Project Report

Title: Design and Implementation of a Function Generator Using

Operational Amplifiers
1. Abstract:
This project presents the design and simulation of a basic function generator using
operational amplifiers to produce square, triangle, and approximate sine waveforms. The
generator circuit comprises a Schmitt trigger for square wave generation, an integrator to
produce a triangular waveform, and a wave-shaping stage using diodes to form a sine-like
output. The complete circuit was simulated using Proteus software, allowing virtual
testing and waveform observation on a simulated oscilloscope. Results confirmed the
circuit's ability to generate clean waveforms with controllable frequency through RC
component variation. The project serves as a low-cost and educational alternative to
commercial function generators.

2. Introduction:
A function generator is an essential piece of equipment in electronics laboratories,
widely used to generate different types of electrical waveforms over a wide range of
frequencies. These waveforms include sine, square, and triangle waves, which are vital
for testing, analysis, and debugging electronic circuits such as amplifiers, filters, and
other signal processing modules. While commercial function generators are available,
they are often expensive and inaccessible to students or hobbyists. Therefore, building a
low-cost, simplified function generator using operational amplifiers offers a practical
learning experience in both circuit design and waveform generation. This project aims to
design and implement a basic function generator circuit using commonly available
components, particularly the LM324 operational amplifier. The circuit consists of three
main stages: a square wave generator using a Schmitt trigger configuration, a triangular
wave generator using an integrator circuit, and a sine wave shaper using diodes and
resistors to smoothen the triangular waveform. These stages demonstrate key analog
design principles and enable the generation of different waveform types using only op-
amps and passive components. The frequency of the generated waveforms can be
adjusted by varying resistor-capacitor (RC) combinations in the integrator stage.
Simulation of the circuit was performed using Proteus software to verify design
functionality and visualize waveform outputs on a virtual oscilloscope. This allowed fine-
tuning of the component values before implementing the circuit physically on a
breadboard. Through this project, students gain hands-on experience in analog circuit
design, simulation tools, waveform analysis, and the practical challenges of building a
real-world signal generator. The knowledge gained can be applied to more advanced
signal processing and instrumentation systems in future engineering work.

3. Literature Review:
Function generators have long been integral to electronics design and testing, with
traditional implementations relying on dedicated integrated circuits (ICs) like the
XR2206 or ICL8038. However, literature in analog electronics highlights the versatility
of operational amplifiers for constructing waveform generators in a more educational and
cost-effective manner. Studies and academic resources, including textbooks like Sedra
and Smith’s Microelectronic Circuits, emphasize the effectiveness of op-amp-based
circuits such as Schmitt triggers, integrators, and diode shaping networks in producing
square, triangle, and sine waveforms. These configurations not only reduce circuit
complexity and cost but also offer design flexibility. Various simulation tools like
Proteus and Multisim are commonly used in research and academic projects to model and
validate such circuits before hardware implementation. This project builds on those
concepts by developing a simple yet functional waveform generator entirely from op-
amps and passive components, aligning with principles explored in foundational analog
electronics research.

4. Methodology:
1. Design a comparator using an op-amp in Schmitt Trigger configuration to produce a
square wave.
2. Feed this output into an integrator circuit to generate a triangular wave.
3. Pass the triangular wave through a diode-based shaping circuit to produce an
approximate sine wave (optional).
4. Implement and simulate the circuit in software (e.g., Proteus or Multisim).
5. Build the circuit on a breadboard using LM324 op-amps.
6. Capture output waveforms using an oscilloscope.

5. Circuit Design and Simulation:

Circuit Diagram:
 Figure 1: Full Circuit Diagram of the Function Generator

Block Diagram:

Figure 2: Block Diagram of Function Generator Process Flow

6. Results:
Oscilloscope Output Samples were taken after testing the circuit. The square wave
was observed from the comparator stage, the triangle wave from the integrator, and the
sine-like waveform from the shaping stage.

Figure 3: Square Wave Output from Oscilloscope

 Figure 4: Triangle Wave Output from Oscilloscope

Figure 5: Sine Wave Output from Oscilloscope

7. Proteus Simulation:
Proteus is a powerful simulation software widely used in electrical and electronics
engineering for virtual testing of analog and digital circuits before hardware
implementation. It allows real-time waveform visualization and component behavior
analysis without physical setup. In this project, the complete function generator circuit—
comprising a square wave generator, integrator, and sine wave shaping stage—was
designed and simulated using Proteus. The aim was to validate the circuit’s theoretical
design and functionality by observing the output waveforms and adjusting component
values such as resistors and capacitors to verify frequency control.

1. The first op-amp stage in the simulation uses a Schmitt trigger configuration to
generate a square wave. The feedback loop provides hysteresis, ensuring stable
transitions between high and low output levels.

2. The output of the square wave generator feeds into an integrator circuit built using
an op-amp, resistor, and capacitor. This results in a linear rising and falling
voltage—i.e., a triangle waveform.

3. A non-linear network of diodes and resistors was added to round off the peaks of
the triangle wave and produce a rough sine wave. This stage demonstrates signal
conditioning techniques.

4. Proteus’s built-in oscilloscope was used to monitor the output waveforms at

different stages. The square, triangle, and sine waves were clearly observed,
validating the theoretical expectations.
 This simulation helped refine the circuit before physical implementation, reduced
component damage risks, and allowed parameter optimization through trial-and-error
without hardware limitations.

Figure 7:
Circuit Diagram on Proteus

8. Conclusions:
This function generator was successfully implemented using operational amplifiers and
basic passive components. The project successfully generated square and triangle
waveforms, with sine wave shaping as an extension. The circuit's frequency was
controllable by changing RC values. Simulation and practical results verified the design.