DEMORGAN'S THEOREMS

DeMorgan, a mathematician who knew Boole, proposed two theorems that

are an important part of Boolean algebra. In practical terms. DeMorgan's
theorems provide mathematical verification of the equivalency of the NAND
and negative-OR gates and the equivalency of the NOR and negative-AND
gates, which were discussed in part 3.
One of DeMorgan's theorems is stated as follows:
The complement of a product of variables is equal to the sum of the
complements of the variables,
Stated another way,
The complement of two or more ANDed variables is equivalent to the OR
of the complements of the individual variables.

The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is

XY = X + Y

DeMorgan's second theorem is stated as follows:

The complement of a sum of variables is equal to the product of the
complements of the variables.
Stated another way,
The complement of two or more ORed variables is equivalent to the AND
of the complements of the individual variables,

The formula for expressing this theorem for two variables is

X+Y=XY
Fig.(4-15) shows the gate equivalencies and truth tables for the two
equations above.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

 Fig.(4-15) Gate equivalencies and the corresponding truth tables
that illustrate DeMorgan's theorems.

As stated, DeMorgan's theorems also apply to expressions in which there are

more than two variables. The following examples illustrate the application of
DeMorgan's theorems to 3-variable and 4-variable expressions.

Example
Apply DeMorgan's theorems to the expressions XYZ and X + Y + z.
XYZ = X + Y + Z
X+y+Z=XYZ

Example
Apply DeMorgan's theorems to the expressions WXYZ and W + X + y + z.
WXYZ = W + X + y + Z

W+X+y+Z=WXYZ

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Applying DeMorgan's Theorems
The following procedure illustrates the application of DeMorgan's theorems
and Boolean algebra to the specific expression

Step l. Identify the terms to which you can apply DeMorgan's theorems, and
think of each term as a single variable. Let A + BC = X and D(E + F) = Y.

Step 2. Since X + Y = X Y,

= (A + BC) (D(E + F))

Step 3. Use rule 9 (A = A) to cancel the double bars over the left term (this is
not part of DeMorgan's theorem).

(A + BC) (D(E + F)) = (A + BC)(D(E + F ))

Step 4. Applying DeMorgan's theorem to the second term,

(A + BC)(D(E + F)) = (A + BC)(D + (E + F ))

Step 5. Use rule 9 (A = A) to cancel the double bars over the E + F part of
the term.
(A + BC)(D + E + F) = (A + BC)(D + E + F)

Example
Apply DeMorgan's theorems to each of the following expressions:

(a) (A + B + C)D (b) ABC + DEF (c) AB + CD + EF

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Example
The Boolean expression for an exclusive-OR gate is AB + AB. With this as a
starting point, use DeMorgan's theorems and any other rules or laws that are
applicable to develop an expression for the exclusive-NOR gate.

BOOLEAN ANALYSIS OF LOGIC CIRCUITS

Boolean algebra provides a concise way to express the operation of a logic
circuit formed by a combination of logic gates so that the output can be
determined for various combinations of input values.

Boolean Expression for a Logic Circuit

To derive the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit, begin at the left-
most inputs and work toward the final output, writing the expression for each
gate. For the example circuit in Fig.(4-16), the Boolean expression is
determined as follows:

The expression for the left-most AND gate with inputs C and D is CD.
The output of the left-most AND gate is one of the inputs to the OR
gate and B is the other input. Therefore, the expression for the OR
gate is B + CD.

The output of the OR gate is one of the inputs to the right-most AND
gate and A is the other input. Therefore, the expression for this AND
gate is A(B + CD), which is the final output expression for the entire
circuit.

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 Fig.(4-16) A logic circuit showing the development of the Boolean
expression for the output.

Constructing a Truth Table for a Logic Circuit

Once the Boolean expression for a given logic circuit has been
determined, a truth table that shows the output for all possible values of the
input variables can be developed. The procedure requires that you evaluate
the Boolean expression for all possible combinations of values for the input
variables. In the case of the circuit in Fig.(4-16), there are four input
4
variables (A, B, C, and D) and therefore sixteen (2 = 16) combinations of
values are possible.

Putting the Results in Truth Table format

The first step is to list the sixteen input variable combinations of 1s
and 0s in a binary sequence as shown in Table 4-5. Next, place a 1 in the
output column for each combination of input variables that was determined
in the evaluation. Finally, place a 0 in the output column for all other
combinations of input variables. These results are shown in the truth table in
Table 4-5.

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 Table 4-5

SIMPLIFICATION USING BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

A simplified Boolean expression uses the fewest gates possible to
implement a given expression.

Example
Using Boolean algebra techniques, simplify this expression:
AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C)
Solution
Step 1: Apply the distributive law to the second and third terms in the
expression, as follows:
AB + AB + AC + BB + BC
Step 2: Apply rule 7 (BB = B) to the fourth term.
AB + AB + AC + B + BC
Step 3: Apply rule 5 (AB + AB = AB) to the first two terms.
AB + AC + B + BC
Step 4: Apply rule 10 (B + BC = B) to the last two terms.
DSD UNIT 2 NOTES
 AB + AC + B
Step 5: Apply rule 10 (AB + B = B) to the first and third terms.
B+AC
At this point the expression is simplified as much as possible.

Fig.(4-17) Gate circuits for example above.

Example
Simplify the Boolean expressions:
1- AB + A(B + C) + B(B + C).
2- [AB( C + BD) + A B]C
3- ABC + ABC + A B C + ABC + ABC

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Standard and Canonical Forms:

STANDARD FORMS OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

All Boolean expressions, regardless of their form, can be converted into
either of two standard forms: the sum-of-products form or the product-of-
sums form. Standardization makes the evaluation, simplification, and
implementation of Boolean expressions much more systematic and easier.

The Sum-of-Products (SOP) Form

When two or more product terms are summed by Boolean addition,
the resulting expression is a sum-of-products (SOP). Some examples are:
AB + ABC
ABC + CDE + BCD
AB + BCD + AC
Also, an SOP expression can contain a single-variable term, as in
A + ABC + BCD.
In an SOP expression a single overbar cannot extend over more than
one variable.

Example
Convert each of the following Boolean expressions to SOP form:
(a) AB + B(CD + EF)
(b) (A + B)(B + C + D)
(c) (A + B) + C

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 Fig.(4-18) Implementation of the SOP expression AB + BCD + AC.

Fig.(4-19) This NAND/NAND implementation is equivalent

to the AND/OR in figure above.

The Standard SOP Form

So far, you have seen SOP expressions in which some of the product
terms do not contain all of the variables in the domain of the expression. For
example, the expression ABC + ABD + ABCD has a domain made up of the
variables A, B, C. and D. However, notice that the complete set of variables
in the domain is not represented in the first two terms of the expression; that
is, D or D is missing from the first term and C or C is missing from the
second term.
A standard SOP expression is one in which all the variables in the domain
appear in each product term in the expression. For example, ABCD + ABCD
+ ABCD is a standard SOP expression.

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Converting Product Terms to Standard SOP:
Each product term in an SOP expression that does not contain all the
variables in the domain can be expanded to standard SOP to include all
variables in the domain and their complements. As stated in the following
steps, a nonstandard SOP expression is converted into standard form using
Boolean algebra rule 6 (A + A = 1) from Table 4-1: A variable added to its
complement equals 1.
Step 1. Multiply each nonstandard product term by a term made up of the
sum of a missing variable and its complement. This results in two product
terms. As you know, you can multiply anything by 1 without changing its
value.
Step 2. Repeat Step 1 until all resulting product terms contain all variables in
the domain in either complemented or uncomplemented form. In converting
a product term to standard form, the number of product terms is doubled for
each missing variable.

Example
Convert the following Boolean expression into standard SOP
form: ABC + AB + ABCD
Solution
The domain of this SOP expression A, B, C, D. Take one term at a time. The
first term, ABC, is missing variable D or D, so multiply the first term by (D
+ D) as follows:
ABC = ABC(D + D) = ABCD + ABCD
In this case, two standard product terms are the result.
The second term, AB, is missing variables C or C and D or D, so first
multiply the second term by C + C as follows:
AB = AB(C + C) = ABC + ABC

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The two resulting terms are missing variable D or D, so multiply both terms
by (D + D) as follows:
ABC(D + D) + ABC(D + D)
= A BCD + ABCD + ABCD + ABCD
In this case, four standard product terms are the result.
The third term, ABCD, is already in standard form. The complete standard
SOP form of the original expression is as follows:

ABC + AB + ABCD = ABCD + ABCD + A BCD + ABCD + ABCD +

ABCD + ABCD

The Product-of-Sums (POS) Form

A sum term was defined before as a term consisting of the sum
(Boolean addition) of literals (variables or their complements). When two or
more sum terms are multiplied, the resulting expression is a product-of-sums
(POS). Some examples are
(A + B)(A + B + C)
(A + B + C)( C + D + E)(B + C + D)
(A + B)(A + B + C)(A + C)
A POS expression can contain a single-variable term, as in
A(A + B + C)(B + C + D).
In a POS expression, a single overbar cannot extend over more than one
variable; however, more than one variable in a term can have an overbar. For
example, a POS expression can have the term A + B + C but not A + B + C.

Implementation of a POS Expression simply requires ANDing the outputs of

two or more OR gates. A sum term is produced by an OR operation and the
product of two or more sum terms is produced by an AND operation. Fig.(4-

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20) shows for the expression (A + B)(B + C + D)(A + C). The output X of
the AND gate equals the POS expression.

Fig.(4-20)

The Standard POS Form

So far, you have seen POS expressions in which some of the sum terms do
not contain all of the variables in the domain of the expression. For example,
the expression
(A + B + C) (A + B + D) (A + B + C + D)
has a domain made up of the variables A, B, C, and D. Notice that the
complete set of variables in the domain is not represented in e first two terms
of the expression; that is, D or D is missing from the first term and C or C is
missing from the second term.
A standard POS expression is one in which all the variables in the domain
appear in each sum term in the expression. For example,
(A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)
is a standard POS expression. Any nonstandard POS expression (referred to
simply as POS) can be converted to the standard form using Boolean
algebra.
Converting a Sum Term to Standard POS
Each sum term in a POS expression that does not contain all the variables in
the domain can be expanded to standard form to include all variables in the
domain and their complements. As stated in the following steps, a

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nonstandard POS expression is converted into standard form using Boolean
algebra rule 8 (A A = 0) from Table 4-1:
Step 1. Add to each nonstandard product term a term made up of the product
of the missing variable and its complement. This results in two sum terms.
As you know, you can add 0 to anything without changing its value.
Step 2. Apply rule 12 from Table 4-1: A + BC = (A + B)(A + C)
Step 3. Repeat Step 1 until all resulting sum terms contain all variables in the
domain in either complemented or noncomplemented form.

Example
Convert the following Boolean expression into standard POS
form: (A + B + C)(B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)

Solution
The domain of this POS expression is A, B, C, D. Take one term at a time.
The first term, A + B + C, is missing variable D or D, so add DD and apply
rule 12 as follows:
A + B + C = A + B + C + DD = (A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)
The second term, B + C + D, is missing variable A or A, so add AA and
apply rule 12 as follows:
B + C + D = B + C + D + AA = (A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D)
The third term, A + B + C + D, is already in standard form. The standard
POS form of the original expression is as follows:

(A + B + C)(B + C + D)(A + B + C + D) = (A + B + C + D)(A + B + C +

D) (A + B + C + D)(A + B + C + D) (A + B + C + D)

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Examples:-

CANONICAL FORMS OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS

n
n variables can be combined to form 2 minterms.

Note that each maxterm is the complement of its corresponding

minterm and vice versa.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

For example the function F
x y z F
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1

F=xy z+xyz+xyz
F = m1 + m4 + m7

Any Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of minterms (sum of

products SOP) or product of maxterms (product of sums POS).
F=xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz+xyz

The complement of F = F = F
F = (x + y + z) (x + y + z) (x + y + z) (x + y + z) (x + y +
z) F = M0 M2 M3 M5 M6

Example
Express the Boolean function F = A + BC in a sum of minterms (SOP).

Solution
The term A is missing two variables because the domain of F is (A, B, C)
A = A(B + B) = AB + AB because B + B = 1

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BC missing A, so
BC(A + A) = ABC + ABC
AB(C + C) = ABC + ABC
AB(C + C) = ABC + ABC
F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
Because A + A = A
F = ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC
F = m7 + m6 + m5 + m4 + m1

In short notation
F(A, B, C) = ∑(1, 4, 5, 6, 7)
F(A, B, C) = ∑(0, 2, 3)

The complement of a function expressed as the sum of minterms equal

to the sum of minterms missing from the original function.

Truth table for F = A + BC

A B C B BC F
0 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 1 1
2 0 1 0 0 0 0
3 0 1 1 0 0 0
4 1 0 0 1 0 1
5 1 0 1 1 1 1
6 1 1 0 0 0 1
7 1 1 1 0 0 1

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Example
Express F = xy + xz in a product of maxterms form.
Solution
F = xy + xz = (xy + x)(xy + z) = (x + x)(y + x)(x + z)(y + z)
remember x + x = 1
F = (y + x)(x + z)(y + z)
F = (x + y + zz)(x + yy + z )(xx + y + z)
F = (x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y +z)(x + y + z)
========== ------------------ ---------------- ==========

F = (x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)(x + y + z)

F = M4 M5 M0 M2
F(x, y, z) = ∏(0, 2, 4, 5)
F(x, y, z) = ∏(1, 3, 6, 7)

The complement of a function expressed as the product of maxterms

equal to the product of maxterms missing from the original function.

To convert from one canonical form to another, interchange the symbols ∑,

∏ and list those numbers missing from the original form.
F = M4 M5 M0 M2 = m1 + m3 + m6 + m7

F(x, y, z) = ∏(0, 2, 4, 5) = ∑(1, 3, 6, 7)

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Example
Develop a truth table for the standard SOP expression ABC + ABC + ABC.

Converting POS Expressions to Truth Table Format

Reca11 that a POS expression is equal to 0 only if at least one of the
sum terms is equal to 0. To construct a truth table from a POS expression,
list all the possible combinations of binary values of the variables just as was
done for the SOP expression. Next, convert the POS expression to standard
form if it is not already. Finally, place a 0 in the output column (X) for each
binary value that makes the expression a 0 and place a 1 for all the remaining
binary values. This procedure is illustrated in Example below:

Example
Determine the truth table for the following standard POS expression:

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Solution
There are three variables in the domain and the eight possible binary
values are listed in the left three columns of. The binary values that make the
sum terms in the expression equal to 0 are A+ B + C: 000; A + B + C: 010:
A + B + C: 011; A + B + C: 10l; and A + B + C: 110. For each of these
binary values, place a 0 in the output column as shown in the table. For each
of the remaining binary combinations, place a 1 in the output column.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

 KARNAUGH MAP MINIMIZATION

A Karnaugh map provides a systematic method for simplifying Boolean

expressions and, if properly used, will produce the simplest SOP or POS
expression possible, known as the minimum expression. As you have seen,
the effectiveness of algebraic simplification depends on your familiarity with
all the laws, rules, and theorems of Boolean algebra and on your ability to
apply them. The Karnaugh map, on the other hand, provides a "cookbook"
method for simplification.
A Karnaugh map is similar to a truth table because it presents all of the
possible values of input variables and the resulting output for each value.
Instead of being organized into columns and rows like a truth table, the
Karnaugh map is an array of cells in which each cell represents a binary
value of the input variables. The cells are arranged in a way so that
simplification of a given expression is simply a matter of properly grouping
the cells. Karnaugh maps can be used for expressions with two, three, four.
and five variables. Another method, called the Quine-McClusky method can
be used for higher numbers of variables.
The number of cells in a Karnaugh map is equal to the total number of
possible input variable combinations as is the number of rows in a truth table.
3
For three variables, the number of cells is 2 = 8. For four variables, the
4
number of cells is 2 = 16.

The 3-Variable Karnaugh Map

The 3-variable Karnaugh map is an array of eight cells. as shown in Fig.(5-
1)(a). In this case, A, B, and C are used for the variables although other
letters could be used. Binary values of A and B are along the left side (notice

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

the sequence) and the values of C are across the top. The value of a given cell
is the binary values of A and B at the left in the same row combined with the
value of C at the top in the same column. For example, the cell in the upper
left corner has a binary value of 000 and the cell in the lower right corner has
a binary value of 101. Fig.(5-1)( b) shows the standard product terms that are
represented by each cell in the Karnaugh map.

(a) (b) Fig.(5-1) A 3-variable Karnaugh

map showing product terms.

The 4-Variable Karnaugh Map

The 4-variable Karnaugh map is an array of sixteen cells, as shown in Fig.(5-
2)(a). Binary values of A and B are along the left side and the values of C
and D are across the top. The value of a given cell is the binary values of A
and B at the left in the same row combined with the binary values of C and D
at the top in the same column. For example, the cell in the upper right corner
has a binary value of 0010 and the cell in the lower right corner has a

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

binary value of 1010. Fig.(5-2)(b) shows the standard product terms that are
represented by each cell in the 4-variable Karnaugh map.

(a) (b)
Fig.(5-2) A 4-variable Karnaugh map.
Cell Adjacency
The cells in a Karnaugh map are arranged so that there is only a single-
variable change between adjacent cells. Adjacency is defined by a single-
variable change. In the 3-variable map the 010 cell is adjacent to the 000 cell,
the 011 cell, and the 110 cell. The 010 cell is not adjacent to the 001 cell, the
111 cell, the 100 cell, or the 101 cell.

Fig.(5-3) Adjacent cells on a Karnaugh map are those that differ by only one
variable. Arrows point between adjacent cells.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

KARNAUGH MAP SOP MINIMIZATION
For an SOP expression in standard form, a 1 is placed on the Karnaugh map
for each product term in the expression. Each 1 is placed in a cell
corresponding to the value of a product term. For example, for the product
term ABC, a 1 goes in the 10l cell on a 3-variable map.

Example
Map the following standard SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:
see Fig.(5-4).

Example
Map the following standard SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:

See Fig.(5-5).

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Example

Map the following SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:

Solution
The SOP expression is obviously not in standard form because each product
term does not have three variables. The first term is missing two variables,
the second term is missing one variable, and the third term is standard. First
expand the terms numerically as follows:

Example
Map the following SOP expression on a Karnaugh map:

Solution
The SOP expression is obviously not in standard form because each product
term does not have four variables.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Map each of the resulting binary values by placing a 1 in the appropriate cell
of the 4- variable Karnaugh map.

Karnaugh Map Simplification of SOP Expressions

Grouping the 1s, you can group 1s on the Karnaugh map according to the
following rules by enclosing those adjacent cells containing 1s. The goal is to
maximize the size of the
groups and to minimize the number of groups.
A group must contain either 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 cells, which are all
3
powers of two. In the case of a 3-variable map, 2 = 8 cells is the
maximum group.
Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more cells in that same
group.

Always include the largest possible number of 1s in a group in

accordance with rule 1.

Each 1 on the map must be included in at least one group. The 1s

already in a group can be included in another group as long as the
overlapping groups include noncommon 1s.

Example:
Group the 1s in each of the Karnaugh maps in Fig.(5-6).

Fig.(5-6)

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Solution:
The groupings are shown in Fig.(5-7). In some cases, there may be more than
one way to group the 1s to form maximum groupings.

Fig.(5-7)
Determine the minimum product term for each group.
a. For a 3-variable map:
(1) A l-cell group yields a 3-variable product term
(2) A 2-cell group yields a 2-variable product term
(3) A 4-cell group yields a 1-variable term
(4) An 8-cell group yields a value of 1 for the expression

b. For a 4-variable map:

(1) A 1-cell group yields a 4-variable product term
(2) A 2-cell group yields a 3-variable product term
(3) A 4-cell group yields a 2-variable product term
(4) An 8-cell group yields a 1-variable term
(5) A 16-cell group yields a value of 1 for the expression
Example:
Determine the product terms for each of the Karnaugh maps in Fig.(5-7) and
write the resulting minimum SOP expression.

Fig.(5-8)

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Solution:
The resulting minimum product term for each group is shown in Fig.(5-8).
The minimum SOP expressions for each of the Karnaugh maps in the figure
are:
(a)AB+BC+ABC (C) AB + AC + ABD
(b) B + A C + AC (d) D + ABC + BC

Example: Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following standard SOP

expression:
ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC + ABC

Example: Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following SOP expression:

"Don't Care" Conditions

Sometimes a situation arises in which some input variable combinations are
not allowed. For example, recall that in the BCD code there are six invalid
combinations: 1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, and 1111. Since these
unallowed states will never occur in an application involving the BCD code,
they can be treated as "don't care" terms with respect to their effect on the
output. That is, for these "don't care" terms either a 1 or a 0 may be assigned
to the output: it really does not matter since they will never occur.
The "don't care" terms can be used to advantage on the Karnaugh map.
Fig.(5-9) shows that for each "don't care" term, an X is placed in the cell.
When grouping the 1 s, the Xs can be treated as 1s to make a larger grouping
or as 0s if they cannot be used to advantage. The larger a group, the simpler
the resulting term will be.
The truth table in Fig.(5-9)(a) describes a logic function that has a 1 output
only when the BCD code for 7,8, or 9 is present on the inputs. If the "don't
cares" are used as 1s, the resulting expression for the function is A + BCD,
as indicated in part (b). If the "don't cares" are not used as 1s, the resulting

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

expression is ABC + ABCD: so you can see the advantage of
using "don't care" terms to get the simplest expression.

Fig.(5-9)

KARNAUGH MAP POS MINIMIZATION

In this section, we will focus on POS expressions. The

approaches are much the same except that with POS expressions,
0s representing the standard sum terms are placed on the
Karnaugh map instead of 1s.

For a POS expression in standard form, a 0 is placed on the

Karnaugh map for each sum term in the expression. Each 0 is
placed in a cell corresponding to the value of a sum term. For
example, for the sum term A + B + C, a 0 goes in the 0 1 0 cell

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

on a 3-variable map.

When a POS expression is completely mapped, there will be a

number of 0s on the Karnaugh map equal to the number of sum
terms in the standard POS expression. The cells that do not have
a 0 are the cells for which the expression is 1. Usually, when
working with POS expressions, the 1s are left off. The following
steps and the illustration in Fig.(5-10) show the mapping process.

Step 1. Determine the binary value of each sum term in the

standard POS expression. This is the binary value that makes the
term equal to 0.

Step 2. As each sum term is evaluated, place a 0 on the Karnaugh

map in the corresponding cell.

Fig.(5-10)

Example of mapping a standard POS expression.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Example:
Map the following standard POS expression on a Karnaugh map:

Solution:

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Karnaugh Map Simplification of POS Expressions

The process for minimizing a POS expression is basically the same as for an
SOP expression except that you group 0s to produce minimum sum terms
instead of grouping 1s to produce minimum product terms. The rules for
grouping the 0s are the same as those for grouping the 1s that you learned
before.
Example:
Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following standard POS expression:
Also, derive the equivalent SOP expression.

Solution:

Example: Use a Karnaugh map to minimize the following POS expression:

Example: Using a Karnaugh map, convert the following standard POS

expression into a minimum POS expression, a standard SOP expression, and

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

a minimum SOP expression.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES

Implimentation of logical circuit using NAND and NOR gates:

1- AND-OR Logic
Fig.(6-1)(a) shows an AND-OR circuit consisting of two 2-input AND gates
and one 2-input OR gate; Fig.(6-1)(b) is the ANSI standard rectangular outline
symbol. The Boolean expressions for the AND gate outputs and the resulting
SOP expression for the output X are shown in the diagram. In general, all AND-
OR circuit can have any number of AND gates each with any number of inputs.

The truth table for a 4-input AND-OR logic circuit is shown in Table 6-1. The
intermediate AND gate outputs ( AB and CD columns) are also shown in the
table.

(a) Logic diagram (b) ANSI standard rectangular outline symbol.

DSD UNIT 2 NOTES