GAS DETECTION

TRAINING MATERIAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 43
INTRODUCTION 3
Catalytic Bead Sensors 44
GAS CHARACTERISTICS 4 Infrared Sensors 45
Properties of a Gas 5 Electrochemical Sensors 46
Vapors and Aerosols 6 Photo Ionization Detector 47
Atmosphere Composition 7 Metal Oxide Semiconductor Sensors 49
Fire Tetrahedron 8 Sensor Performance Factors 50
What is a Hazardous Atmosphere? 9 Flame Detection 52
Types of Gas, Vapor and Aerosol Hazards 10
STANDARDS AND APPROVALS 53
Toxicity Effects of Common Gases 11
Hazardous Area Classifications 54
Upper and Lower Explosive Limits 12
Protection Methods and Standards 55
Limiting Exposure to Hazardous Atmospheres 13
NEMA Classifications/Ingress Protection 56
Combustible Gas Reference Guide 14
ATEX 57
Toxic Gas Reference Guide 24
CE Marking 58
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE AND APPLICATION 28 CSA International 59
Designing a Gas Detection System 29 Underwriters Laboratories 60
Industrial Hazards 36 IECEx 61
Common Hazards by Industry 38 Factory Mutual 62
Fixed vs. Portable Detection 39 Safety Integrity Level (SIL) Ratings 63
Warnings, Alarms and Response Functions 40
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS 64
Ohm’s Law 41
Scott Safety Contact Information 81
Relay Logic 42
INTRODUCTION
As an industry leader in gas detection products, Scott Safety is committed to the life safety of workers
in potentially dangerous industries such as petrochemical, pharmaceutical, wastewater treatment, and
chemical processing. The ability to detect and analyze unseen threats through reliable gas detection
can and will save lives.

The safety concerns with exposure to both toxic and combustible gases are
the foundation of the need for reliable gas detection. Left undetected and
unmonitored, hazardous gases pose grave threats to our health and safety.
Exposure to toxic gases can cause a wide range of health effects including
simple irritation, loss of consciousness, chronic illnesses, and even death.
Combustible gases pose just as great a safety risk because of their potential
to ignite and cause massive destruction.

A well maintained gas detection program will combat the dangers and risks
associated with hazardous conditions and help to safeguard life and property.

Advanced monitoring techniques provide opportunities for:

• Early Warning of Hazardous Conditions
• Intervention and Correction of the Causes of Hazardous Conditions
• Time for Evacuation from Hazardous Conditions

3
GAS CHARACTERISTICS
The air we breathe every day is comprised of various gases. Though typically steady
in composition, the quality of the air around us can change significantly when different
toxic and combustible hazards are introduced into the immediate surrounding areas.

From toxic* and combustible*

gases to possibly harmful
vapors* and aerosols,* the
potential for a hazardous
atmosphere* exists every day
in work places across the world.

Recognizing the properties and

hazards of the gases that can
enter and contaminate your
workspaces is the first step
in developing an effective gas
detection program.

Whether it’s recognizing the destructive potential of explosive combustible gases or

safeguarding workers from the health hazards of toxic gas exposure, modern gas detection
techniques are available to keep workers, equipment, and property safe.

4
PROPERTIES OF A GAS
1. Gases will easily compress or expand based on the containment of the gas, Because of these properties, gas monitoring is very important.
temperature, pressure, and other factors. Gases will always fill the space they occupy until they can escape
to another space. Gas leaks can occur suddenly and without
2. Gases are comprised of a large number of weakly attracted molecules that warning causing a severe threat to life and property damage.
can combine and react with other molecules and are in constant motion.

3. Gases will fill any size or shape container and are constantly in motion
trying to escape the containment.

4. Many gases are either colorless or odorless and sometimes both.

Q: If the ethane gas running through this piping system were
to escape into your working atmosphere, would there be a need
to detect its presence?

Boiling Gas
A: Absolutely! Ethane gas is both odorless and colorless making its
Point*
detection through simple observation nearly impossible. Additionally,
Temperature

ethane can displace oxygen causing a severe breathing hazard.

Liquid and Gas Most importantly, ethane gas is a highly combustible gas that
Melting in equilibrium reaches an explosive point at only 3% v/v.*
Point* Liquid

Solid and Liquid

Solid
in equilibrium

Energy Added
* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

5
VAPORS AND AEROSOLS
VAPORS AEROSOLS
Compounds with a boiling point below room temperature exist An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a
as a gas. Some compounds can exist as both a gas and a liquid gas. In effect, aerosols are a gaseous delivery system for contaminants.
at room temperature. The gaseous portion in equilibrium with the Smoke, smog, clouds, mists, and combustible emissions are examples
liquid is referred to as a vapor. of aerosols. Aerosols can cause adverse health effects when inhaled or
absorbed through the skin.
For a combustible or flammable liquid, the vapor is what actually
burns. Vapors travel along air currents and, when ignited, will flash Aerosols can accumulate forming mists, smog, etc. These high
back to their source. concentrations can cause serious breathing and combustion risks.
Most vapors are heavier than air and will accumulate in low lying
areas. Some, like hydrogen, are lighter than air and will rise.
Both vapors and aerosols can create hazardous situations, especially in an
Accumulated combustible vapors can reach their Lower Explosive enclosed space. Effective gas monitoring in areas where vapors or aerosols
Limit and present a serious ignition risk. Vapors and gases that may be present can reduce the risks associated with toxic atmospheres
have not yet reached their Lower Explosive Limit or have exceeded and combustible concentrations.
their Upper Explosive Limit still present a breathing risk as they can
displace oxygen or be toxic in nature.

6
ATMOSPHERE COMPOSITION
The Earth’s atmosphere is comprised of both permanent and variable
gases. Permanent gases include the three most abundant gases:
oxygen, nitrogen, and argon.
These permanent gases remain the same concentration over time
regardless of location in open environments. In confined spaces,
these concentrations can vary widely.
However, variable gases, such as methane and carbon dioxide,
can vary over time and location.

Argon (Ar) Nitrogen (N2)

0.934% 78.084%

Others Oxygen (O2)

(CO2, Ne, CH4, He, Kr, 20.9476%
H2, Xe) < 1% Total

7
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
To support combustion, four elements must be present: heat, oxygen, fuel source, and a chemical reaction.
This is illustrated in the four-sided fire tetrahedron. Removal of any of the four elements will eliminate the flame.

HOW DOES GAS MONITORING HELP

IN THE PREVENTION OF FIRES?
- Several (combustible) gases can provide
the fuel source element of the fire
tetrahedron. Monitoring levels can help
identify potentially hazardous situations
before they occur.
- Many gases can lead to the increased
likelihood of the chemical reaction element
of the fire tetrahedron. Monitoring the
presence of these gases can lead to an
awareness of the potential for dangerous
reactions to occur.
- Monitoring of oxygen levels can help to
identify an oxygen-rich environment that
can lead to an increased likelihood of fire.

8
WHAT IS A HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE?
A hazardous atmosphere is defined as one where one or more of the following conditions exist:
- Flammable gas, vapor, or mist exists with a concentration of > 10% LEL*
- Oxygen levels are < 19.5% or > 23.5%
- Atmospheric concentration of any hazardous substance which could result in exposure in excess
of the published dose per Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations
- Airborne combustible dust > 100% LEL
- Any other atmospheric condition immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH)*

EXAMPLES OF THE CAUSES OF A HAZARDOUS

ATMOSPHERE CONDITION:
- Oxygen is absorbed by the contents of a vessel or tank
- Oxygen is displaced by heavier-than-air gases
- Leaking underground storage tanks and pipes
- Decomposing organic matter or domestic waste
- Piping system leak
-Toxic substances being used in a confined space

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

9
TYPES OF GAS, VAPOR AND AEROSOL HAZARDS
Asphyxiants:
• Simple Causes suffocation by displacing oxygen.
(examples: H2, CO)
• Chemical Causes suffocation by interfering with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen.
(example: CO)

Irritants/Corrosives Causes an inflammatory effect on tissue, especially in the respiratory tract, through contact
with the compound.
(examples: NH3 , Cl2 , O3 , SO2)

Toxic Agents Poisonous to one or more organs such as the kidney (nephrotoxic) or liver (hepatotoxic).
(examples: CS2, AsH3, CCl4)

Carcinogens Causes cancer in humans and/or animals.

(example: vinyl chloride, benzene)

(CNS) Central Nervous Disturb the proper functions of the CNS.

System Depressants (examples: benzene, acetone)

Combustibles Liquids with a flash point between 100°F and 200°F.

(example: acetic acid)

Flammables Compounds with a flash point < 100°F or that form a flammable mixture with air at 13%v/v or less.
(examples: ethyl alcohol, methane)

10
TOXICITY EFFECTS OF COMMON GASES

OXYGEN CARBON MONOXIDE

5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 500 ppm 1000 ppm 1500 ppm 2000 ppm 2500 ppm
x x x x
6-10% - Vomiting, loss of consciousness, death > 2500 ppm* - Fatal
10-14% - Abnormal fatigue 1500 ppm - Mental confusion, possible loss of consciousness
12-16% - Muscular coordination becomes impaired 400 ppm - Headache within 2 hours
< 17% - Impaired judgment 200 ppm - Headache after several hours
19.5-23.5% - Safe level as per OSHA requirements 25 ppm - Time weighted average exposure level
> 23.5% - Oxygen enriched environment, high probability of fire ODORLESS

HYDROGEN SULFIDE CHLORINE

100 ppm 200 ppm 300 ppm 400 ppm 500 ppm 10 ppm 20 ppm 50 ppm 100 ppm 1000 ppm
x x x x x x x x
> 500 ppm - Fatal within 30-60 minutes > 1000 ppm - Fatal
200 ppm - Headache and vomiting, potentially fatal 50 ppm - Potentially fatal after prolonged exposure
125 ppm - Temporary loss of smell 15 ppm - Throat irritation
3 ppm - Eye irritation
50 ppm- Eye and throat irritation
0.5 ppm - Time weighted average exposure level
10 ppm - Time weighted average exposure level Odor threshold at 0.05 ppm
Odor threshold at 0.0005 ppm

11
UPPER AND LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMITS (UEL AND LEL)
The Upper Explosive Limit, or UEL, is the point above which the concentration of gas mixture to atmosphere is too rich to burn.
This is sometimes expressed as Upper Flammable Limit (UFL).
The Lower Explosive Limit, or LEL, is the point below which the concentration of gas mixture to atmosphere is too lean to burn.
This is sometimes expressed as Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).
Any concentration between these limits may ignite or explode with little to no warning. Gas concentrations above the UEL are also extremely
dangerous as they displace oxygen and must travel back through the explosive zone during ventilation efforts to reach safe limits.

50%
LEL LEL LEL

Too Lean To Burn LEL Too Rich To Burn

UEL
100%

To allow for adequate time to respond and recover from potentially hazardous and explosive atmospheres, CSA and ISA testing
agencies require combustible sensors to respond to the exposure of a combustible gas in the following manner:
• 50% LEL - Sensor must respond within 10 seconds (CSA* only)
• 60% LEL - Sensor must respond within 12 seconds (ISA* only)
• 90% LEL - Sensor must respond within 30 seconds (CSA and ISA)

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

12
LIMITING EXPOSURE TO HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERES
TLV - THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES
Threshold limit values are established by the ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). They
are the level to which a worker can be exposed to a chemical each day for a working lifetime without adverse health
concerns. These limits are guidelines and not regulated by law.

STEL - SHORT TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT

Short term exposure limit is defined by ACGIH as the concentration to which workers can be exposed continuously
for a short period of time without suffering from irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or narcosis of sufficient
degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self-rescue, or reduce work efficiency.

PEL - PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LEVEL

Permissible exposure levels are the maximum concentration a worker may be exposed to as defined by
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). PEL’s are defined in two ways, TWA and C.

TWA - TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE

Time weighted average is an average value of exposure over the course of an eight hour work shift.

C - CEILING LEVEL
Ceiling level is an exposure limit that must never be exceeded.

* The terms used and agencies identified here refer typically to the American market; however, the same general
intent is made worldwide through each country’s governing body over occupational health and safety.

13
COMBUSTIBLE GAS REFERENCE GUIDE

Ratio of the density

of gas compared with Temperature at which % of atmosphere
Formula showing the ambient atmosphere. concentration when the
the compound changes
atomic composition > 1.0 indicates the gas gas reaches its Upper or
from a liquid to a gas.
of the gas. is heavier than air. Lower Explosive Limit.

American Chemical
Society’s identification Temperature at Temperature at which
Common name of combustible number for each gas. which the gas is liquid emits a vapor
gases. Note that some gases can Useful when a gas has capable of self to form an ignitable
be known by multiple names. more than one name. combustion. mixture in air.

Relative Ignition Boiling Flash

CAS Density Temp Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C %LEL %UEL
n-Butanol CH3(CH2)2CH3OH 71-36-3 2.55 359 116 29 1.7 12
1-Butene CH2=CHCH2CH3 106-98-9 1.95 449 -6.3 — 1.6 10
2-Butene CH3CH=CHCH3 107-01-7 1.94 325 1 Gas 1.6 10
Butyl Acetate CH3COOCH2(CH2)2CH3 123-86-4 4.01 370 127 22 1.3 7.5
n-Butyl Acrylate CH2=CHCOOC4H9 141-32-2 4.41 268 145 38 1.2 8

NOTES:
All data is provided as a reference only. Refer to local authority such as NIOSH, ACGIH, OSHA, CCOHS, and others for current published values.
—Indicates data has not been evaluated.

14
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
Acetaldehyde CH3CHO 75-07-0 1.52 204 20 -38 4 60
Acetic Acid CH3COOH 64-19-7 2.07 464 118 40 4 17
Acetic Anhydride (CH3CO)2O 108-24-7 3.52 334 140 49 2 10
Acetone (CH3)2CO 67-64-1 2 535 56 < -20 2.5 13
Acetonitrile CH3CN 75-05-8 1.42 523 82 2 3 16
Acetyl Chloride CH3COCl 75-36-5 2.7 390 51 -4 5 19
Acetyl Fluoride CH3COF 557-99-3 2.14 434 20 < -17 5.6 19.9
Acetylacetone (CH3CH2)2CO 96-22-0 3 445 101.5 12 1.6 —
Acetylene CH=CH 74-86-2 0.9 305 -84 — 2.3 100
Acetylpropyl Chloride CH3CO(CH2)3Cl 5891-21-4 4.16 440 71 61 2 10.4
Acrylaldehyde CH2=CHCHO 107-02-8 1.93 217 53 -18 2.85 31.8
Acrylic Acid CH2=CHCOOH 79-10-7 2.48 406 139 56 2.9 8
Acrylonitrile CH2=CHCN 107-13-1 1.83 480 77 -5 3.05 17
Acryloyl Chloride CH2CHCOCl 814-68-6 3.12 463 72 -8 2.68 18
Allyl Acetate CH2=CHCH2OOCCH3 591-87-7 3.45 348 103 13 1.7 9.3
Allyl Alcohol CH2=CHCH2CH 107-18-6 2 378 96 21 2.5 18
Allyl Chloride CH2=CHCH2Cl 107-05-1 2.64 390 45 -32 2.9 11.2
Ammonia NH3 7664-41-7 0.59 630 -33 — 15 33.6
Amyl Alcohol CH3(CH2)3CH2OH 71-41-0 3.03 298 136 38 1.06 10.5
Tert-Amyl Methyl Ether (TAME) (CH3)2C(OCH3)CH2CH3 994-05-8 3.5 345 85 < -14 1.5 —
Aniline C6H6NH2 62-53-3 3.22 630 184 75 1.2 11
Benzaldehyde C6H5CHO 100-52-7 3.66 192 179 64 1.4 8.5
Benzene C6H6 71-43-2 2.7 560 80 -11 1.2 7.8
Benzyl Chloride C6H5CH2Cl 100-44-7 4.36 585 179 60 1.2 7.1
Bromoethane CH3CH2Br 74-96-4 3.75 511 38 < -20 6.7 11.3
Butadiene CH2=CHCH=CH2 106-99-0 1.87 430 -4.5 -76 2 12
Butane C4H10 106-97-8 2.05 372 -1 — 1.9 8.5

15
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
n-Butanol CH3(CH2)2CH2OH 71-36-3 2.55 359 116 29 1.7 12
1-Butene CH2=CHCH2CH3 106-98-9 1.95 440 -6.3 — 1.6 10
2-Butene CH2CH=CHCH3 107-01-7 1.94 325 1 Gas 1.6 10
Butyl Acetate CH3COOCH2(CH2)2CH3 123-86-4 4.01 370 127 22 1.3 7.5
n-Butyl Acrylate CH2=CHCOOC4H9 141-32-2 4.41 268 145 38 1.2 8
n-Butyl Bromide CH3(CH2)2CH2Br 109-65-9 4.72 265 102 13 2.5 6.6
Tert-Butyl Methyl Ether CH3OC(CH3)2 1634-04-4 3.03 385 55 -27 1.5 8.4
Butylamine CH3(CH2)3NH2 109-73-9 2.52 312 78 -12 1.7 9.8
Butylmethacrylate CH2=C(CH3)COO(CH2)3CH3 97-88-1 4.9 289 160 53 1 6.8
n-Butylpropionate C2H5COOC4H9 590-01-2 4.48 389 145 40 1.1 7.7
Butylraldhyde CH3CH2CH2CHO 123-72-8 2.48 191 75 -16 1.8 12.5
Carbon Disulfide CS2 75-15-0 2.64 95 46 -30 0.6 60
Carbon Monoxide CO 630-08-0 0.97 805 -191 — 10.9 74
Carbonyl Sulfide COS 463-58-1 2.07 209 -50 — 6.5 28.5
Chlorobenzene C6H5Cl 108-90-7 3.88 637 132 28 1.4 11
1-Chlorobutane CH3(CH2)2CH2Cl 109-69-3 3.2 250 78 -12 1.8 10
2-Chlorobutane CH3CHClC2H5 78-86-4 3.19 368 68 < -18 2.2 8.8
Chloroethane CH3CH2Cl 75-00-3 2.22 510 12 — 3.6 15.4
2-Chloroethanol CH2ClCH2OH 107-07-3 2.78 425 129 55 5 16
Chloroethylene CH2=CHCl 75-01-4 2.15 415 -15 -78 3.6 33
Chloromethane CH3Cl 74-87-3 1.78 625 -24 -24 7.6 19
1-Chloropropane CH3CH2CH2Cl 540-54-5 2.7 520 37 -32 2.4 11.1
2-Chloropropane (CH3)2CHCl 75-29-6 2.7 590 47 < -20 2.8 10.7
Chlorotrifluoroethylene CF2=CFCl 79-38-9 4.01 607 -28.4 Gas 4.6 84.3
Cresols CH3C5H4OH 1319-77-3 3.73 555 191 81 1.1 1.4
Crotonaldehyde CH3CH=CHCHO 123-73-9 2.41 280 102 13 2.1 16
Cumene C6H5CH(CH3)2 98-82-8 4.13 424 152 31 0.8 6.5

16
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
Cyclobutane C4H8 287-23-0 1.93 427 13 -63.9 1.8 11.1
Cycloheptane C7H14 291-64-5 3.39 — 118.5 < 10 1.1 6.7
Cyclohexane C6H12 110-82-7 2.9 259 81 -18 1.3 8
Cyclohexanol C6H11OH 108-93-0 3.45 300 161 61 1.2 11.1
Cyclohexanone C5H10CO 108-94-1 3.38 419 156 43 1 9.4
Cyclohexene C6H10 110-83-8 2.83 244 83 -17 1.2 7.8
Cyclohexylamine C6H11NH2 108-91-8 3.42 293 134 32 1.6 9.4
Cyclopentane C5H10 287-92-3 2.4 320 50 -37 1.4 9
Cyclopentene C5H8 142-29-0 2.3 309 44 < -22 1.48 —
Cyclopropane C3H6 75-719-4 1.45 498 -33 -94.4 2.4 10.4
Cyclopropyl Methyl Ketone C3H5COCH3 765-43-5 2.9 452 114 15 1.7 —
p-Cymene CH3(C6H4)CH(CH3)2 99-87-6 4.62 436 176 47 0.7 6.5
trans-Decahydronaphthalene CH2(CH2)3CHCH(CH2)3CH2 493-02-7 4.76 288 185 54 0.7 4.9
Decane C10H22 124-18-5 4.9 201 173 46 0.7 5.6
Diacetone Alcohol CH3COCH2C(CH3)2OH 123-42-2 4 680 166 58 1.8 6.9
Dibutyl Ether (CH3(CH2)3)2O 142-96-1 4.48 198 141 25 0.9 8.5
Dichlorobenzene C6H4Cl2 106-46-7 5.07 648 179 86 2.2 9.2
1,1-Dichlorethane CH3CHCl2 75-34-3 3.42 440 57 -10 5.6 16
1,2-Dichlorethane CH2ClCH2Cl 107-06-2 3.42 438 84 13 6.2 16
Dichlorodiethylsilane (C2H5)2SiCl2 1719-53-5 1.05 255 128 24 3.4 —
Dichloroethylene ClCH=CHCl 540-59-0 3.55 440 37 -10 9.7 12.8
1,2-Dichloropropane CH3CHClCH2Cl 78-87-5 3.9 557 96 15 3.4 14.5
Dicyclopentadiene C10H12 77-73-6 4.55 455 170 36 0.8 6.3
Diethyl Ether (C2H5)2O 60-29-7 2.55 160 34 -45 1.9 36
Diethylamine (C2H5)2NH 109-86-7 2.53 312 55 -23 1.7 10
Diethylcarbonate (C2H5CO)2O 105-58-8 4.07 450 126 24 1.4 11.7
1,1-Difluoroethylene CH2=CF2 75-38-7 2.21 380 -83 — 3.9 25.1

17
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
Diisobutyl Carbinol ((CH3)2CHCH2)2CHOH 108-82-7 4.97 290 178 75 0.7 6.1
Diisobutylamine ((CH3)2CHCH2)2NH 110-96-3 4.45 256 137 26 0.8 3.6
Diisopentyl Ether (CH3)2CH(CH2)2O(CH2)2CH(CH3)2 544-01-4 5.45 185 170 44 1.27 —
Diisopropyl Ether ((CH3)2CH)2O 108-20-3 3.52 405 69 -28 1 21
Diisopropylamine ((CH3)2CH)2NH 108-18-9 3.48 285 84 -20 1.2 8.3
Dimethoxymethane CH2(OCH3)2 109-87-5 2.6 247 41 -21 3 16.9
Dimethyl Ether (CH3)2O(CH3)2NH 124-40-3 1.55 400 7 -18 2.8 14.4
Dimethylaminopropiononitrile (CH3)2NHCH2CH2CN 1738-25-6 3.38 317 171 50 1.57 —
N,N-Dimethylformamide HCON(CH3)2 68-12-2 2.51 440 152 58 1.8 16
1,4-Dioxane OCH2CH2OCH2CH2 123-91-1 3.03 379 101 11 1.9 22.5
1,3-Dioxolane OCH2CH2OCH2 646-06-0 2.55 245 74 -5 2.3 30.5
Dipropylamine (C3H7)2NH 142-84-7 3.48 280 105 4 1.6 9.1
Epichlorohydrin OCH2CHCH2Cl 106-89-8 3.3 385 115 28 2.3 34.4
Ethane C2H6 74-84-0 1.04 515 -87 -135 3 12.5
Ethyl Mercaptan C2H5SH 75-08-1 2.11 295 35 < -20 2.8 18
Ethanol C2H5OH 64-17-5 1.59 363 78 12 3.3 19
2-Ethoxyethanol CH3CH2OCH2CH2OH 110-80-5 3.1 235 135 40 1.8 15.7
2-Ethoxyethylacetate CH3COOCH2CH2OCH2CH3 111-15-9 4.72 380 156 47 1.2 12.7
Ethyl Acetate CH3COOC2H5 141-78-6 3.04 460 77 -4 2.2 11
Ethyl Acetoacetate CH3COCH2COOC2H5 141-97-9 4.5 350 181 65 1 9.5
Ethyl Acrylate CH2=CHCOOC2H5 140-88-5 3.45 350 100 9 1.4 14
Ethyl Butyrate CH3CH2CH2COOC2H5 105-54-4 4 435 120 21 1.4 —
Ethyl Formate HCOOC2H 109-94-4 2.65 440 52 -20 2.7 16.5
Ethyl Isobutyrate (CH3)2CHCOOC2H5 97-62-1 4 438 112 10 1.6 7.8

18
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
Ethyl Methacrylate CH2=C(CH3)COOC2H5 97-62-2 3.9 393 118 20 1.5 2.5
Ethyl Methyl Ether C2H5-O-CH3 540-67-0 2.1 190 8 — 2 10.1
Ethyl Nitrate C2H5ONO2 109-95-5 2.6 95 18 -35 3 50
Ethylene Oxide CH2CH2O 75-21-8 1.52 435 11 < -18 3 100
Ethylamine C2H5NH2 75-04-7 1.5 425 16.6 < -20 2.68 14
Ethylbenzene C2H5-C6H5 100-41-4 3.66 431 135 23 1 7.8
Ethylcyclobutane CH2CH2CH2CH-C2H5 4806-61-5 2.9 212 71 < -16 1.2 7.7
Ethylcyclohexane (CH2)5CH-C2H5 1678-91-7 3.87 238 131 < 24 0.9 6.6
Ethylcyclopentane (CH2)4CH-C2H5 1640-89-7 3.4 262 103 <5 1.05 6.8
Ethylene CH2=CH2 74-85-1 0.97 425 -104 — 2.7 36
Ethylenediamine NH2CH2CH2NH2 107-15-3 2.07 403 118 34 2.7 16.5
Formaldehyde HCHO 50-00-0 1.03 424 -19 — 7 73
Formic Acid HCOOH 64-18-6 1.6 520 101 42 10 57
2-Furaldehyde OCH=CHCH=CHCHO 98-01-1 3.3 316 162 60 2.1 19.3
Furan CH=CHCH=CHO 110-00-9 2.3 390 32 < -20 2.3 14.3
Furfuryl Alcohol OC(CH2OH)CHCHCH 98-00-0 3.38 370 170 61 1.8 16.3
Heptane C7H16 142-82-5 3.46 215 98 -4 1.1 6.7
Hexane C6H14 110-54-3 2.97 233 69 -21 1.1 7.5
Hexyl Alcohol C6H13OH 111-27-3 3.5 293 156 63 1.2 8
Hydrogen H2 1333-74-0 0.07 560 -253 — 4 77
Hydrogen Cyanide HCN 74-90-8 0.9 538 26 < -20 5.4 46
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 7783-06-4 1.19 270 -60 -82 4 45.5
Isobutane (CH3)2CHCH3 75-28-5 2 460 -12 Gas 1.3 9.8
Isobutyl Alcohol (CH3)2CHCH2OH 78-83-1 2.55 408 108 28 1.7 10.6
Isobutyl Chloride (CH3)3CHCH2Cl 513-36-0 3.19 416 68 < -14 2 8.6
Isobutylamine (CH3)2CHCH2NH2 78-81-9 2.52 374 64 -20 1.47 10.8
Isobutylene (CH3)2C=CH2 115-11-7 1.93 483 -6.9 -80 1.6 10

19
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
Isobutylisobutyrate (CH3)2CHCOOH2CH(CH3)2 97-85-8 4.93 424 145 34 0.8 10.5
Isobutyraldhyde (CH3)2CHCHO 78-84-2 2.48 176 63 -22 1.6 11
Isodihydrolavandulyl Aldehyde C10H18O 35158-25-9 5.31 188 189 41 3.05 —
Isopropyl Acetate CH3COOCH(CH3)2 18-21-4 3.51 467 85 4 1.8 8.1
Isopropyl Alcohol (CH3)2CHOH 67-63-0 2.07 425 83 12 2 12.7
Isopropyl Chloroacetate CICH2COOCH(CH3)2 105-48-6 4.71 426 149 42 1.6 —
Isopropyl Nitrate (CH3)2CHONO2 1712-64-7 0.86 175 101 11 2 100
Isopropylamine (CH3)2CHNH2 75-31-0 2.03 340 33 < -24 2.3 8.6
Isovaleraldehyde (CH3)2CHCH2CHO 590-86-3 2.97 207 90 -12 1.7 —
Kerosene (Major Component of Jet Fuel) — 8008-20-6 4.5 210 150 38 0.7 5
Mesityl Oxide (CH3)2(CCHCOCH)3 141-79-7 3.78 306 129 24 1.6 7.2
Methacryloyl Chloride CH2CCH3COCl 920-46-7 3.6 510 95 17 2.5 —
Methallyl Chloride CH2=C(CH3)CH2Cl 563-47-3 3.12 478 71 -16 2.1 9.3
Methane CH4 74-82-8 0.55 537 -161 -188 5 15
Methanol CH3OH 67-56-1 1.11 386 65 11 6 36
2-Methoxyethanol CH3OC2H4OH 109-86-4 2.63 285 124 39 2.4 20.6
Methyl Acetate CH3COOCH3 79-20-9 2.56 502 57 -10 3.2 16
Methyl Acetoacetate CH3COOCH2COCH3 105-45-3 4 280 169 62 1.3 14.2
Methyl Acrylate CH2=CHCOOCH3 96-33-3 3 415 80 -3 2.4 25
Methyl Butyl Ketone (MBK) CH3CO(CH2)3CH3 591-78-6 3.46 533 127 23 1.2 8
Methyl Chlorformate CH3OOCC 79-22-1 3.3 475 70 10 7.5 26
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) CH3COC2H5 78-93-3 2.48 404 80 -9 1.4 11.4
Methyl Formate HCOOCH3 107-31-3 2.07 450 32 -20 5 23
Methyl Isobutyl Carbinol (MIBC) (CH3)2CHCH2CHOHCH3 108-11-2 3.5 334 132 37 1.14 5.5
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone (MIBK) (CH3)2CHCH2COCH3 108-10-1 3.45 475 117 16 1.2 8
Methyl Mercaptan CH3SH 74-93-1 1.6 340 6 -18 4.1 21
Methyl Methacrylate CH2=C(CH3)COOCH3 80-62-6 3.45 430 100 10 1.7 12.5

20
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
α-Methyl Styrene C6H5C(CH3)=CH2 98-83-9 4.08 445 165 40 0.9 6.6
Methylamine CH3NH2 74-89-5 1 430 -6 -18 4.2 20.7
2-Methylbutane (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 78-78-4 2.5 420 30 < -51 1.3 8
2-Methylbutanol CH3CH2C(OH)(CH3)2 75-84-4 3.03 392 102 16 1.4 10.2
3-Methylbutanol (CH3)2CH(CH2)2OH 123-51-3 3.03 339 130 42 1.3 10.5
2-Methylbutene (CH3)2C=CHCH3 513-35-9 2.4 290 35 -53 1.3 6.6
2-Methylbutenyne HC=CC(CH3)CH2 78-80-8 2.28 272 32 -54 1.4 —
Methylcyclohexane CH3CH(CH2)4CH2 108-87-2 3.38 258 101 -4 1.16 6.7
Methylcyclopentadiene C6H6 26519-91-5 2.76 432 — < -18 1.3 7.6
Methylcyclopentane CH3CH(CH2)4 96-37-7 2.9 258 72 < -10 1 8.4
Methylenecyclobutane C(=CH2)CH2CH2CH2 1120-56-5 2.35 352 41 <0 1.25 8.6
2-Methylfuranl OC(CH3)CHCHCH 534-22-5 2.83 318 63 < -16 1.4 9.7
Methylisocyanate CH3NCO 624-83-9 1.98 517 37 -7 5.3 26
2-Methylpentenal CH3CH2CHC(CH3)COH 623-69-9 3.78 206 137 30 1.46 —
2-Methylpyridine NCH(CH3)CHCHCHCH 109-06-8 3.21 533 128 27 1.2 8.6
3-Methylpyridine NCHCH(CH3)CHCHCH 108-99-6 3.21 537 144 43 1.4 8.1
4-Methylpyridine NCHCHCH(CH3)CHCH 108-89-4 3.21 534 145 43 1.1 7.8
Methylthiophene SC(CH3)CHCHCHC 554-14-3 3.4 433 113 -1 1.3 6.5
Morpholine OCH2CH2NHCH2CH2 110-91-8 3 230 129 31 1.8 15.2
Naphthalene C10H8 91-20-3 4.42 528 218 77 0.9 5.9
Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 98-95-3 4.25 480 211 88 1.7 40
Nitroethane C2H5NO2 79-24-3 2.58 410 114 27 3.4 —
Nitromethane CH3NO2 75-52-5 2.11 415 102.2 36 7.3 63
1-Nitropropane CH3CH2CH2NO2 108-03-2 3.1 420 131 36 2.2 —
Nonane C9H20 111-84-2 4.43 205 151 30 0.7 5.6
Octane C8H18 111-65-9 3.93 206 126 13 0.8 6.5
1-Octanol CH3(CH2)6CH2OH 111-87-5 4.5 270 196 81 0.9 7.4

21
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
Paraldehyde OCH(CH3)OCH(CH3)OCH(CH3) 123-63-7 4.56 235 123 27 1.3 17
Pentane-2,4-dione CH3COCH2COCH3 123-54-6 3.5 340 140 34 1.7 —
Pentane C5H12 109-66-0 2.48 258 36 -40 1.4 7.8
Pentyl Acetate CH3COO-(CH2)4-CH3 628-63-7 4.48 360 147 25 1 7.1
Petroleum — — 2.8 560 — < -20 1.2 8
Petroleum Ether (Naptha) — 8030-30-6 2.5 290 35-80 < -18 0.9 6
Phenol C6H5OH 108-95-2 3.24 595 182 75 1.3 9.5
Piperylene CH2=CH-CH=CH-CH3 504-60-9 2.34 361 42 < -31 1.2 9.4
Propane C3H8 74-98-6 1.56 470 -42 -104 2.1 9.5
Propargyl Alcohol HC=CCH2OH 107-19-7 1.89 346 114 33 2.4 —
Propene CH2=CHCH3 115-07-1 1.5 455 -48 -108 2 11
Propionic Acid CH3CH2COOH 79-09-4 2.55 435 141 52 2.1 12
Propionic Aldehyde C2H5CHO 123-38-6 2 188 46 < -26 2 —
Propyl Acetate CH3COOCH2CH2CH3 109-60-4 3.6 430 102 10 1.7 8
Propyl Alcohol CH3CH2CH2OH 71-23-8 2.07 405 97 22 2.2 17.5
Propylamine CH3(CH2)2NH2 107-10-8 2.04 318 48 -37 2 10.4
Propyne CH3C=CH 74-99-7 1.38 — -23.2 -51 1.7 16.8
Pyridine C5H5N 110-86-1 2.73 550 115 17 1.7 12
R-1123 CF2=CFH 359-11-5 1.26 319 -57 — 15.3 27
R-143a CF3CH3 420-46-2 1.30 714 -47.6 — 6.8 17.6
Styrene C6H5CH=CH2 100-42-5 3.6 490 145 30 1.1 8
Tetrahydrofuran CH2(CH2)2CH2O 109-99-9 2.49 224 64 -20 1.5 12.4
Tetrafluoroethylene CF2=CF2 116-14-3 3.4 255 -76.6 — 10 59
2,2,3,3,-Tetrafluoropropyl Methacrylate CH2=C(CH2)COOCH2CF2CF2H 45102-52-1 6.9 389 124 46 1.9 —
2,2,3,3,-Tetrafluoro Propylacrylate CH2=CHCOOCH2CF2CF2H 7383-71-3 6.41 357 132 45 2.4 —
Tetrahydrofurfuryl Alcohol OCH2CH2CH2CHCH2OH 97-99-4 3.52 280 178 70 1.5 9.7
Tetrahydrothiophene CH2(CH2)2CH2S 110-01-0 3.04 200 119 13 1.1 12.3

22
 Relative Ignition Boiling Flash
CAS Density Temp. Point Point
Combustible Gas Chemical Formula Number Air = 1 °C °C °C % LEL % UEL
N,N,N’,N’,-Tetramethyldiaminomethane (CH3)2NCH2N(CH3)2 51-80-9 3.5 180 85 < -13 1.61 —
Thiophene CH=CHCH=CHS 110-02-1 2.9 395 84 -9 1.5 12.5
Toluene C6H5CH3 108-88-3 3.2 535 111 4 1.1 7.1
Triethylamine (C2H5)3N 121-44-8 1.2 294 89 -7 1.2 8
Trifluoroethanol CF3CH2OH 75-89-8 1.38 463 77 30 8.4 28.8
3,3,3-Trifluoropropene CF3CH=CH2 677-21-4 3.3 490 -16 — 4.7 13.5
Trimethylamine (CH3)3N 75-50-3 1.6 190 3 -6 2 12
1,2,3-Trimethylbenzene CHCHCHC(CH3)C(CH3)C(CH3) 526-73-8 4.15 470 175 51 0.8 7
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene CHC(CH3)CHC(CH3)CHC(CH3) 108-67-8 4.15 499 163 44 0.8 7.3
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane (CH3)2CHCH2C(CH3)3 540-84-1 3.9 411 98 -12 1 6
1,3,5-Trioxane OCH2OCH2OCH2 110-88-3 3.11 410 115 45 3.2 29
Turpentine ~C10H16 — 1.01 254 149 35 0.8 —
Vinyl Acetate CH3COOCH=CH2 108-05-4 3 425 72 -8 2.6 13.4
Vinyl Cyclohexane CH2CHC6H9 100-40-3 3.72 257 126 15 0.8 —
Vinylidene Chloride CH2=CCl2 75-35-4 3.4 440 30 -18 7.3 16
2-Vinylpyridine NC(CH2=CH)CHCHCHCH 100-69-6 3.62 482 79 35 1.2 —
4-Vinylpyridine NCHCHC(CH2=CH)CHCH 100-43-6 3.62 501 62 43 1.1 —
Xylene C6H4(CH3)2 1330-20-7 3.66 464 144 30 1 7

23
TOXIC GAS REFERENCE GUIDE

Common name of toxic

gases. Note that some American Chemical Society’s Threshold
gases can be known identification number for limit value Permissible exposure The lowest airborne
by multiple names. each gas. Useful when a gas as established limit as established concentration that
has more than one name. by the ACGIH. by OSHA. can be detected by smell.

Ratio of the density Short term

Formula showing of gas compared with exposure limit as Immediately dangerous
the atomic composition ambient atmosphere. established to life or health level
of the gas. > 1.0 indicates the gas by EH40/2005. of exposure.
is heavier than air.

Chemical CAS Relative Density TLV STEL PEL IDLH Odor Threshold
Toxic Gas Formula Number Air = 1 (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM)

Boron Trifluoride BF3 7637-07-2 2.18 1* — 1 (C) 25 1.5

Bromine Br2 7726-95-6 0.6 0.10 0.20 0.10 3 0.066
Carbon Dioxide CO2 124-38-9 1.5 5,000 30,000 5,000 40,000 74,000
Carbon Disulfide CS2 75-15-0 2.6 10 — 20 500 0.096
Carbon Monoxide CO 630-08-0 1.0 25 — 50 1200 100,000

NOTES:
All data is provided as a reference only. Refer to local authority such as NIOSH, ACGIH, OSHA, CCOHS, and others for current published values.
— Indicates data has not been evaluated.
“C” Indicates ceiling level value.

24
 Chemical CAS Relative Density TLV STEL PEL IDLH Odor Threshold
Toxic Gas Formula Number Air = 1 (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM)

Ammonia NH3 7664-41-7 0.6 25 35 50 300 5.75

Arsine AsH3 7784-24-1 2.7 0.05 — 0.05 3 < 1.0

Benzene C6H6 71-43-2 0.88 0.5 2.5 — 500 8.65

Boron Trichloride BCl3 10294-34-5 4.1 — — — — —

Boron Triflouride BF3 7637-07-2 2.18 1 — 1 (C) 25 1.5

Bromine Br2 7726-95-6 0.6 0.10 0.20 0.10 3 0.066

Carbon Dioxide CO2 124-38-9 1.5 5,000 30,000 5,000 40,000 74,000

Carbon Disulfide CS2 75-15-0 2.6 10 — 20 500 —

Carbon Monoxide CO 630-08-0 1.0 25 — 50 1200 100,000

Carbonyl Sulfide COS 463-58-1 2.1 — — — 2 —

Chlorine Cl2 7782-50-5 2.5 0.5 1.0 1.0 10 0.05

Chlorine Dioxide ClO2 10049-04-4 2.3 0.1 0.3 0.1 5 9.24

Cyanogen Chloride CNCl 506-77-4 2.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 — 0.976

Diborane B2H6 19287-45-7 2.9 0.10 — 0.10 15 1.8 - 3.5

Dichlorosilane SiH4Cl2 4109-96-0 3.5 — — — — —

Dimethyl Amine (DMA) C2H7N 124-40-3 0.7 5 6 10 500 0.081

Disilane Si2H6 1590-87-0 2.1 — — — — —

Ethylene Oxide CH2OCH2 75-21-8 1.5 1.0 — 1.0 800 851

25
 Chemical CAS Relative Density TLV STEL PEL IDLH Odor Threshold
Toxic Gas Formula Number Air = 1 (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM)

Fluorine F2 7782-41-4 1.3 1.0 2.0 0.1 25 0.126

Formaldehyde CH2O — — 0.3 — — 20 0.871

Germane GeH4 7782-65-2 2.7 0.2 — — — —

Hydrazine N2H4 302-01-2 1.1 0.0 — 1.0 50 3.6

Hydrogen Bromide HBr 10035-10-6 2.8 — 3 (C) 3.00 3 1.99

Hydrogen Chloride HCl 7647-01-0 1.3 — 5 (C) 5 (C) 50 0.77

Hydrogen Cyanide HCN 74-90-8 0.9 — 4.7 (C) 10.00 50 0.603

Hydrogen Fluoride HF 7664-39-3 0.7 3 3 (C) 3 30 0.036

Hydrogen Iodide HI 10034-85-2 4.5 — — — — —

Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2 7722-84-1 1.2 1.0 — 1.00 75 —

Hydrogen Selenide H2Se 7783-07-5 2.8 0.05 — 0.05 100 0.3

Hydrogen Sulfide H2S 7783-06-4 1.2 1 5 20 (C) 100 0.0005

Methanol CH3OH 67-56-1 0.8 200 250 200 25,000 —

Methyl Iodide CH3I 74-88-4 2.9 2 2 5 100 —

Methyl Mercaptan CH3SH 74-93-1 0.9 — — 10 (C) 150 0.001

Monomethyl CH3(NH)NH2 60-34-4 1.6 0.01 — 0.2 50 1.71

Nitric Acid HNO3 7697-37-2 1.4 2 4 2 25 0.267

Nitric Oxide NO 10102-43-9 1.0 25.0 — 25.00 100 —

26
 Chemical CAS Relative Density TLV STEL PEL IDLH Odor Threshold
Toxic Gas Formula Number Air = 1 (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM) (PPM)

Nitrogen Dioxide NO2 10102-44-0 2.6 3 5 5 20 0.186

Nitrogen Trifluoride NF3 7783-54-2 2.4 10 — 10 1000 —

n-Butyl Amine CH3(CH2)2CH2-NH2 109-73-9 0.74 5 (C) — 5 (C) 300 0.053

Oxygen Deficiency O2 — 0.9 — — <19.5% <18% —

Oxygen Enrichment O2 — 0.9 — — >23.5% — —

Ozone O3 10028-15-6 1.7 0.1 — 0.10 5 0.051

Phosgene COCl2 75-44-5 3.4 0.1 — 0.1 2 0.55

Phosphine PH3 7803-51-2 1.2 0.3 1.0 0.30 50 0.14

Propylene Oxide C3H6O 75-56-9 1.6 2 — 100 400 33.1

Silane SiH4 7803-62-5 1.3 5 — — — —

Silicon Tetrafluoride SiF4 7783-60-0 — — — — 3 —

Stibine SbH3 7803-52-3 2.26 0.1 — 0.1 5 —

Sulfur Dioxide SO2 7446-09-5 2.3 — 0.25 5 100 0.708

Styrene C6H5CH=CH2 100-24-5 3.6 20.0 40 10.00 700 —

Tetraethyl
Orthosilicate (TEOS) (C2H5O)4Si 78-10-4 7.2 100 10 10 700 —

Triethylamine (TEA) C6H16N 121-44-8 1.2 5 4 — 200 0.309

Vinyl Chloride (VCM) CH2=CHCl 75-01-4 2.0 1 — — Carcinogen 35.5

27
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE AND APPLICATION
The most common applications in hazardous atmosphere monitoring occur with the use of mounted fixed
gas detection systems. These systems are set in place to provide continuous monitoring in areas where
leaks, ruptures, or releases of hazardous gases are likely to occur whether indoor or outdoor.

THERE ARE SEVERAL FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN INSTALLING

A FIXED DETECTION SYSTEM. AMONG THE MORE BASIC ONES:

How many monitors are needed to provide adequate protection?

What areas will be monitored locally and which will be monitored from a remote location?
What types of safety measures can be activated should a hazardous situation occur?
Will the environment the sensors are located in affect performance?
Is there sufficient oxygen for the sensor type to respond?
Is the target gas heavier or lighter than air?
Where are the receptor* and release* points in the process?
Is the environment the sensor will be installed in subjected to high traffic or wash downs?
What is the area classification of the location for installation?
Are there other gases present that may react or cause a cross interference with target gases?

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

28
DESIGNING A GAS DETECTION SYSTEM
A fixed gas detection system is a highly customizable application comprised of any number of combinations
of point detectors, networked monitoring, automatic response functions, or audible and visual alarms. Each
process* that requires gas detection must be carefully evaluated to identify and understand the potential risk
factors and what the best potential monitoring and response functions are to reduce those risks. Scott Safety
will work with customers to help identify the risks and provide design solutions that maximize value and safety.

Five areas of consideration can help with a system design. Sometimes, a solution is as simple as a single
point of detection. More frequently, however, careful evaluation of an overall process yields an opportunity
to significantly reduce the risks and hazards of a plant process. These areas are:

1. UNDERSTAND THE APPLICATION

2. IDENTIFY POTENTIAL DANGER POINTS
3. ESTABLISH DESIGN GOALS
4. DETERMINE GAS CHARACTERISTICS
5. PROFILE THE FACILITY

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

29
UNDERSTAND THE APPLICATION
Legal requirements, local and federal regulations, fire and building codes, and industry safety standards all
play a significant role in determining the applicability of minimum safety requirements when monitoring for
toxic and combustible hazards in the workplace.
Certain requirements for gas monitoring are based on the physical design and layout of plant processes.
Semiconductor facilities, wastewater treatment plants, and natural gas delivery systems all have their own
unique requirements for monitoring and automatic response functions to alarms. Physical factors to consider
when designing a system include indoor/outdoor use, amount and direction of ventilation, enclosed spaces,
possible ignition sources, power availability for installation, receptor points, release points, and whether
exposure to other toxic substances may occur.
Workers should only be subjected to certain limits of different types of contaminants. These restricted limits
are defined as STEL, TWA, IDLH, and ceiling limits among other factors. Agencies such as NIOSH, ACGIH,
OSHA, CCOHS, IOHA* and others set and recommend these levels to protect individuals from exposures to
harmful levels of hazardous substances.
Another major consideration in understanding the application is to know the characteristics of the monitored
hazardous substances. Gases can be both toxic and combustible; however, the importance of monitoring is
to reduce the risk from whichever characteristic is more likely to occur. Carbon monoxide, for example, is a
combustible hazard when it reaches a concentration of 12.8% LEL or 128,000 ppm. However the established
STEL is 400 ppm and becomes IDLH at only 1200 ppm. In areas where workers can be exposed to carbon
monoxide, the appropriate application is to monitor for toxic levels.

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

30
IDENTIFY POTENTIAL DANGER POINTS
Danger points are identified in one of two ways, release points and receptor points.

RELEASE POINT - Location where hazardous gases can potentially be released, also referred to as the source

RECEPTOR POINT - Location where hazardous gases cause a threat to personnel, property, or facilities

In general, all areas of a facility where gases are transported, stored, processed, delivered, or utilized are danger points. However, by focusing
on the points where the occurrence of gas is most likely to occur, or most likely to pose a danger to people, property, or equipment, a balance of
safety and cost can be considered. The areas between release points and receptor points typically have the highest need for gas detection. Scott
Safety can assist with identifying the potentially dangerous release points and the most likely receptor points.

COMMON RELEASE POINTS COMMON RECEPTOR POINTS

• Seals, flanges, gaskets, piping • Analyzer shelters
manifolds, and valve stems • Confined spaces
• Weld-beads Space Between • Maintenance areas
• Liquid and gas storage areas Release and Receptor Points
= • Ventilation distribution
• Battery rooms The Need for Gas points
• Sumps, sewers, wastewater Detection and Monitoring • Personnel facilities
treatment areas • Pump rooms
• Gas transportation routes • Storage areas
• Semiconductor processing areas • Fresh air intakes

31
ESTABLISH DESIGN GOALS
When designing a gas detection system to meet the needs of your process or facility, planners will need to plan the goals, or response
functions, of the gas detectors when warning and alarm conditions occur.

RESPONSE FUNCTIONS KEY CONSIDERATIONS

NOTIFICATION AND ANNUNCIATION HUMAN RESPONSE TIME OF AN ALARM EVENT

Warnings and alarms are projected through the use of lights, Will the detectors be continuously manned or will
bells, whistles, buzzers, horns, sirens, or any other method automatic functions be required?
to get the attention of personnel and responders. What are the consequences of not responding quickly?

VENTILATION CONTROL REDUNDANCY OF DETECTION EQUIPMENT

Warnings and alarms may trigger automatic ventilation What are the costs associated with a false alarm?
actions to occur. In some instances, ventilation may be What zone/voting configurations are required?
secured to control the spread of a gas. Other times,
ventilation may be increased to aid in the purging of MARGIN OF SAFETY
dangerous gases. What are the reaction by-products that could occur
if one gas mixes with another?
PROCESS SHUTDOWN
What effects will temperature, humidity, high pressure
Warnings and alarms may trigger both automatic and releases, vapor clouds, and oxygen displacement have
human initiated process shutdowns ranging from closing on process monitoring?
flow control valves and manifolds to securing power to
equipment to isolating areas. LEGAL AND REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
Are all the requirements of local laws, codes, SIL,
EVACUATION AND EMERGENCY RESPONSE
and other industry standards being met?
Warnings and alarms may trigger human initiated evacuations
and automatic notification to emergency responders.

32
DETERMINE GAS CHARACTERISTICS
Simply knowing whether a particular gas needs to be monitored at toxic or combustible levels is not enough. Other factors play just as
large a role in determining the optimum locations for points of detection.

VAPOR DENSITY*
Heavier than air gases and vapors tend to sink and accumulate in lower lying areas. They typically will not disperse quickly and may
displace oxygen. Sensors for these gases and vapors should be located approximately 18–24" (46–61 cm) above floor level. Lighter
than air gases will tend to rise in the atmosphere and sensors should be placed above the release point. It is not uncommon for these
sensors to be placed at or near the ceilings of indoor facilities.

GAS RELEASE TEMPERATURES

Temperature and vapor density have an inversely proportionate relationship; that is, as temperature increases the vapor density will
decrease and as temperature cools, vapor density will increase. This is important to consider as some heated or cooled gases and
vapors will not initially rise or fall as they would if they were at ambient temperatures.

VENTILATION AND AIR CURRENTS

Lighter than air gases may disperse and travel across ventilation and air currents quicker than they would otherwise rise. Consideration
may be given to placing sensors near exhaust paths or exhaust ducts to account for this air flow.

RATE OF EVAPORATION
Vapors that evaporate slowly over standing liquids tend to be dense so sensors should be placed closer to liquids or potential spill locations
to account for this. Vapors with a higher rate of evaporation can act similar to lighter than air gases and be taken with air currents.

HIGH PRESSURE GASES AND VAPORS

Gases under pressure can tend to emit from a release point as a gas jet. If the physical structure of the release point is such that the
jet’s path is predictable, sensors should be placed directly in the path of the jet. If the release point does not provide a predictable path,
multiple sensors should be utilized around the release point. Gas jets may produce heavy aerosols. Lighter than air vapors and gases will
not immediately rise when released under pressure as part of these aerosols.

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

33
PROFILE THE FACILITY
The last consideration that needs to be made is to identify the physical, environmental, and air flow constraints that are in place at the
facility where the gas detectors and sensors will be installed. These constraints will be unique to each facility and proper foresight can
prevent costly repairs, relocation of equipment, and help to minimize false alarms.

USE IN A HAZARDOUS LOCATION

Not all gas detection equipment is designed equally for use in classified areas. Note the highest zone or division the classified area
is and ensure the detection equipment selected is suitable for use in these areas.

INDOOR/OUTDOOR USE
Perhaps the simplest of considerations, and most important to the basic design of a fixed gas detection system is whether the monitors are
to be used indoors or outdoors. Outdoor applications present challenges in the number of detectors to be used because gases will rapidly
disperse into the atmosphere. Open path* technology can help to lower the number of sensors and increase their effective range, but they
will not work for all gases and must have a clear line of sight between the sensor and receiver. Indoor applications that confine a gas release
may require lower warning and alarm settings as the concentration of released gas will rise rapidly in an enclosed environment.

PHYSICAL INTERFERENCE
Gas releases will move more rapidly over smooth surfaces such as floors, concrete, water, and grass. Areas where physical barriers such
as cabinets, buildings, lockers, piping, and storage tanks exist will change the flow of a released gas, and may confine the gas. Sensors
mounted in low lying areas should be kept clear of transportation routes and protected from areas where routine cleaning or precipitation
would splash and possibly effect the ability of sensors to function properly.

AIR FLOW
Prevailing winds and humidity levels make a big difference in how the flow of a released gas will disperse in outdoor applications. Gas
dispersion models can be used to predict likely release paths and help target the best locations for gas detectors. Indoor applications are
effected by the volume of air flow in ventilated areas and whether enclosed areas have exhaust lines. Smoke studies, where a puff of
visible smoke is released, can be done to follow the air current and predict the path of a released gas.

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

34
PROFILE THE FACILITY
The last consideration that needs to be made is to identify the physical, environmental, and air flow constraints that are in place at the
facility where the gas detectors and sensors will be installed. These constraints will be unique to each facility and proper foresight can
prevent costly repairs, relocation of equipment, and help to minimize false alarms.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
All gas detectors have temperature restrictions that effect the environment in which they can be used. Sensor technologies vary in
performance from arid to high humidity conditions. Weather shields and other accessories are usually available to help protect gas
detection equipment. Filters may help to prevent dust and particulates from interfering with sensor performance.

ACCESSIBILITY OF THE MONITOR AND SENSOR

When mounting a gas detector and the sensor, use foresight and planning to anticipate needing to perform routine calibrations* and
sensor replacements. Mounting a sensor in a remote area that is difficult to access can cause problems when routine maintenance
needs arise. Similarly, when facility changes and expansions are done, an evaluation should be conducted to verify the mounted gas
detectors are still performing as expected and will still be able to be accessed as needed. Sensors should never be painted over.

WIRING AND INSTALLATION

Wiring and installation costs can significantly impact the cost of a well designed gas detection system. Proper planning should occur
prior to installation to verify the infrastructure is in place to provide the proper power to each component and account for voltage loss
that will occur over long cable runs. Mounting of transmitters* should be done in such a way that meets all applicable building codes
and minimizes the effects of any residual vibration from nearby equipment.

EMI* AND RFI*

Electromagnetic and radio frequency interference are legitimate concerns when installing gas detectors. Interference and electrical noise
spikes can generate false alarms in equipment. Verify all wiring is properly shielded and encased in suitable conduit. Detectors should
always be grounded. Wireless surveys should be done to analyze the suitability of using wireless detectors and sensor heads*
as the technology emerges.

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

35
INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS Combustible hazards
Toxic hazards
Hazardous gas monitoring has a place in most industries worldwide for the safety of personnel, property, and facilities.
Fixed and portable detection units can mean the difference in saving lives and preventing costly incidents. Whether it’s
handling, manufacturing, transporting, processing, or treating potentially hazardous substances, Scott Safety can help
customers determine what products can best fit their needs for each necessary application.

PETROCHEMICAL, OIL, AND GAS PHARMACEUTICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES

Potential activities requiring gas detection: Potential activities requiring gas detection: Potential activities requiring gas detection:
Refining operations Chemical processing Standing water operations
On/off shore drilling Storage facilities Enclosed tanks and sewers
Compressor stations Volatile emissions Chemical processing
Pump stations

Notable gases of interest: Notable gases of interest: Notable gases of interest:

Hydrocarbon gases - Ethane, Methane VOCs*, Methane VOCs*, Methane
Carbon Monoxide, Hydrogen Sulfide, Solvents, Silicones, Oxygen, Sulfur Dioxide, Chlorine,
Hydrogen Fluoride Ethylene Oxide Hydrogen Sulfide, Ammonia,
Ozone, Oxygen (depletion)

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

36
INDUSTRIAL HAZARDS Combustible hazards
Toxic hazards

SEMICONDUCTOR FABRICATION GENERAL INDUSTRY/ FOOD AND BEVERAGE

CHEMICAL PROCESSES
Potential activities requiring gas detection: Potential activities requiring gas detection: Potential activities requiring gas detection:
Chemical vapor deposition Gas delivery and transportation Refrigeration
Gas storage Pump and piping systems Sanitizing processes
Reacting agents and chemical Laboratory operations
drying processes

Notable gases of interest: Notable gases of interest: Notable gases of interest:

Hydrogen Methane, Flammable Vapors, VOCs Carbon Monoxide
Silane, Carbon Monoxide, Arsine Hydrogen Sulfide, Hydrogen Chloride, Carbon Dioxide, Ammonia,
Carbon Monoxide, Oxygen (deficiency), Chlorine, Oxygen (deficiency),
Chlorine, Sulfur Dioxide, Hydrogen Chloride Sulfur Dioxide

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

37
COMMON HAZARDS BY INDUSTRY

Ammonia (NH3)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

Chlorine (Cl2)

Combustible Gases

Hydrogen (H2)

Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)

Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2)

Nitric Oxide (NO)

O2 Enrichment/Deficient

Phosphine (PH3)

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Volatile Organic
Compounds (VOC)*

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

38
FIXED VS. PORTABLE DETECTION
PORTABLE GAS DETECTION refers to a handheld system
FIXED GAS DETECTION refers to a permanently mounted sensor or
of sensors that provides protection for an individual user. Alarm
system of sensors. At a minimum, the sensors are connected to a transmitter
functions in the form of visual, audible, and vibratory alerts notify
or controller*, and commonly are connected to a network consisting
users when detection of a hazardous situation has occurred and
of multiple points of detection, alerts, alarms, and response functions.
requires a human response.
Fixed gas detection is used for continuous monitoring of gas
Portable units are typically used in confined space entries, areas
concentrations to protect people, facilities, and equipment. It provides
where fixed gas detection is not available or providing continuous
monitoring around the clock in local or remote locations and does not
monitoring, or to verify an atmosphere is not hazardous when
require a constant human monitor or response.
servicing a fixed gas detection system.

ADVANTAGES ADVANTAGES
1. Continuous, real-time 1. Costs less than
monitoring fixed systems
2. Customizable 2. Can be taken any-
automatic response where a user can go
functions 3. Typically battery
3. Easy to maintain powered, not tied
routine maintenance to a power source
and calibration
LIMITATIONS
LIMITATIONS 1. Does not provide
1. Costs more than portable automatic response
2. Requires independent functions
reliable power source 2. Users must be properly
3. Not easily relocated trained to ensure
when process needs proper usage
change
* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

39
WARNINGS, ALARMS AND RESPONSE FUNCTIONS
Through the use of relays and customizable alarm point settings, users are able to configure their systems and transmitters
to respond to changing hazardous conditions. Relays may be activated to perform any number of functions including activating
visual and audible alarms, closing electronic isolation valves, and starting or stopping exhaust fans.

This type of automatic system response can save lives and alert workers to hazardous situations.

Most systems also have an option for a remote alarm reset. This enables users
to acknowledge alarm conditions from a remote (safe) location.

Automatic data logging of significant events such as calibrations, alarms, and power
interruptions can usually aid users when performing troubleshooting or historical
trend analysis.

40
OHM’S LAW
One of the challenges that can go into designing an effective fixed gas detection system is understanding the
maximum cable lengths that can be utilized for remote detector heads, alarm systems, remotely mounted
transmitters, etc. Voltages can be lost over long lengths of cable. Proper planning and understanding the
E* I
relationships in an electrical system will help the design and effectivity of the fixed gas detection system. E/ R
Ohm’s Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (E) voltage, (I) current, and (R) resistance. I2 * R P/ E
P - This is the total power generated in a circuit. It is the product of

current and voltage, measured in watts.

E2 / R P I P/ R
Watts Amps
E - This is the difference in electrical potential between two points
of a circuit, measured in volts. Volts are the muscle to move current. Volts Ohms
P* R E R P/ I2
I - This is the current, or what flows on a wire, measured in amps.

l l t)
R - This the resistance of the circuit, or what determines how much •1
l t
a
electricity can flow in a circuit. As resistance increases, current flow m
i s
becomes less and vice versa. Measured in ohms. a =
p
m 1
=
p k
1
s V
0
) (
* ONE VOLT OF ELECTRICITY WILL CARRY ONE AMP OF CURRENT THROUGH ONE OHM OF RESISTANCE 0
, k
TO PRODUCE ONE WATT OF POWER. 0
1 i
m
Notes • Wire sizes and materials will vary from manufacturer to manufacturer resulting in different resistance values. 0 l
A
Always consult manufacturer’s technical specifications for accurate resistance values. 0 o
(
0 v
• The voltage output from a power source will not be the voltage received at the other end of the wire run. m
v o
i
Voltage loss will occur over the length of a wire run. o l

41
OHM’S LAW
P/I E2
I* /P
R

E/
I

42
RELAY LOGIC
A key feature of most fixed point gas detection systems are standard and optional relays. Relays open or close contacts to complete or break
an electrical circuit when user configured set points have been met. Relays can be used to activate any of a myriad of options including the
activation of warning lights, alarms, exhaust fans, automatic valve operation, etc.
Typically, users will use system integrated logic to program a detector or controller to activate a relay when an alarm or combination of alarm
set points have been reached. In a fail-safe* operation, relays are normally energized and de-energized upon alarm activation. In a non-fail-safe*
operation, the relays are normally de-energized.
Relays have normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) contacts. The NO or NC designations refer to the state of the contacts when they have
not been activated; i.e., power is not applied to the relay. NO contacts are those that are not completing a circuit unless the relay becomes
energized. NC contacts will open when the relay is energized.

WARNING LIGHT RELAY CIRCUIT WARNING LIGHT RELAY CIRCUIT

NOT ENERGIZED ENERGIZED

RESE RESE
T/
UP T/
NEXT ALM1 ALM2 FAIL UP
NEXT ALM1 ALM2 FAIL

0 RXD
RS485
0 RXD
RS485
% LEL % LEL
Me a s u r e me n t N a Me a s u r e me n t N a
me me
TXD TXD

L1 L2 L1 L2

Transmitter below Transmitter above

user configured user configured
alarm set-point. alarm set-point.
Relay is not energized; Relay energizes,
the circuit to illuminate completing the circuit
warning light is not and illuminating
completed. the warning light.

43
SENSOR TECHNOLOGY
The science behind gas and flame detection has vastly improved in recent years and continues to evolve.
Miniaturization of components, more efficient power utilization, and new detection methods lead the way
in providing solutions to safeguarding people and equipment from the hazards of toxic and combustible
gases, vapors and aerosols.

To understand the best methods available to

meet different process needs, Scott Safety
constantly tests and evaluates emerging
technologies. Our team of experts can explain
the benefits and limitations of the different
sensor types available and how they can be
best utilized to provide the safest protection.

44
CATALYTIC BEAD (CAT BEAD) SENSORS
Beads consist of a wrapped coil of platinum wire covered with a ceramic base and then coated WHEATSTONE BRIDGE CIRCUIT: When gas
with a precious metal to act as the catalyst. The active, or sensing, bead is heated to temperatures burns on the active bead causing the temperature
up to 1000°C to allow the oxidation* of combustible gases to occur. The reference, or nonsensitive, to increase, the resistance of the bead changes.
bead remains at a lower temperature and is separated from the active bead by a thermal barrier. As the bridge becomes unbalanced, the offset
The resistance of the two beads is measured and compared using a Wheatstone bridge. voltage is used to determine the measured value.

OUTPUT
TOP VIEW
(Internal)

DC POWER
THERMAL R1
BARRIER

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. Proven technology 1. High power R1 balances the right side of the circuit.
2. Low cost 2. Susceptible to poisoning from chlorine, silicones The combustion that occurs across the
3. Can be used to detect wide and acid gases active bead leads to an unbalanced output
range of combustible gases 3. Cannot be used in an oxygen deficient atmosphere of the circuit. This value is then used to
4. Proven technology for the 4. Unable to discriminate between different types determine the concentration of combustible
detection of hydrogen of combustible gas
gas present.

45
INFRARED SENSORS
Infrared light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum that is close to, but not, visible light and can be felt as heat. The wavelength profile of
infrared is expressed in microns between 0.7 μm and 300 μm. Hydrocarbon combustible gas molecules can absorb certain wavelengths of IR
called absorption bands and allow other wavelengths to transmit through. Each gas has a specific set of IR wavelengths that will absorb, called
the absorption spectrum. This provides a unique identifier to monitor and detect target gases.
Infrared sensors are designed to detect specific types of gases utilizing filters that will only allow a narrow band of wavelengths to pass through
to a detector. This works on the same principle as a pair of sunglasses that filter out some of the sun’s UV rays and visible light from your eyes.

Absorption of ADVANTAGES
Infrared Light 1. Long life
Infrared Lens by the Target Gas Transmittance Filters
Light 2. Fast response time
Source Active 3. Resistant to
Detector contamination
Reference 4. Open path can
Detector detect over a
The infrared light source The infrared light source Absorption of the infrared light Each detector has separate filters. large area
pulses on and off at a set and the detectors are isolated occurs as the beam shines through The reference detector has a filter that
frequency to increase the from the gas sample through a gas sample. Not all of the light is is tuned to part of the spectrum where LIMITATIONS
detectors’ sensitivity and the use of mirrors, lenses, absorbed though, some IR light the IR is fully transmitted. The filter of the 1. Unable to detect
reduce noise. or filters preventing any transmits through the gas sample active detector is tuned at the same wave- hydrogen
contamination of the sensor. at a lower intensity from the length of the absorption band of the target
original source light. gas. The difference in outputs from each
2. Open path can be
detector is what makes the detection of a interfered with
target gas possible. from precipitation,
fog or IR sources
3. Can be costly
OPEN PATH TECHNOLOGY 4. Unable to
Open path technology works on much the same principle as a stand alone sensor over a much larger scale. Open path discriminate
infrared sensors separate the light source from the detectors. The beam from the infrared light source is projected across between different
a large path to a detector. This is useful in outdoor applications or when detecting gases across a perimeter of a specified types of
hydrocarbons
area. However, while larger areas can be covered with fewer sensors using open path technology, the projected beam can
be blocked or absorbed and interfere with accurate results.

46
ELECTROCHEMICAL (E-CHEM) SENSORS
Electrochemical sensors provide monitoring for a wide variety of toxic gases. An aqueous electrolyte solution provides a conductive path for ions*
to travel between electrodes*. Target gases are either reduced or oxidized at the working electrode resulting in a current flow between the working
and the counter electrode. The reference electrode provides a zero reference point from which the resulting difference in potential between the
counter and working electrodes can be compared. Target gas levels can be measured in parts per million (ppm).

RULE OF THUMB: If you can’t put your head External connection

into the environment being monitored, don’t use to transmitter
an E-chem sensor to do the monitoring.
-No liquid environments
-No extreme temperatures COUNTER ELECTRODE REFERENCE ELECTRODE
or pressures
Provides surface for the Stable source for
-No high velocity duct mounts
opposing reaction of the comparison with the
target gas from the working electrode.
working electrode No current flows through
the reference electrode
Either electrode may be the
ADVANTAGES
anode or cathode depending
on the target gas ELECTROLYTE
1. Low power Provides the ion flow
2. Wide range of gases between electrodes
can be detected WORKING ELECTRODE during the chemical
3. Low cost Acts as a catalyst for the reaction
chemical reaction of the gas
LIMITATIONS
1. Typically requires oxygen
to work
GAS PERMEABLE MEMBRANE
2. Life span shortened in arid
Gas diffuses through this membrane, and
or high humidity conditions
it also provides physical barrier for electrolyte

47
PHOTO IONIZATION DETECTOR (PID) FILTER/SAMPLE PORT

Photo ionization detectors (PIDs) use ultraviolet light to ionize volatile organic compounds
(VOCs)* and detect them as current through two oppositely charged electrodes. VOCs easily
evaporate at room temperature. Many VOCs are present in a wide variety of applications as a by- Gas Chamber
product of aerosols, solvents, wastewater management facilities and pharmaceutical processing.
A single PID sensor is capable of detecting a wide number of VOCs. However, the sensor cannot
distinguish between two different types of VOCs. Any molecule in the space between the two
electrodes is ionized if its ionization potential (IP) is smaller than the energy of the lamp in
electron volts (eV). The ions created in the space between the two oppositely charged electrodes UV Lamp
migrate to the electrode with the opposite charge as the ion molecule. The output of the sensor
as an ionic current is directly proportional with the concentration of VOCs in ppm levels.

1. GAS CHAMBER DETECTION PROCESS

1. Gas enters through the porous membrane and fills the gas chamber.
2. UV light emits from the lamp into the gas chamber and ionizes
3. molecules between the electrodes.
3. Positively charged ions migrate to the negative electrode and negative
ions migrate to the positive electrode to create an ionic current.
The ionic current is translated by the gas detector as a ppm of
the overall gas sample. The higher the current, the greater the
number of ionized VOCs.

2.

* Additional information regarding this topic can be found in the glossary

48
PHOTO IONIZATION DETECTOR (PID)
This lamp requires the lowest power and has the highest life-span, but limited
ULTRAVIOLET (UV) LAMP 9.8 eV detecting capability.
The UV lamp is the source of radiation
that ionizes VOCs. The UV energy of the This is the most commonly used lamp. It offers a broad detection of gases,
lamp and the ionization potential of the
10.6 eV high stability and a 2-3 year lifespan.
VOCs is measured in electron volts (eV).
The most common lamp ratings are This lamp can detect the broadest spectrum of VOCs, however, has a very
9.8 eV, 10.6 eV and 11.7 eV. 11.7 eV short life span, typically only a few hundred hours. Humidity, oxygen and
CO2 levels can interfere and affect the sensitivity of detection.

8.8 eV 9.1 eV 9.4 eV 9.7 eV 10 eV 10.3 eV 10.6 eV 10.9 eV 11.2 eV 11.5 eV

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. PID sensors detect a wide range of VOCs and 1. Because the sensor ionizes any molecule with an ionization potential less than
can be used in a wide range of applications. the lamp’s potential, the sensor cannot specifically identify which gas is present.
2. Concentration of organic vapors is detected 2. PIDs are sensitive to humidity and window contamination that may affect
in ppm levels. sensor accuracy.

49
METAL OXIDE SEMICONDUCTER (MOS) SENSORS
Metal oxide semiconductor gas sensors utilize thin films of metal oxides placed upon a silica substrate. The substrate
is heated around 200-600°C while the resistance of the metal oxide is continuously monitored. The sensor responds
to changes in the atmosphere as the resistance value of the metal oxide changes when exposed to target gases.

Thin layer of metal oxide

(SnO2, TiO2, In2O3, WO3, NiO, etc.)

Silica substrate with sensing

electrodes to measure resistance
value of the metal oxide

Heater coil

ADVANTAGES LIMITATIONS
1. Performs well in high/low humidity 1. Nonlinear response
2. Long life span 2. Subject to false alarms due
3. Can detect both low ppm of toxic to cross-interferences from
gases and higher concentrations reactive gases
of combustible gases 3. Subject to dormant response
if not tested regularly

50
SENSOR PERFORMANCE FACTORS
Choosing the right sensor type for gas monitoring involves an assessment of many factors.

Target Gas Identify the target gases that have a potential for providing a hazard in the process. GENERALLY TOXIC
Most sensors are applicable to mostly toxic or mostly combustible gas monitoring. Electrochemical

However, some sensor types are capable of monitoring for either. Situations where GENERALLY
COMBUSTIBLE
several gases may pose a threat may be monitored for a presence of a hazardous gas. Infrared
Catalytic Bead
GENERALLY BOTH
PID
MOS

Cost Cost of different sensor types should play a factor in determining what sensors best LOWER INITIAL COST
suit the needs of a gas monitoring situation. Maintenance and calibration can also Electrochemical
PID
play a significant role in determining the overall cost of ownership over the lifetime Catalytic Bead
of a sensor. Sensors that may have a higher initial cost, may in fact have a lower LOWER LIFETIME COST
overall cost of ownership over the life of the sensor and vice versa due to sensor life, MOS
calibration, bump testing* and potential sensor contamination. At no time should cost IR
be considered over safety. Always use the correct sensor type for the job.

Sensor Placement Sensor effectiveness is directly impacted by sensor placement. Even the best sensor Refer to designing a
will not be able to detect a hazard if placed too far from release or receptor points. gas detection system
for more information.
Consider zoned or voting coverage areas where multiple sensor points effectively
provide a maximum, redundant coverage area to minimize false alarms and account
for barriers and air currents, all potential release points.

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

51
SENSOR PERFORMANCE FACTORS
Choosing the right sensor type for gas monitoring involves an assessment of many factors.

Temperature/ Monitoring processes in severe environments can affect certain sensor types. All sensor Refer to Sensor
Humidity types are rated for use in a specific temperature range. Some sensors can be affected Technology on
Pages 44-51 for
in high humidity environments where water vapors can interfere with readings. more information.

Oxygen Content In applications where oxygen may be displaced or not present in a gas sample, E-chem, cat bead, MOS,
the sensor type should be considered. and paper tape sensors
will not perform as
designed without
oxygen present.

Power Some sensor types consume much more power than others. This factor is important Follow sensor
Consumption when considering whether a technology is appropriate for use in a fixed or portable manufacturer’s
installation instructions.
detection device. Fixed detection systems must have appropriate power supplies to
maintain the current necessary for sensor operation.

Cross Nearly all sensor types can be susceptible to interferences from other than target gases. Follow manufacturer’s
Interference* Sensor manufacturers employ different methods to counter the effects of this through the calibration methods to
achieve desired sensor
use of filters, sensor construction materials, and preprogrammed expected response performance.
functions based on target gas characteristics. Always refer to manufacturer’s
recommendations when performing calibrations and installation instructions to ensure the
highest quality of gas detection response. In some technologies, a sensor can be calibrated
with an appropriate cross interferent gas, if the target gas is unobtainable or difficult to be
applied in field conditions. In this case, a K-factor* should be applied to the calibration values.

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

52
FLAME DETECTION Microwave
Radio Wave
Flame detection is an important part of overall process monitoring, especially when the process involves combustible
gases or materials. Flame sources generate radiation that may or may not be visible to the human eye. Flame detection
technology is able to detect flame across a wider view of the electromagnetic spectrum by detecting infrared and/
or ultraviolet sources of radiation. The combustible fuel source affects what type of radiation is generated. Flame
detection sensor technologies are available for indoor or outdoor use and some have high immunity to false alarms
Infrared
that could be generated from solar radiation, welding or hot spots. Common technologies include single, multi and
triple IR detection, UV detection, and combined UV/IR detection.

Visible
Spectrum
FLAME DETECTION SENSOR TYPES THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

Flame and gas detection technology use

Long Range, Able to Locate the Angular Radiation
IR Array sensors that can detect across a much wider
Position of the Flame within the Field of View Emitted
range of the spectrum than what the human
from
Single IR Low Cost, Indoor Use eye or closed circuit cameras are able to see.
Different Flame
Many fuel sources and gases produce flames
Low Cost, High Speed of Response, Indoor Types
Multi IR and Outdoor Use, Low False Alarms, Detects and radiation beyond the visible spectrum.
Hydrogen Based Flames These invisible sources of radiation are easily
detected using advanced sensor technology.
Indoor and Outdoor Use, Long Detection Ultraviolet
Triple IR
Range, Highest Immunity to False Alarms
Detects Hydrogen Based Flames and
UV
Hydrocarbon Based Fuel and Gas Fires
Indoor and Outdoor Use, Long Detection
UV/IR X-Ray
Range, High Immunity to False Alarms
Gamma Ray

53
STANDARDS AND APPROVALS
Navigating through the certifications and approvals of gas detection equipment can
sometimes prove to be a challenge. With so many markings available, it is important
to understand the significance and value of these certifications and how they apply
to gas detectors.
Different markets and regions may require adherence to different standards, but
the overall goal is to ensure equipment will perform safely in hazardous locations
and comply with an established protection method such as intrinsic safety.

A hazardous location exists when:

GAS DETECTION PRODUCTS
- Flammable gas, vapor, or mist exists THAT MAY REQUIRE APPROVAL
with a concentration of > 10% LEL -Portable and fixed gas detectors
-Open path detectors
- Oxygen levels are < 19.5% or > 23.5%
-Sensors installed
- Atmospheric concentration of any within detectors
hazardous substance which could -Multi-gas gas detectors
result in exposure in excess of the -Multi-gas sensors
published dose per OSHA regulations -Flammable gas detectors
- Airborne combustible dust > 100% LEL -Combustible gas detectors
-Some remote accessories
- Any other atmospheric condition
connected to detectors
immediately dangerous to life -Flame detectors
or health (IDLH)

Intrinsic safety is a design technique applied to electrical equipment and wiring

used in hazardous or potentially hazardous locations. Limiting the energy, electricity,
and thermal properties of the equipment to prevent ignition of a hazardous atmosphere
are the cornerstones of intrinsic safety.
Note: None of the markings on this page constitute any approval authority or that certification has been given to this document.

54
HAZARDOUS AREA CLASSIFICATIONS
Hazardous area classifications can be best understood by knowing the standard to which they apply. Generally, there
are three standards of classification. European/IEC/Cenelec standards use the zone classification. In North America,
two standards may be used, NEC* 500 (Division Classification) or NEC 505 (Zone Classification—mirrors the
European/IEC*/Cenelec* standards).
GROUPINGS NEC 500 NEC 505
ZONE 0 Explosive gas or air is continuously present European/IEC/CENELEC
Greater than 1000 hours/year Gases CLASS I
Acetylene Group A Group II C
ZONE 1 Explosive gas or air is likely to exist
Hydrogen Group B Group II C
Greater than 10 but less than 1000 hours/year
Ethylene Group C Group II B
ZONE 2 Explosive gas or air is not likely to exist Propane Group D Group II A
Less than 10 hours/year Methane N/A Group I
DIVISION 1 Is equal to either Zone 0 or Zone 1 Dust CLASS II
Greater than 10 hours/year Magnesium Group E *European/IEC/Cenelec
DIVISION 2 Is equal to Zone 2 Coal Group F standards do not subdivide
Less than 10 hours/year Grain Group G into classes or materials.
Fibers CLASS III
TEMPERATURE CODES
Temperature codes are used to identify the maximum surface temperature a certified gas detector may achieve and still be intrinsically safe.
Max Surface NEC 500 NEC 505 Max Surface NEC 500 NEC 505
Temp (°C) European/IEC/CENELEC Temp (°C) European/IEC/CENELEC
450 T1 T1 180 T3 A -
300 T2 T2 165 T3 B -
280 T2 A - 160 T3 C -
260 T2 B - 135 T4 T4
230 T2 C - 120 T4 A -
215 T2 D - 100 T5 T5
200 T3 T3 85 T6 T6

* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

55
PROTECTION METHODS AND STANDARDS
Protection methods are added to markings and certifications to demonstrate to what level of product safety that the gas detector
has been designed. There are several different standards by which equipment may be tested in order to demonstrate product safety.

Protection Method Global (IEC)

North America - Class I (Flammable Gas or Vapor)
(Meaning) Europe (CENELEC)
Division Canada CSA US Zone Canada CSA ANSI/UL* ANSI/ISA Zone Cenelec IEC
ia - Intrinsic Safety up to 2 faults - - - 0 E60079-11 60079-11 12.02.01 0 EN 60079-11 60079-11
Exia - Canada, Intrinsically Safe 1 C22.2 No. 157 FM3610/UL913 - - - - - - -
ib - Intrinsic Safety to a single fault - - - 1 E60079-11 60079-11 12.02.01 1 EN 50020 60079-11
Intrinsically Safe System - - - - - - - 0/1 EN 50039 60079-25
Explosion Proof 1 C22.2 No. 30 FM3615/UL1203 - - - - - - -
d - Flame Proof - - - 1 E60079-1 60079-1 12.22.01 1 EN 60079-1 60079-1
p - Pressurization - - - 1 E60079-2 - 12.04.01 1/2 EN 60079-2 60079-2
(X, Y) - Purged/Pressurized 1 NFPA 496 NFPA 496 - - - - - - -
(Z) - Purged/Pressurized 2 NFPA496 NFPA496 - - - - - - -
e - Increased Safety - - - 1 E60079-7 60079-7 12.16.01 1 EN 60079-7 60079-7
m - Encapsulation - - - 0 E60079-18 60079-18 12.23.01 1 EN 60079-18 60079-18
o - Oil Immersion - - - 1 E60079-6 60079-6 12.26.01 1 EN 50015 60079-6
q - Powder Filled - - - 1 E60079-5 60079-5 12.25.01 1 EN 50017 60079-5
Non-Incendive/Non-Ignition 2 C22.2 No. 213 FM3611/UL1604 - - - - - - -
Capable Arching/Heating Parts - - - - - - - - -
n - Protection - - - 2 E60079-15 60079-15 12.22.02 2 EN 60079-15 60079-15
Special Requirements - - - - - - 12.00.01 0 EN 50284 60079-26
2 protection methods

Standards are continuously being revised and are subject to change. Consult local regulatory agencies for most current standards.
* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term

56
NEMA CLASSIFICATIONS/INGRESS PROTECTION
IEC Publication 60529 Classification of Degrees of Protection Provided
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classifications
by Enclosures provides a system for specifying protection provided by
represent an electrical enclosure’s ability to protect internal
enclosures of electrical equipment. The rating consists of the letters IP
components against the external environment.
followed by two digits. The first digit is representative of the protection
Prevents hand contact with internals provided against the ingress of solids. The second digit is representative
2 Protects against falling dirt and water
of the protection provided against the ingress of liquids.
5 Protects against settling airborne dust, lint, fibers; protects against
dripping and light splashing of liquids
Indoor
NONHAZARDOUS LOCATIONS

Protects against falling airborne dust, lint, fibers; protects against

dripping and light splashing of liquids; no knockouts 1st Number: Protection Against Solids 2nd Number: Protection Against Liquids
12K Protects against falling airborne dust, lint, fibers; protects against
dripping and light splashing of liquids; with knockouts 0 No protection provided 0 No protection provided
Protects against falling airborne dust, lint, fibers; protects against
spraying, splashing, and seepage of water and oil Protection from objects Protection from vertically
3 Protects against windblown dust, rain, and sleet; undamaged by ice
1 greater than 50 mm 1 falling water drops
3R Protects against falling rain and sleet; undamaged by ice
Indoor/Outdoor

Protection from objects Protection from falling water

Protects against falling dust, rain, and sleet; undamaged by ice 2 greater than 12 mm 2 drops up to an angle of 15°
Protects against falling dust, rain, sleet, splashing and hose directed
water; undamaged by ice Protection from spraying
Protects against falling dust, rain, sleet, splashing and hose directed
3 Protection from objects 3
greater than 2.5 mm water up to 60° from vertical
water; undamaged by ice, corrosion protected
Protection from splashing
Protects against falling dust, rain, sleet, splashing and hose directed 4 Protection from objects 4
water; prevents water entry when briefly submerged; undamaged by ice greater than 1.0 mm water
Protects against falling dust, rain, sleet, splashing and hose directed water; Protection from low pressure
prevents water entry during prolonged submerging; undamaged by ice 5 Protection from dust 5
water jets in all directions
7 For use in Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D Protection from high pressure
Indoor 6 Dust tight enclosure 6 water jets in all directions
LOCATIONS
HAZARDOUS

9 For use in Class II, Groups E, F, and G

Indoor/
Outdoor 8 For use in Class I, Groups A, B, C, and D 7 Protection from temporary
submersion up to 1 meter

Mining 10 Meets the requirements of MSHA

(Mine Safety and Health Administration)
8 Protection from submersion
in water greater than 1 meter

57
ATEX
ATEX directives provide for the minimum standards applicable to equipment used in explosive atmospheres. Directive 94/9/EC,
article 100a defines the classifications and intended uses with respect to safety, design, and manufacturing of these devices.
Directive 1992/92/EC, article 137 defines under what conditions these devices should be used by end users to prevent, avoid,
and control the hazards associated with explosive atmospheres.

ATEX MARKINGS
CENELEC ATEX MARKINGS ADDITIONAL ATEX MARKINGS

E Ex ia IIA T4 #### II 3 G
Flammable Substance:
E - Complies with EN50014 Methane
A - Complies with NEC 505 Coal Dust
G - Gas, vapors
D - Dust

Explosion protected Level of Protection:

M1 - Very High, for mines
M2 - High, for mines
1 - Very High
2 - High
Protection method: Temperature Class: 3 - Normal

ia - Intrinsic Safety (2 faults) Gas Group: T1 - 450

ib - Intrinsic Safety (1 fault) I - Methane T2 - 300
Exia -Intrinsic Safety (Canada) IIA - Propane T3 - 200
e - Increased Safety IIB - Ethylene T4 - 135 Notified Body Equipment Group:
n - Protection IIC - Acetylene, T6 - 85 Number for I - Mines
(abbreviated list) Hydrogen (abbreviated list) CE Mark Quality System EU ATEX Mark II - Surface

58
CE MARKING
CE is an abbreviation for the French phrase Conformité Européene, meaning European Conformance. CE marking is a declaration
from the manufacturer that their product conforms to all applicable directives adopted by the EEA (European Economic Area)
and is a requirement for the product to be sold into any of the countries in this group. Unlike hazardous location approvals, the
manufacturers are solely responsible for ensuring their product’s conformance to these directives which were developed using IEC
and Cenelec standards.

Further guidance on affixing the CE mark to products can be found in the Guide to the Implementation of Directives Based on the
New Approach and the Global Approach; commonly referred to as “The Blue Book” and published by the European Commission.

TARGET MARKETS: EUROPEAN ECONOMIC AREA

Austria Greece The Netherlands
Belgium Hungary Norway
Bulgaria Iceland Poland
Cyprus Republic of Ireland Portugal
Czech Republic Italy Romania
Denmark Latvia Slovakia
Estonia Liechtenstein Slovenia
Finland Lithuania Spain
France Luxembourg Sweden
Germany Malta United Kingdom

Note: None of the markings on this page constitute any approval authority or that certification has been given to this document.

59
CSA INTERNATIONAL
CSA International is an organization that provides performance testing in agreement with national and international standards.
CSA tests products to meet standards directed by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Underwriters Laboratories
(UL), and Canadian Standards Association (CSA). CSA is also a Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL) by the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) in the U.S., and in Canada by the Standards Council of Canada (SCC).
CSA works closely with ATEX and IECEx to operate worldwide. CSA provides certification testing for product safety operating
in a hazardous area.
COUNTRIES THAT ACCEPT CSA CERTIFICATION
DIVISION SYSTEM* ZONE SYSTEM
DIVISION 1 Flammable gas, vapor, ZONE 0 Gas, vapor, or mist is present AMERICAS EUROPE
or combustible dusts continuously, continuously or for long periods. Argentina Austria Luxembourg
intermittently, or periodically present. Brazil Belgium Netherlands
ZONE 2 Gas, vapor, or mist is likely to be Canada Denmark Norway
DIVISION 2 Volatile flammable liquids present. Mexico Finland Portugal
or flammable gases present, but confined United States France Romania
within closed containers or systems; could ZONE 2 Gas, vapor, or mist is not likely to Germany Slovenia
escape by abnormal operation or fault be present. If it is present, it will only be ASIA PACIFIC Greece Spain
conditions. for a short period of time. Australia Iceland Sweden
Group A Acetylene Group IIC China Ireland Switzerland
India Italy
Group B Hydrogen Group IIC
CLASS I Japan Liechtenstein OTHER
Group C Ethylene Group IIB New Zealand Russia
Group D Propane Group IIA South Korea South Africa
N/A Methane Group I Taiwan
Group E Metal dust, magnesium
CLASS II Group F Carbon dust
Group G Flour, starch, grain CSA uses both the division system and the zone
CLASS III Fibers, cotton classifications. Refer to page 54 for more information.
* Refer to the glossary for an explanation of this term
Note: None of the markings on this page constitute any approval authority or that certification has been given to this document.

59
UNDERWRITERS LABORATORIES
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) is both a Standard Developing Organization (SDO) and Nationally Recognised Testing Laboratory
(NRTL) that develops standards and performs testing to ensure products are safe for use in hazardous environments. UL is not a
government agency; however, it is approved by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). UL works closely
with ATEX and IECEx standards to operate worldwide.

UL CERTIFICATIONS ARE ACCEPTED BY 98 COUNTRIES WORLDWIDE, INCLUDING:

ASIA PACIFIC EUROPE LATIN AMERICA
Australia Austria Italy Argentina
China Belgium Latvia Brazil
Hong Kong Bulgaria Lithuania
India Cyprus Luxembourg NORTH AMERICA
Indonesia Czech Republic Malta Canada
Japan Denmark Netherlands U.S.A.
Korea Estonia Poland Mexico
Malaysia Finland Slovakia
New Zealand France Slovenia NON-EUROPEAN
Philippines Germany Spain Croatia
Singapore Greece Sweden Norway
Taiwan Hungary Switzerland Russia
Thailand Ireland U.K. Ukraine

60
IECEx
IECEx is managed by industry representatives including governing bodies, manufacturers, and end users to ensure compliance
with worldwide standards for safety of equipment used in hazardous locations (Ex).
The IECEx Scheme is an international certification scheme covering equipment that meet the requirements of International
Standards; most notably IEC 60079.

THE SCHEME PROVIDES:

IECEx PARTICIPATING COUNTRIES
A single international Certificate of Conformity (CoC) that requires manufacturers Australia Brazil
to successfully complete: Canada China
• Testing and assessment of samples for compliance with Standards Croatia Czech Republic
resulting in a Test and Assessment Report (ExTR) Denmark Finland
France Germany
• Assessment and auditing of manufacturers facilities resulting
Hungary India
in a Quality Assessment Report (QAR)
Italy Japan
• Ongoing surveillance audits of manufacturers' facilities Korea Malaysia
The IECEx System comprises several systems. The United States participates in the full IECEx Netherlands New Zealand
Certified Equipment Scheme. Currently Australia, New Zealand, and Singapore accept that the Norway Poland
IECEx Certificate of Compliance meets all of the national requirements for Ex Certification meaning Serbia Romania
no further national testing is required. Countries that do require a national certification will typically Russia Singapore
accept the results from the test report (ExTR). Many countries have national standards that are Slovenia South Africa
already based upon IEC standards, such as Russia (GOST-R), China (CQST), Brazil (InMetro), Sweden Switzerland
and Canada (CSA accepts IEC standards). Turkey United Kingdom
United States

Note: None of the markings on this page constitute any approval authority or that certification has been given to this document.

61
FACTORY MUTUAL
The Factory Mutual Approvals Division determines the safety and reliability of equipment, materials, or services utilized
in hazardous locations in the United States and elsewhere. Factory Mutual certifies to NEC (National Electrical Code)
standards for hazardous locations, NEC Standard 500 (Division classification) and NEC Standard 505 (Zone classification).
For a product to receive approval, it must meet two criteria. First, it must perform satisfactorily, reliably, and repeatedly
as applicable for a reasonable life expectancy. Second, it must be produced under high quality control conditions.
Factory Mutual also has inter-laboratory agreements and can certify to Canadian and European standards.
Factory Mutual certifications are globally recognized and they can test to ATEX and IECEx standards for gas detection
devices being used in hazardous locations.
FM standards 3610 (Intrinsically Safe Apparatus and Associated Apparatus for Use in Class I, II and III, Division 1,
Hazardous (Classified) Locations), 3611 (Nonincendive Electrical Equipment for Use In Class I and II, Div. 2 and
Class III, Divisions 1 and 2 Hazardous (Classified) Locations), and 3615 (Explosion Proof Electrical Equipment
General Requirements) as well as other relevant recognized standards are used to certify gas detection equipment.

Note: None of the markings on this page constitute any approval authority or that certification has been given to this document.

62
SAFETY INTEGRITY LEVEL (SIL) RATINGS
SIL or Safety Integrity Level, defined by standard IEC (EN) 61508 (Manufacturer’s requirements), is the measure of risk reduction offered
by the safety function provided to a process. SIL ratings use statistical analysis to prove safety systems are designed in such a way as to
prevent dangerous failures or to control hazards when they arise. Gas detection equipment may be SIL rated, or suitable for use as part of
a larger SIL rated system. However, having a gas detection device that has a SIL rating does not assure safety. Sensor placement is the
most important factor in gas detection. Sensors that are not in position to detect hazardous gases and allow a safety action to occur when
hazards reach unsafe levels, are essentially ineffective, regardless of SIL rating.

Probability of failure on demand (PFD)

The risk reduction factor (RRF) is the expected number of failures of
is the expected reduction in risk the safety system. A SIL 2 system would In the worst case scenario, should a safety
to the process hazard analysis be expected to fail no more than once out system not perform and respond to identified
using a SIL rated system. of every 100 times. hazards, the potential consequences are listed.

SIL RISK REDUCTION PROBABILITY OF FAILURE POTENTIAL CONSEQUENCES

FACTOR ON DEMAND (PFD) OF FAILURE

4 100,000 to 10,000 10-5 to 10-4 Fatalities in surrounding community

SYSTEM

3 10,000 to 1,000 10-4 to 10-3 On-site fatalities

SAFER

2 1,000 to 100 10-3 to 10-2 On-site injuries, perhaps a fatality

1 100 to 10 10-2 to 10-1 On-site minor injuries

SIL 2 is typically a cost effective target to achieve. Hazards that require a SIL 3 or 4 rating can usually be engineered or have the process
changed to lower the risk at less of a cost than designing a safety system to mitigate the hazard.

63
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
% v/v
Volume/volume percentage of a gas mixture. For example, the Earth’s atmosphere is comprised of a mixture of 20.9% oxygen, 78% nitrogen,
and 1.1% trace gases. This means there is 20.9% v/v oxygen in the atmosphere.

4-20 mA
An analog signal where 4 mA represents a signal equal to 0% of full scale and 20 mA equals 100% full scale. The power usually comes directly
from a power supply.

4-20 mA CURRENT LOOP

An analog signal where 4 mA represents a signal equal to 0% of full scale and 20 mA equals 100% full scale. The current loop is isolated from the
power supply but shares a common ground with the transmitter or controller.

ABSORPTION
Occurs as a wavelength of infrared radiation passes through a gas molecule. The wavelength loses intensity as it is absorbed by the gas.

AC VOLTAGE
Alternating Current. Provides power in which electrons travel in both directions. AC power does not degrade rapidly over distance and is
relatively easy to convert into lower currents and voltages.

ACGIH
American Conference of Industrial Hygienists.

AEROSOL
A suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas.

ANSI
American National Standards Institute.

64
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
ASPHYXIANT
Refers to a gas whose primary hazard is as a gas that rapidly displaces oxygen.

ATEX
ATmosphéres EXplosibles, a directive of the European Union that specifies the minimum requirements for improving safety and health protection
of workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres.

AUTO IGNITION TEMPERATURE

Temperature higher than the flash point at which a substance will sustain self-combustion independent of a flame or heated element. Sometimes
referred as SIT, Spontaneous Ignition Temperature.

BOILING POINT
Temperature at which a compound changes from a liquid to a gas.

BREATHING ZONE
Atmosphere immediately surrounding a worker, regardless of whether safe or hazardous.

BRIDGE SENSOR CIRCUIT (WHEATSTONE BRIDGE)

A circuit that isolates a reference resistor from an active resistor used in a Cat Bead Sensor. As the temperature increases across the active
resistor, the resistance will change. The resulting difference in potential from the two resistors translates into an output voltage.

BUMP TEST
Bump testing verifies the Span Calibration by subjecting the monitor to a known exposure of gas to demonstrate the response is within an
acceptable range of the actual concentration. Bump testing also can be used to demonstrate proper activation of alarms and relay circuits.

C (CEILING LEVEL)
Ceiling level is an exposure limit that must never be exceeded, even for short periods of time.

65
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
CAS NUMBER
Chemical Abstract Service Registry number as determined by the American Chemical Society to uniquely identify each substance in spite of
how many common names a substance may have.

CALIBRATION
Typically occurs in two stages, zero calibration and span calibration. Zero calibration is performed to establish baseline readings of atmospheres
that are known to be free of toxic or combustible gases. Span calibration is performed to ensure a monitor detects target gases within specified
operating parameters.

CATALYTIC BEAD (CAT BEAD OR PELLISTOR)

Combustible sensor type that uses an active and reference bead to translate differences in resistance from heat produced through the combustion
of gases to translate into a %LEL.

CCC
China Compulsory Certification mark.

CCM
Cubic Centimeters per Minute, a measure of the flow of gas particularly important during calibration of sensors. 1 CCM =0.001 LPM = 0.00212 SCFH.

CCOHS
Canadian Center for Occupational Health and Safety.

CE
Conformité Européene; a manufacturers’ mark that a product conforms to directives adopted by the European Economic Area.

CEC
Canadian Electric Code.

66
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
CENELEC
European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization, technical organization that develops safety and health standards for the European market.

CoC
Certificate of Conformity; part of the IECEx Scheme.

COLD BOOT
Resetting a gas detector by removing power completely, and then reapplying power. This may cause additional warm-up time for sensors
before the detector reaches its full effectiveness.

COMBUSTIBLE
Refers to a gas whose primary hazard is the ability to ignite. It is important to note many gases have both combustible and toxic properties.

CONFORMAL COATING
Protective material applied to printed circuit boards to remove the risk of potential contaminants that could interfere with the proper operation
of the electronics such as dust, moisture, and temperature variations.

CONTROLLER
Part of a fixed gas detection system than can be used to accept multiple inputs to one centralized location for easy monitoring of a large area.

CQST
China National Quality Supervision and Test Centre for Explosion.

CROSS SENSITIVITY/CROSS INTERFERENCE

Refers to the ability of gas sensors to detect gases other than what they are intended to. This can be a result of any number of factors ranging
from oxidation, catalyst type being used, similar gas properties, or reaction of certain compounds. Proper calibration techniques, filters, and an
understanding of the operation of particular types of sensors can help reduce the effects of cross sensitivity.

67
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
CSA
Canadian Standards Association, a certifying agency that evaluates products through a formal process involving examination, testing and
follow-up inspection to verify the product complies with applicable standards for safety and performance.

DATA ACQUISITION DEVICE

A device that performs automatic collection of data from sensors, instruments and devices.

DC VOLTAGE
Direct Current. Provides power in which electrons flow only in one direction. Power source is usually a battery or solar cell. DC power degrades
rapidly over distance.

DILUTION ORIFICE
A sample gas detection method that introduces ambient air into an otherwise confined space through an opening in the sampling device to
allow for greater accuracy on % LEL concentrations. Necessary in sampling gas concentrations that would otherwise lack the necessary amount
of oxygen for proper sensor performance.

DISTRIBUTED CONTROL SYSTEM (DCS)

A control system in which the controller elements are not in a central location, but are distributed throughout the system with each component
sub-system controlled by one of more controllers. The entire control system is networked for communication and monitoring.

DIVISION
Division is the North American method of specifying the probability that a location is made hazardous by the presence, or potential presence, of
flammable concentrations of gases and vapors.

EEA
European Economic Area.

68
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
ELECTROCHEMICAL (E-CHEM)
A gas sensor that measures the current that results from the reaction of the target gas against two or more electrodes. The current generated in the
sensor is generally proportional to the gas concentration.

ELECTRODE
A conductor through which electric current is passed.

ELECTRON
A particle that carries a negative electric charge.

EMI (ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE)

Electrical interference from conducted voltages and currents through a signal path. EMI can be a particular problem in circuits with low current
such as 4-20 mA or in relay protection circuits as the signal noise generated from EMI can cause false readings, alarms, or relay activation.

eV (ELECTRON VOLTS)
The measurement of ionization potential.

EXPLOSION PROOF
Electrical devices designed to contain explosions or flames produced within them without igniting the external flammable gases or vapors.

ExTR
Test and Assessment report; part of the IECEx Scheme.

FAILSAFE
Refers to an electronically activated circuit, such as a relay, that will fail to a preferred position upon a loss of power.

69
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
FIXED GAS DETECTION SYSTEM
A permanently mounted combination of sensors, transmitters, controllers and relay-controlled devices that allow for local and remote monitoring
and activation of safety devices. Fixed gas detection systems are highly customizable applications that are designed to mitigate the risk of
hazardous areas and dangers posed to workers and equipment.
FLASH POINT
Temperature at which the vapor emitted by a substance reaches concentrations equal to the lower flammability limit.

FM
Factory Mutual, a certifying agency that evaluates products will perform as expected and support property loss prevention.
GAS STRATIFICATION
Failure of gases to mix evenly in the atmosphere due to differences in vapor density, temperatures, and pressure.

GENERAL PURPOSE LOCATION

Any atmosphere that is not a hazardous location.
GOST-R
Gosudarstvennyy Standard; Certificate of Conformity for Russia.

HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE (Hazardous Location, Hazardous Area, Hazardous Situation)

An atmosphere that may expose workers to the risk of death, incapacitation, impairment of ability to self-rescue, injury, or acute illness from
one or more of the following causes:
1. Flammable gas, vapor, or mist in excess of 10 percent of its LEL
2. Airborne combustible dust at a concentration that meets or exceeds its LEL
3. Atmospheric oxygen concentration below 19.5 percent or above 23.5 percent
4. Atmospheric concentration of any substance for which a PEL is published
5. Any other atmospheric condition that is IDLH.

70
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
IDLH (IMMEDIATELY DANGEROUS TO LIFE OR HEALTH)
Exposure to airborne contaminants that are likely to cause death, immediate or delayed permanent adverse health effects, or prevent escape
from such an environment.

IEC
International Electrotechnical Committee.

IECEx
Scheme to standardize international certification.

IGNITION TEMPERATURE
Temperature at which a flammable gas may ignite without a spark or flame source.

INGRESS PROTECTION
A measure of protection against the intrusion of solid objects including dust, water, tools, body parts, etc. as defined by the Standard IEC 60529.

INMETRO
Brazilian conformity mark.

INTRINSICALLY SAFE
Electrical equipment that is incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under normal or abnormal operating conditions to
cause ignition of a specific hazardous mixture and air. Equipment must be intrinsically safe to be used in Division 1 environments.

IOHA
International Occupational Hygiene Association.

71
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
ION
An atom or molecule where the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving it a net positive or negative electrical charge.

IP (IONIZATION POTENTIAL)
Amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or molecule. Measured in eV.

IR (INFRARED)
A combustible sensor type that measures the absorption of infrared electromagnetic wavelengths as a gas passes through to measure gas levels.
In some cases, IR sensors can be used to detect toxic gas concentrations as well or radiation emitted as part of the electromagnetic spectrum
with a wavelength longer than visible light.

ISA
International Society of Automation.

ISOLATED 4-20 mA
An analog signal where 4 mA represents a signal equal to 0% of full scale and 20 mA equals 100% full scale. The isolation allows the signal path
to be isolated from the power supply to the transmitter or receiver and results in a general insensitivity to electrical noise.

K-FACTOR
A K-factor is used to determine the relative sensor response ratio of the calibration gas to the expected detected gas when the calibration gas is
not the same as the detected gas. K-factors are used to allow for the monitoring of a presence of gas, not to achieve accuracy in gas monitoring.
A K-factor can be expressed in the formula:
(K-Factor) (% Cal Gas) = Adjusted Span Output
For example, when calibrating a sensor using 50% LEL propane gas, a K-factor can be applied to achieve readings for butane. Let’s assume the
K-factor is 0.75. Using 50% LEL propane gas and multiplying by the K-factor of 0.75, the adjusted span calibration should be done to achieve a
reading of 37.5%. This will allow a user to monitor for butane. However, it should be noted, to achieve the most accurate readings for the
desired targeted gas, the calibration gas should be the same as the target gas.

72
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
LATCHING
Refers to an activated alarm that will remain activated until user acknowledgement occurs regardless of whether the alarm condition clears.

LCO (LOOP CURRENT OFFSET)

Refers to a gas transmitter whose electronics operate at < 4 mA. This is the offset current. The standard 4-20 mA signal, or loop current, is still
utilized to produce a gas reading from 0 to full scale.

LEL (LOWER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT)

The Lower Explosive Limit is the percentage of atmosphere below which the concentration of gas mixture to atmosphere is too lean to burn.
This is sometimes expressed as Lower Flammable Limit (LFL).

LPM
Liters per minute, a measure of the flow of gas particularly important during calibration of sensors. 1 LPM = 1000 CCM = 2.12 SCFH.

mA
Milliamp is a unit of measure of the current of electricity. 1 mA = 0.001 Amp.

MODBUS®*
A serial communication protocol used to network electronic devices.

MOS
Metal oxide semiconductor.

NEC
National Electric Code.

NEMA
National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
* Registered trademark of Schneider Electric.

73
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
NIOSH
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

NC (NORMALLY CLOSED
Normally Closed refers to a relay contact that removes circuit continuity when activated.

NO (NORMALLY OPEN)
Normally Open refers to a relay contact that allows circuit continuity when activated.

NON-FAILSAFE
Refers to an electronically activated circuit, such as a relay, that will remain “as is” upon a loss of power.

NON-INCENDIVE
Electrical equipment that is incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy to cause ignition of a hazardous mixture and air under
normal operating conditions. Equipment must be non-incendive to be used in Division 2 environments.

NON-LATCHING
Refers to an activated alarm that will clear without any user interaction once the alarm condition has cleared.

NRTL
Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory.

OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s Law defines the relationships between (P) power, (E) voltage, (I) current, and (R) resistance.
P - This is the total power generated in a circuit. It is the product of current and voltage, measured in watts.
E - This is the difference in electrical potential between two points of a circuit, measured in volts. Volts are the muscle to move current.
I - This is the current, or what flows on a wire, measured in amps.
R - This is the resistance of the circuit, or what determines how much electricity can flow in a circuit. As resistance increases, current
flow becomes less and vice versa. Measured in ohms.

74
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
OPEN PATH
A type of IR sensor technology that measures gas detection along a line of sight between a transmitter and receiver.

OSHA
Occupational Safety and Health Administration.

OXIDATION
Oxidation is a chemical reaction that results in the loss of electrons. Chemicals that cause the loss of electrons are also called oxidizing agents.
The oxidation-reduction reaction is typical in an electrochemical sensor.

PEL (PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LEVEL)

Permissible exposure levels are the maximum concentration a worker may be exposed to as defined by OSHA (Occupational Safety and Health
Administration). PELs are defined in two ways, TWA and C (C).

PFD
Probability of Failure on Demand; part of a SIL Rating.

PID (PHOTO IONIZATION DETECTOR)

A gas detection technology that uses an ultraviolet lamp to ionize the target gas and measures the ionic current between two electrodes to detect it.

POISON RESISTANT
Catalytic bead sensor’s ability to remain resistant to damaging contaminants such as silicone and solvents while continuing to detect gas.

PORTABLE GAS DETECTION SYSTEM

Typically a handheld gas detector capable of detecting 1-5 gases for use in sewers, tanks, and other locations where a fixed detector is either
impractical or unable to account for the necessary space and volume needed by personnel.

75
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
PPB
Parts per billion. Measurement of a concentration of a gas per billion parts. 1 ppb = 0.001 ppm.

PPM
Parts per million. Measurement of a concentration of a gas per million parts. 1 ppm = 1000 ppb or 1 ppm = 0.0001% of sample concentration.

PELLISTOR
See Catalytic Bead.

PROCESS
A series of operations performed in the making, treating, or developing of a product.

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

A digital computer used for automation of electromechanical processes. PLCs typically accept numerous inputs and provide multiple outputs.

PROTON
A particle that carries a positive electric charge.

QAR
Quality Assessment Report; part of the IECEx Scheme.

RECEPTOR POINT
Location where hazardous gases cause a threat to personnel, property, or facilities.

RELEASE POINT
Location where hazardous gases can potentially be released.

RELATIVE DENSITY
Ratio of the density of gas compared with ambient atmosphere. Greater than 1.0 indicates the gas is heavier than air.

76
GLOSSARY OF GAS DETECTION TERMS
REMOTE ALARM RESET
An option sometimes available on either a fixed gas detector or controller that allows users to acknowledge an alarm or deactivate a relay
switch from a remote location.

RFI (RADIO FREQUENCY INTERFERENCE

Electrical interference from unwanted reception of radio signals originating from any number of wireless communication devices. RFI can be a
particular problem in circuits with low current such as 4-20 mA or in relay protection circuits as the signal noise generated from RFI can cause
false readings, alarms, or relay activation.

RRF
Risk reduction factor; part of a SIL rating.

RS-232
A digital form of communication over a networked interface. Allows for a single point to point communication over a distance of 50 or less feet.

RS-485
A digital form of communication over a networked interface. Allows for multiple point to point communications of up to 32 devices over a
distance of up to 4000 feet.

SCC
Standards Counsel of Canada.

SCFH
Standard cubic feet per hour, a measure of the flow of gas particularly important during calibration of sensors and determining the applicability
of duct mounted gas detection. 2.12 SCFH = 1000 CCM = LPM.

SENSOR HEAD
A part of a fixed gas detection system that facilitates the electrical interface of the sensor with the transmitter or controller. May be mounted
remotely or affixed to a transmitter.

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SIL (RATING)
Safety Integrity Level, a safety level rating as defined by the standard IEC 61511 or EN 61511. The level is determined by analyzing the safety
function of separate and combination gas detection systems and the risk reduction they create to the safety hazards.

STEL (SHORT TERM EXPOSURE LIMIT)

Short term exposure limit is defined by ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists) as the concentration to which
workers can be exposed continuously for a short period of time without suffering from irritation, chronic or irreversible tissue damage, or
narcosis of sufficient degree to increase the likelihood of accidental injury, impair self-rescue or reduce work efficiency.

T90
Time it takes a sensor to respond to 90% of full reading when exposed to target gas.

TLV (THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUE)

Threshold limit values are established by the ACGIH (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists). They are the levels to
which a worker can be exposed to a chemical each day for a working lifetime without adverse health concerns. These limits are guidelines
and not regulated by law.

TOXIC
Refers to a gas whose primary hazard is a breathing contaminant or poison. It is important to note that many gases have both combustible
and toxic properties.

TRANSMITTANCE
Measurement of the intensity of infrared radiation that has passed through gas molecule.

TRANSMITTER
A device that receives, displays, and transmits electronic signals from gas sensors.

TRIP HIGH
A set point that causes the activation of an alarm or relay when a gas reading exceeds a certain value.

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TRIP LOW
A set point that causes the activation of an alarm or relay when a gas reading falls below a certain value.

TWA (TIME WEIGHTED AVERAGE)

Time weighted average is an average value of exposure over the course of an 8 hour work shift.

UEL (UPPER EXPLOSIVE LIMIT)

The Upper Explosive Limit is the percentage of atmosphere at which the concentration of gas mixture to atmosphere is too rich to burn.
This is sometimes expressed as UFL (Upper Flammable Limit).

UL
Underwriters Laboratories, a certifying agency for the electrical safety of devices; including those used in hazardous atmospheres.

ULTRAVIOLET
Radiation emitted as part of the electromagnetic spectrum with a wavelength shorter than visible light.

VAPOR
A gaseous compound in equilibrium with its liquid or solid phase.

VAPOR DENSITY
A measure of the density of a gas or vapor relative to ambient air (Vapor Density 1.0) Those gases or vapors with densities > 1.0 will settle
at lower elevations. Those gases or vapors with densities < 1.0 will settle at higher elevations.

VAPOR PRESSURE
The pressure of the vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or solid phase at the given temperature. As temperature increases, the vapor pressure
increases nearly exponentially with temperature.

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VOC
Volatile organic compound.

VOTING CONFIGURATION
A fixed gas detection system set up to activate alarm functions only when a preconfigured set of values has been reached on multiple points
of detection; helps to reduce false alarm conditions.

ZONED CONFIGURATION
A fixed gas detection system set up to cover a large surface area with multiple points of detection; useful when release points cannot
be easily predicted.

ZONE
Zone is the international method of specifying the probability that a location is made hazardous by the presence, or potential presence,
of flammable concentrations of gases and vapors.

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