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Introduction
Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise control of level,
temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications. This module introduces you to
control in process industries, explains why control is important, and identifies different ways in which
precise control is ensured.
The following five sections are included in this module:
❑ The importance of process control
❑ Control theory basics
❑ Components of control loops and ISA symbology
❑ Controller algorithms and tuning
❑ Process control systems
As you proceed through the module, answer the questions in the activities column on the right side of each
page. Also, note the application boxes (double-bordered boxes) located throughout the module. Application
boxes provide key information about how you may use your baseline knowledge in the field. When you see the
workbook exercise graphic at the bottom of a page, go to the workbook to complete the designated exercise
before moving on in the module. Workbook exercises help you measure your progress toward meeting each
section’s learning objectives.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you will be able to determine needed control loop components in specific
process control applications.

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The Importance of Process Control

Refining, combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end products can be a
precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a process can have a large impact
on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow, turbulence, and many other factors must be
carefully and consistently controlled to produce the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and
energy. Process control technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running
within specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and safety.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
❑ Define process
❑ Define process control
❑ Describe the importance of process control in terms of variability, efficiency, and safety
Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.

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The Importance of Process Control

PROCESS Activities
Process as used in the terms process control and process industry, 1. Process is defined as the
refers to the methods of changing or refining raw materials to create changing or refining of raw materials
end products. The raw materials, which either pass through or remain
that pass through or remain in a
in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state
liquid, gaseous, or slurry state to
during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated or
to create end products.
cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the
end product.
Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas
industry, the food and beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry,
the water treatment industry, and the power industry.

PROCESS CONTROL
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process
variables when manufacturing a product. For example, factors such
as the proportion of one ingredient to another, the temperature of the
materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the pressure under 2. Which of these industries are examples
which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of of the process industry?
an end product. Manufacturers control the production process for Select all options that apply.
three reasons:
❑ Reduce variability 1 Pharmaceutical
❑ Increase efficiency 2 Satellite
❑ Ensure safety 3 Oil and Gas
4 Cement
Reduce Variability 5 Power
Process control can reduce variability in the end product, which
ensures a consistently high-quality product. Manufacturers can also
save money by reducing variability. For example, in a gasoline
blending process, as many as 12 or more different components
may be blended to make a specific grade of gasoline. If the refinery
does not have precise control over the flow of the separate
components, the gasoline may get too much of the high-octane
components. As a result, customers would receive a higher grade
and more expensive gasoline than they paid for, and the refinery
would lose money. The opposite situation would be customers
receiving a lower grade at a higher price.

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The Importance of Process Control

Reducing variability can also save money by reducing the need for Activities
product padding to meet required product specifications. Padding
refers to the process of making a product of higher-quality than it 3. What are the main reasons for
needs to be to meet specifications. When there is variability in the end manufacturers to control a process?
product (i.e., when process control is poor), manufacturers are forced Select all options that apply.
to pad the product to ensure that specifications are met, which adds
to the cost. With accurate, dependable process control, the setpoint 1 Reduce variability
(desired or optimal point) can be moved closer to the actual product
specification and thus save the manufacturer money. 2 Ensure safety
3 Reduce costs
4 Increase efficiency
PV limit to ensure quality PV limit to ensure quality
5 Increase productivity
PV Setpoint

Low Variability

PV Setpoint

High Variability

Increase Efficiency
Some processes need to be maintained at a specific point to maximize
efficiency. For example, a control point might be the temperature at
which a chemical reaction takes place. Accurate control of temperature
ensures process efficiency. Manufacturers save money by minimizing
the resources required to produce the end product.

Ensure Safety
A run-away process, such as an out-of-control nuclear or chemical
reaction, may result if manufacturers do not maintain precise control
of all of the processg variables. The consequences of a run-away
process can be catastrophic.
Precise process control may also be required to ensure safety. For
example, maintaining proper boiler pressure by controlling the inflow
of air used in combustion and the outflow of exhaust gases is crucial
in preventing boiler implosions that can clearly threaten the safety of
workers.

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Control Theory Basics

This section presents some of the basic concepts of control and provides a foundation from which to
understand more complex control processes and algorithms later described in this module. Common terms and
concepts relating to process control are defined in this section.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
❑ Define control loop
❑ Describe the three tasks necessary for process control to occur:
• Measure
• Compare
• Adjust
❑ Define the following terms:
• Process variable
• Setpoint
• Manipulated variable
• Measured variable
• Error
• Offset
• Load disturbance
• Control algorithm
❑ List at least five process variables that are commonly controlled in process measurement industries
❑ At a high level, differentiate the following types of control:
• Manual versus automatic feedback control
• Closed-loop versus open-loop control
Note: To answer the activity questions the Hand Tool (H) should be activated.

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The Control Loop

Imagine you are sitting in a cabin in front of a small fire on a cold Activities
winter evening. You feel uncomfortably cold, so you throw another
log on the fire. Thisis an example of a control loop. In the 1. The three tasks associated with any
control loop, a variable (temperature) fell below the setpoint (your control loop are measurement,
comfort level), and you took action to bring the process back into the comparison, and adjustment. Is this
desired condition by adding fuel to the fire. The control loop will statement true or false?
now remain static until the temperature again rises above or falls
below your comfort level.

THREE TASKS
Control loops in the process control industry work in the same way,
requiring three tasks to occur:
❑ Measurement
❑ Comparison
❑ Adjustment
In Figure 7.1, a level transmitter (LT) measures the level in the tank
and transmits a signal associated with the level reading to a controller
(LIC). The controller compares the reading to a predetermined value,
in this case, the maximum tank level established by the plant
operator, and finds that the values are equal. The controller then
sends a signal to the device that can bring the tank level back to a
lower level—a valve at the bottom of the tank. The valve opens to let
some liquid out of the tank.
Many different instruments and devices may or may not be used in
control loops (e.g., transmitters, sensors, controllers, valves, pumps),
but the three tasks of measurement, comparison, and adjustment are
always present.

LIC

LT
Maximum
level

A Simple Control Loop

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Process Control Terms

As in any field, process control has its own set of common terms that
you should be familiar with and that you will use when talking about
Activities
control technology. 2. A process variable is a
condition that can change
PROCESS VARIABLE the process in some way.

A process variable is a condition of the process fluid (a liquid or gas)

that can change the manufacturing process in some way. In the
example of you sitting by the fire, the process variable was
temperature. In the example of the tank in Figure 7.1, the process
variable is level. Common process variables include:
❑ Pressure
❑ Flow
❑ Level
❑ Temperature
❑ Density 3. Imagine you are in a cabin in
❑ Ph (acidity or alkalinity) front of a small fire on a cold
❑ Liquid interface (the relative amounts of different liquids that are winter evening. You feel
combined in a vessel) uncomfortably cold, so you
❑ Mass throw another log into the fire.
❑ Conductivity In this scenario, the process
variable is temperature. Is this
true or false?
SETPOINT
The setpoint is a value for a process variable that is desired to be
maintained. For example, if a process temperature needs to kept
within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpoint is 100 °C. A temperature
sensor can be used to help maintain the temperature at setpoint.
The sensor is inserted into the process, and a contoller compares the
temperature reading from the sensor to the setpoint. If the temperature
reading is 110 °C, then the controller determines that the process is
above setpoint and signals the fuel valve of the burner to close slightly 4. If the level of a liquid in a tank
until the process cools to 100 °C. Set points can also be maximum or must be maintained within 5 ft
minimum values. For example, level in tank cannot exceed 20 feet. of 50 ft, what is the liquid’s
setpoint?

1 45 ft
2 55 ft
3 5 ft
4 50 ft

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Process Control Terms

MEASURED VARIABLES, PROCESS VARIABLES, AND Activities
MANIPULATED VARIABLES
5. ____________________ is a
In the temperature control loop example, the measured variable is sustained deviation of the process
temperature, which must be held close to 100 °C. In this example and variable from the setpoint.
in most instances, the measured variable is also the process variable.
The measured variable is the condition of the process fluid that must
be kept at the designated setpoint.
Sometimes the measured variable is not the same as the process
variable. For example, a manufacturer may measure flow into and out
of a storage tank to determine tank level. In this scenario, flow is the
measured variable, and the process fluid level is the process variable.
The factor that is changed to keep the measured variable at setpoint is
called the manipulated variable. In the example described, the 6. A load disturbance is an undesired
manipulated variable would also be flow (Figure 7.2). change in one of the factors that can
Setpoint affect the setpoint. Is this statement
true or false?
Process Manipulated
variable or Controller variable
measured
variable

Variables

ERROR
Error is the difference between the measured variable and the
setpoint and can be either positive or negative. In the temperature
control loop example, the error is the difference between the 110 °C
measured variable and the 100 °C setpoint—that is, the error is +10
°C.
The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error.
Therefore, it is imperative that error be well understood. Any error
can be seen as having three major components. These three
components are shown in the figure on the folowing page

Magnitude
The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the values
of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude of error at any
point in time compared to the previous error provides the basis for
determining the change in error. The change in error is also an
important value.

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Process Control Terms

Activities
Duration
Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has
existed.

Rate Of Change
The rate of change is shown by the slope of the error plot.

Rate of Change of Error

(Slope of Error Plot)
PV

Magnitude of Error

Duration SP

Components of Error

OFFSET
Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the
setpoint. In the temperature control loop example, if the control
system held the process fluid at 100.5 °C consistently, even though
the setpoint is 100 °C, then an offset of 0.5 °C exists.

LOAD DISTURBANCE
A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that
can affect the process variable. In the temperature control loop
example, adding cold process fluid to the vessel would be a load
disturbance because it would lower the temperature of the process
fluid.

CONTROL ALGORITHM
A control algorithm is a mathematical expression of a control
function. Using the temperature control loop example, V in the
equation below is the fuel valve position, and e is the error. The
relationship in a control algorithm can be expressed as:

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Process Control Terms

V = f ( ± e)
Activities
7. Automatic control systems are
The fuel valve position (V) is a function (f) of the sign (positive or control operations that involve
negative) of the error (Figure 7.3). human action to make adjustment.
Is this statement true or false?
Summing
block
Process Error Manipulated
variable variable
Valve
f(e) position

Feedback

Algorithm Example
Control algorithms can be used to calculate the requirements of much
more complex control loops than the one described here. In more
complex control loops, questions such as “How far should the valve
be opened or closed in response to a given change in setpoint?” and
“How long should the valve be held in the new position after the
process variable moves back toward setpoint?” need to be answered.

MANUAL AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL

Before process automation, people, rather than machines, performed
many of the process control tasks. For example, a human operator
might have watched a level gauge and closed a valve when the level
reached the setpoint. Control operations that involve human
action to make an adjustment are called manual control systems.
Conversely, control operations in which no human intervention is
required, such as an automatic valve actuator that responds to a level
controller, are called automatic control systems.

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Process Control Terms

CLOSED AND OPEN CONTROL LOOPS Activities
A closed control loop exists where a process variable is measured, 8. Under what circumstances does
compared to a setpoint, and action is taken to correct any deviation an open control loop exist?
from setpoint. An open control loop exists where the process variable Select all options that apply.
is not compared, and action is taken not in response to
feedback on the condition of the process variable, but is instead taken 1 Process variable is not measured
without regard to process variable conditions. For example, a water 2 Process variable is not compared
valve may be opened to add cooling water to a process to prevent the 3 Process variable is measured
process fluid from getting too hot, based on a pre-set time interval, and compared to a setpoint
regardless of the actual temperature of the process fluid. 4 Action is taken without regard
to process variable conditions
5 Action is taken with regard
to process variable conditions

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