models can
accurately replicate or demonstrate cognitive processes, rather than their real-world
applicability.

Information about individual differences – these methods do not typically focus

on individual differences, as they are concerned with modeling cognitive processes or
demonstrating intelligent behavior through artificial means.

Strengths:
 Exploration of Cognitive Processes: Allows researchers to explore a wide
range of possibilities for modeling cognitive processes and testing theories
about how cognition works.
 Testing Hypotheses: Provides a clear framework for testing hypotheses and
predicting outcomes based on computational models.
 Practical Applications: Can lead to practical applications in various fields,
including artificial intelligence, human-computer interaction, and cognitive
science.

Weaknesses:
 Generalizability Issues: Results from simulations and AI models may not
always generalize to real-life behavior or human cognition due to the artificial
nature of the models and the limitations of current technology.
 Hardware and Software Limitations: The accuracy and effectiveness of
simulations and AI models are constrained by the capabilities of current
hardware and software, which can impact the fidelity of the models.
 Distinction Between Human and Machine Intelligence: Even sophisticated
models may not perfectly capture the complexity of human cognition, leading to
discrepancies between simulated and real cognitive processes.

Limitations of laboratory study

 Although laboratory experiments are thought to have high levels of control, it is
very difficult to control every single different variable that may be influencing the
results.
 Confounding variables are factors (other than the independent variable) that could
cause changes in participants’ performance on the dependent variable if not
properly controlled by the experimenter.
 High level of control leads to experiment settings that are very unnatural, and
participants are often asked to complete very strange and bizarre tasks. Therefore,
individuals are more than likely going to behave very differently in laboratory
experiment situations than they would in real and natural settings.
 Consequently, laboratory experiments lack ecological validity and mundane
realism, as they are not true to real life.
 lack of ecological validity that surrounds laboratory experiments also makes it very
difficult to generalise finding from experiments to real life situations.
 Although it is believed that laboratory studies should have high internal validity,
this can be greatly reduced by demand characteristics. Demand characteristics are
cues that may allow participants to guess the aim of the experiment. If a
 participant is aware of certain aspects of the experiments they may try to behave
in a way that they think they are expected to behave.
 Experimenter effects - bias when experimenter's expectations affect behaviour.
 One further problem of laboratory experiments concerns ethics. There must always
be some form of deception involved in such experiments. However, there are
guidelines that must be followed regarding ethics, making it difficult for
researchers to produce ethical research
These principles you've outlined reflect fundamental concepts in cognitive psychology
and the broader field of psychological science.
1. Data without Theory is Meaningless; Theory without Data is Empty
o Explanation: Data provides the raw information or observations, while
theories offer explanations for these observations. Without theory, data
lacks context and significance. Without data, theories remain speculative
and unverified. For instance, observing that people can recognize faces
better than they can recall them is a valuable data point. However,
without a theory explaining why this is the case, the observation remains
just a fact rather than a comprehensive understanding. A theory might
suggest that facial recognition is a more specialized and practiced skill
due to evolutionary advantages or specific neural mechanisms, thus
providing an explanation and making predictions about related
phenomena.
2. Cognitive Processes Interact with Each Other and with Noncognitive
Processes
o Explanation: Cognitive processes, such as memory, perception, and
reasoning, do not operate in isolation. They often interact with each other
and with noncognitive factors like emotions, motivation, and social
influences. For example:
 Memory and Perception: Memory relies on perceptual input; we
remember things based on how we perceived them initially.
 Thinking and Memory: Problem-solving and decision-making are
dependent on the information stored in memory.
 Motivation and Learning: An individual’s motivation can influence
how effectively they learn new information. Higher motivation might
enhance engagement and retention, while lack of motivation might
hinder learning.
3. Cognition Needs to be Studied Through a Variety of Scientific Methods
o Explanation: Cognitive psychology is a complex field that benefits from
multiple research methodologies. Different methods provide unique
insights and help to validate findings from different angles. Techniques
can include:
 Experimental Methods: Controlled experiments to determine
cause-and-effect relationships.
 Neuroimaging: Techniques like fMRI and EEG to observe brain
activity.
  Behavioral Analysis: Observing and analyzing behaviors to infer
cognitive processes.
 Case Studies: Detailed examination of individuals with specific
conditions to understand cognitive functions.
4. Basic Research in Cognitive Psychology May Lead to Application;
Applied Research May Lead to Basic Understanding
o Explanation: Research in cognitive psychology often moves in both
directions between theoretical advancement and practical application.
 Basic Research Leading to Application: Discoveries in cognitive
science, such as the benefits of spaced learning over cramming, can
directly inform educational practices and strategies for more
effective learning.
 Applied Research Leading to Basic Understanding: Research
on practical issues, such as the accuracy of eyewitness testimony,
can reveal fundamental insights into memory processes and how
memories are constructed and distorted.