CellStructure and Functions

CELL:FOUNDATION OF ALL Size and Shape of Cells

LIVING THINGS Cells vary considerably in size. The smallest cell, a type of
bacterium known as a mycoplasma, measures 0.0001mm in
All organisms fromn the smallest single-celled protists to huge diameter; 10,000 mycoplasmas in a row are only as wide as
whales and giant redwood trees are based on tiny microscopic the diameter of a human hair. Among the largest cells are the
cells. The types and number of cells may vary, but the cell nerve cells that run down a giraffe's neck; these cells can exceed
is the basic unit of life. The cell is the minimum amount of 3m in length. Along with their difference in size, cells present
organized living matter complex enough to carry out the an array of shapes. Some, such as the bacterium Escherichia coli,
functions of life as outlined in Chapters 1and 2. In the most resemble rods. The paramecium, a type of protozoan, is slipper
basic sense, a cell is made of a gelatinous living substance we call shaped; and the amoeba, another protozoan, has an iregular
protoplasm, which contains many small structures, all surrounded form that changes shape as it moves around.
by a membrane. Plant cells typically resemble boxes or cubes. In humans, the
outermost layers of skin cells are flat, while muscle cells are long
and thin. Some nerve cells, with their elongated, tentacle-like ex
tensions, resemble an octopus. In multicellular organisms, shape
is typically tailored to do the cell's job.
The shapes of cells vary greatly. A cell'sshape is related to
its needs or to the job it does. For example, a nerve cell has many
Red blood cell
Muscle cells branches that receive messages from other nerve cells.

Historical Background: Cell Biology

1590 Jasen invented the compound microscope, which
combines two lenses for greater magnification.
1665 Robert Hook, an English scientist, first savw tiny
compartments ina section of cork, under his self
Leaf pore Nerve cell made microscope, and named them cells.
guard cells
1650 Antony van Leeuwenhoeck observed nuclei and
1700 unicellular organisms, including bacteria.
1667 Bacteria was described for the first time as
'animalcules'.
Paramecium
Diatom
1824 RJH Dutrochet concluded that both animals and
plants are made up of cells.
Fig. 1 Shape of Cells
(Continued)
3.24 Life Sciences

Historical Background: Cell Biology blocks for large molecules. Proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates
and lipids, which include fats and oil, are the four major molecules
1830-31 Robert Brown first observed the 'nucleus' of the that underline cell structure and also participate in cell functions.
cell. Van Mohl and Purkings coined the term The deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contains the hereditary
'protoplasm' for the fluid content of the cel. information of cells, and ribonucleic acid (RNA)works with the
1838 The terms 'cytoplasm' was introduced (cytoplasm + DNA tobuild the thousands of proteins the cell needs.
nucleus = protoplasm). The two types of cells are: prokaryotic (found in prokaryote
1839 Schleiden (a botanist) and Schwann (a zoologist) living organisms) and Eukaryotic (found in eukaryote organisms).
produced the 'cell theory', which unified the ideas of The prokaryotic cells are found only in bacteria and archacbacte
the time by stating that the basic unit of structure ria (unicellular organisms). In these, all the components, including
and function in living organisms is the cell'. the DNA, mingle freely in the cell's interior, in a single compart
ment. Eukaryotic cells, which make up plants, animals, fungi and
1855 Virchow showed that 'all cells arise from pre all other life forms, contain numerous compartments, or organ
existing cells by cell division'. elles, within each cell. The DNA in eukaryotic cells in enclosed in
1860 Haeckel established that the nucleus was responsible a special organelle called nucleus, which serves as the cell's com
1900 for storing and transmiting hereditary characteristics mand centre and information library.
in 1866; chromosomes was discovered in 1870;
chloroplasts discovered in 188l; mitochondria
discovered in 1890; Golgi apparatus discovered Generalized Structure of Cell
inl898; Mendels' work rediscovered, giving an
impetus to cytogenetics (functioning of nucleus in Every cell is surrounded by a membrane or a living covering
heredity). through which the cell takes in what it needs from the atmo
sphere and discharges what is superfluous. Within the membrane
Light microscopy reached the theoretical limits is the protoplasm.
of resolution by early 1900s; improvements in Parts of the Protoplasm: The nucleus controls and directs the
microscope, fixtures, stains and sectioning by activities of all the other parts of the cell. The remainder is known
1920s; Cytology stacked to become experimental as cytoplasm, where many vital activities of the cell take place.
and cytogeneticsthe linking of cytology with The diagram shows the following structures under an ordinary
geneticsbecame a branch of Cytology. microscope:
1930s The electronic microscope with greatly improved i) Cell Wall: It is protective in functions. It is found only
resolution was developed. in plant cells, and it consists of non-living substances
1950s The electronic microscope became widely used in (e.g., linguin, pectin, cellulose, etc.)
onwards biology revealing a much more detailed structure of (ii) Cell Membrane (Plasmalemma): This is the outer mem
the cell. brane of the cytoplasm, found both in animals and
plants. It consists of living substances like proteins.
(ii) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a network of tubes or
Cell Structure channels of membrane in the cytoplasm, which helps in
protein synthesis and conduction of material.
The components of cells are molecules, non-living structures (iv) Ribosomes: They are extremely small, dense, granular,
formed by the union of atoms. Small molecules serve as building spherical bodies found in free state in the cytoplasm,

nucleus plasma
cell wall membrane

chromaitn
nuclear envelope
(two membranes)
nuclear pore
nucleolus
hetero
middle lamella
free ribosomes
rough endoplasmic
retictooplast
chromatin chloroplast
euchr
omatin, envelope
granunm
smooth endoplasmic mitochondrion
reticulum,
cytoplasm dictyosome
microiubules (Golgi apparatus)
microfilaments cell sap
tonoplast vacuole

Fig. 2 Plant Cell

 Cell Structure and Functions 3.25

absorption at the microvillus

base of microvilli
exocytosis of pinocytotic vesicle forming
secretory product planocytotic vesicle
secretory vesicle smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
golgi vesicles microtubule
golgi lysosome
apparatus
microfilamets free ribosomes

rough -two centrioles at right

endoplamic angles to each other
reticulum
nuclear envelope
endoplasmic nucleopore
reticúlum
bound
ribosomes
mitochondrion/
-nucleous
-heterochromatin)
-euchromatin
chromaitn nucles
plasma membrane cytoplasm

Fig. 3 Animal Cell

composed of RNA and proteins. They help in the syn In the middle of the centrosome are two small dot-like
thesis of protein from amino acids. bodies called centrioles. They form a spindle during cell
(v) GolgiApparatus (Golgi bodies): They are bag-like structures division and lower plants.
formed of stacks of membrane. In plants, they are called (xi) Cilia and Flagella: These are fine extensions of the cell
dictyosomes. Their functions include secretion of vari surface and are similar in structure. Their functions
ous substances, and secretion of pectic material of cell are to help in locomotion or movement, and in some
wall in plants; further, they help in the formation of cell animals, they also help in feeding.
during cell division. (xii) CellInclusion: These are non-living substances present
(vi) Vacuoles: They are fluid-filled sacs within a cell. In plants either in the cytoplasm of the cell or in the vacuoles.
cells, they are very big and surrounded by a membrane In animals, cell inclusions are in the form of secretory
called tonoplast, whereas in animals they are tiny. Their granules such as zymogen granules, haemoglobin in
functions include osmoregulation and maintenance of RBC, food material in the form of glycogen in the
cell turgidity. liver cells and as pigments in skin, eye and hair cells.
(vii) Mitochondria: Rod-like or spherical semi-solid struc While in plant cells, they are in the form of food par
tures containing DNA in its matrix along with some ticles such as starch granules, oil globules or excretory
enzymes, which are found in all cells. They synthesize products such as resin and gum.
ATP (energy storing molecules).
(viii) Plastids: Small bodies found in the cells of higher
plants. They are of two types: leucoplasts, which are Basic Differences between Plant and
colourless and store starch, protein or lipids and chro Animal Cells
moplasts,which are coloured and are of two varieties:
(a) Non-photosynthetic chromoplasts, which provide Plant cells are enclosed by a rigid cellulosic cell wall (made of
colour to flowers, fruits and leaves; cellulose) surrounding their plasma membrane, while animals
(b) Photosynthetic chromoplasts, which manufacture food cells have no such wall. Another difference is that plant cells have
from carbon dioxide and water in the presence of a special organelle, the chloroplast, with the help of which they
sunlight in green plants. are able to photosynthesize. Further, plant cells lack centrioles,
(ix) Nucleus: They may be round, oval, cylindrical or elon which are concerned with the organization of the mitotic spindle,
gated. Each nucleus is bound by the nuclear mem or flagella and cilia (discussed above). Plant cells have a large sap
brane, which contains nucleoplasm. Nucleoplasm con filled vacuole, whereas animal cells have a tiny one.
sists of chromatin and nucleoli. Chromatin consists of
DNA, RNA and proteins. The nucleus controls all cell
activities and is responsible for the transfer of heredity Cell Functions
characters and also assists in cell division.
(*) Centrosome: A rather dense arca of protoplasm, it lies To stay alive, cells must be able to carry out a variety of functions.
close to nucleus. It is usually found in animal cells. Some cells must be able to move, and most cells must be able
3.26 Life Sciences

H
H

HN)
ÖH R
Peptide bond
OH
(NH
R(C-H N H

2H,0
Rc)H
()=o
H N)
H

N R, R

OH

Fig. 4 Primary Structure of Protein

to divide. All cells must maintain the right concentration of Nutrition

chemicals in their cytoplasm, ingest food and use it for energy,
recycle molecules, expel waste, and construct proteins. Cells must All cells require nutrients for energy, and they display a variety
also be able to respond to changes in their environment. The of methods for ingesting them. Simple nutrients dissolved in
various functions a cell does are as follows: pond water; for example, it can be carried through the plasma
membrane of pond-dwelling organisms via a series of molecular
Movemnent pumps. In humans, the cavity of the small intestine contains the
nutrients from the digested food, and cells that form the walls
Many unicellular organisms move in search of food and survival. of the intestine use similar pumps to pull amino acids and other
They have long tail-like structures, made of protein, called nutrients from the cavity into the bloodstream. Certain unicellular
flagellum to help them swim or move. In higher animals, sperm organisms, like amoebas, are also capable of reaching out and
cells use flagellum to swim towards the female egg for fertilization. grabbing food usinga distinctive process called endocytosis.
Movement in eukaryotes is accomplished with cilia, which are
short hair-like proteins built by centrioles.
In organisms like the paramecium the movement is with
Producing Proteins
help of cilia with which it can propel itself through watery me All living things contain proteins. The structure of a cell is built
dium. Eukaryotic flagella and cilia are formed from basal bod largely of proteins. Proteins called enzymes speed up the chemical
ies, small protein structures located just inside the plasma mem reaction of life. They help digest food, produce energy, and assist
brane. Basal bodies also help to anchor the flagella and cilia. in building other proteins. Enzymes are also needed to construct
There are still other eukaryotic cells, such as amoeba and white the major molecules used by cells-carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
blood cells that move by amoeboid motion or crawling, A cell and nucleic acids-or to breakdown such molecules after they
using amoeboid motion would lose a race to a euglena or para have worn out. Other proteins are part of a cell's structure
mecium, but while it is slow, amoeboid motion is strong enough the plasma membrane and ribosomes, for example, in animals,
to move cells against a current, enabling water-dwelling or proteins also function as hormones and antibodies and they
ganisms to pursue and devour prey; for example, white blood function like delivery trucks to transport other molecules around
cells roaming the blood stream to stalk and engulf a bacterium the body. Haemoglobin, for example, is a protein that transport
or virus. oxygen in red blood cells. The cell's demand for protein never
 Cell Structure and Functions 3.27

ceases. In humans, one gene holds the information for the protein the manufacture of proteins tailored to meet the needs for a cell's
insulinthe hormone that cells need to import glucose from the development and growth.
blood stream.While at least two genes hold the information for
collagen, the protein that imparts strength to skin, tendons and Producing Energy
ligaments once in the cytoplasm, the RNA molecules links up with
a ribosome. The ribosome moves along the RNA ike a monorail Cells require energy for a variety of functions, including moving,
car along a track, stimulating another form of RNA transfer building up and breaking down molecules and transporting
RNAto gather and link the necessary amino acids pooled in substances across the plasma membrane. Nutrients contain
energy, but cell must convert the energy locked in nutrients to
the cytoplasm, to form the specific protein, or section of protein. another form specifically, the ATP molecule, the cell's energy
The protein is modified, if necessary, by the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus before embarking on its batterybefore it is useful. The ATP molecule contains three
mission. Cells team with activity as they forge the numerous, phosphate groups. Chemical bonds links the phosphate groups
diverse proteins that are indispensable for life. together like railway cars. The bonds that attach the second and
third phosp-hate groups are especially rich in energy. When the
bonds are broken, the energy released is used by the cell. The
source of energy for most living thingsdirectly or indirectly
is the sun. Plant cells produce ATP during photosynthesis. Some
other organisms, including bacteria, also produce energy by
photosynthesis. Animal cells obtain their energy from food that the
animal eats. The animal's digestive system breaks down the food
into basicparts. It breaks fats into fatty acids, sugars and starches
into simple sugars, and proteins into chemical units called amino
GA U GCU AC C/G UA acids. The blood carries there substances to cells in the body.
In the cell's cytoplasm, simple sugars are broken down into
pyruvic acid and a smallamount of ATP is produced. The amino,
fatty and pyruvic acids then enter the mitochondria. Enzymes in
the mitochondria breakdown these substances further in a series of
chemical reactions. The molecules that form as a result of these re
Fig. 5 Protein Synthesis actions will then leave the mitochondria and provide energy wher
ever it is needed in the cell. For every job that requires energy, spe
cial enzymes break the ATP phosphate bonds and release energy.
Protein Synthesis
One of the most important tasks of a cell is synthesis of proteins
How Human Cell Produces Energy
giant molecules that under most cellular functions. The heredity This diagram shows how a human cell produces energy. Most
material nown as deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), found within energy is produced in a tiny structure called mitochondria
the nucleus of the cell, orchestrates a series of steps resolution in and is stored in a compound called ATP. To produce ATP,

Food

Cytoplasm
ATI

Digestive system
Mitochondria
Water
Oxygen
Amino acids
Pyruvic acid Carbon
dioxide
Simple sugars
ATPOO

Fig. 6 Human Cell Produces Energy

3.28 Life Sciences

mitochondria require fuel. In humans, this fuel comes from food. Interphase: During interphase, chromosome material is in
The digestive system first breaks down food into amino acids, fatty the form of very loosely coiled threads called chromatin. Just
acids and simple sugars. The blood carries these substances to before the mitosis starts the DNA of each chromosome replicate.
the cells. In the cell's cytoplasm, the sugars are broken down into Prophase: Generally, this is the longest phase of cell division.
acids. Some ATP is produced. The amino, fatty and pyruvic acids The chromosomes appear as two sister chromatids, which coil
enter the mitochondria. There, in a series of chemical reactions, and then shorten and thicken. The nuclei or nucleoli disappear
ATP is produced and carbon dioxide and water are released as as their DNA passes to certain chromosomes. At the end of this
waste products. stage, the nuclear envelope is no longer visible because it starts
Some prokaryotic organisms carry out aerobic respiration. to break into small vesicles that seem to disperse into a spindle
They lack mitochondria, however, they carry out aerobic respira formation.
tion in the cytoplasm with the help of enzymes sequestered there.
Many prokaryotic species live in environments where there is Plant Cells Animal Cells
little or no oxygen (environments such as mud, stagnant ponds or
within the intestines of animals). Some of these animals produce 1, No centriole present Centrioles present
ATP without oxygen in a process known as anaerobic respiration, 2. No aster forms Aster forms
where sulphur or other substances take the place of oxygen.
Still other prokaryotes, and yeast-a single-celled eukary 3. Cell division involves Cell division involves formation
ote-build ATP without oxygen in a process known as fermentation. formation of a cell plate and cleavage of cytoplasm
4. Occurs mainly in main Occurs in tissues throughout
Cell Division: The Continuity of Life stem the body
Every living thing is made up of one or more cells, and each of
these cells is produced by an already existing cell. New cells are Metaphase: In this stage, the nuclear membrane breaks down
formed by division, so that there are two cells where there once and a fibrous spindle forms. The spindle has two poles at oppo
was only one cell. Single-celled organisms begin and complete site sides of the cell, the chromatid pairs alignm along the spindle's
their lives as single cells. Cells' division involves two processes. equator.
In the first process called the nuclear division (karyokinesis), Anaphase: This is a very rapid phase. It begins with the split
the nucleus divides. In the second process, called cytokinesis, the ting of the sister chromatids. They separate at their disc-like cen
cytoplasm divides, and the cells split in halves. There are two tromeres and are pulled apart by the contracting action of the
types of nuclear divisions: spindle.
(i) Mitosis and (ii) Meiosis Telophase: In this final stage, a nuclear mem-brane forms
around each pair of daughter chromosomes, and thus, creating
Mitosis two complete daughter cells. The spindle isappears, and the two
cells start the replicating process themselves.
In all animals and plants, all cells except the sex cells reproduce Comparison of Miosis in Animal and Plant Cels: The most im
themselves in a process of division called mitosis. In the process, portant event occurring during mitosis is the equal distribution
the chromosomes in each cell double themselves, creating exact of duplicate chromosomes between the two daughter cells. This
duplicates, after which a new cell membrane forms around each process is almost identical in animal and plant cells but there are
pair and the two daughter cells split apart. The distribution a number of differences, as discussed in the following sections.
mechanism within each cell that ensures this duplication and
separation takes place precisely is made possible by a fibrous Meiosis
apparatus called the spindle. The spindle pulls the chromosomes
apart by contracting itself. Mitosis is a continuing process; as soon Meiosis (meio' means to reduce') is a form of nuclear division
as two daughter cells have separated, they go through the same in which the chromosome number is halved from the diploid
process to replicate themselves exactly. number (2n) to the haploid number (n). Similar to mitosis, it
involves DNA replication during interphase in the parent cell, but
this is followed by two cycles of nuclear division and cell division
Stages of Mitosis known as Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Thus, a single diploid cell
Mitosis can be divided, for convenience, into four stages: gives size to four haploid cells as shown in the basic characteristics
of meiosis. Meiosis occurs during the formation of sperm eggs
() Interphase and Prophase (gametogenesis) in animals and during spore formation in plants.
(i) Metaphase
(üi) Anaphase
(iv) Telophase BasicCharacteristics of Meiosis
The changes occurring during these stages in an animal cell can During the nuclear division, the duplication of one chromosome
be described as follows: occurs. Note that, as for mitosis, chromosomes may be single
 CellStructure and Functions 3.29
or double structure. When double, the two parts are called ing chromosomes into two haploid sets, one set at each end
chromatids. of the spindle.
Similar to mitosis, meiosis isa continuous process but is con Telophase I: The arrival of homologous chromosomes mark
veniently divided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telo the end of Meiosis I. The halving of chromosomes occur but
phase. These stages occur in Meiosis I and again in Meiosis II. the chromosomes are still composed of two chromatids.
Interphase I: This stage is present usually only in animal cells
Meiosis I and varies in length. No further DNA replication occurs
here.
Prophase-I: It is the longest phase, which is divided into four stages: Meiosis II: Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis.
(a) Early prophase I: In this, chromosomes shorten and
become visible as single structure. (b) Prophase I: Homologous Prophase II: This is absent if interphase II is absent. The nucleoli
chromosomes pair up. This process is called synopsis. Each pair and nuclear envelope disperses, chromatids shorten and thicken,
is called bivalent. One of the pair comes from male parent and and the spindle fibre appears.
one from female parent. Each chromosome and its centromeres
are clearly visible here. (c) In the next stage crossing over during
prophase I, the homologous chromosomes appear to repel each
other and partially separate. This phase is called crossing over
phase. The two chromosomes are joined at several points along
their length. These points are called chiasmata (meaning cross) (d)
The chromosomes ofhomologous chromosomes continue to repel
each other and bivalents assume particular shapes depending
upon the number of chiasmata.
Metaphase I Anophase I

(Showing only
one pair of
Diploma Parent cell (2n) homologous
chromosomes)
Paternal chromosome
Maternal
chromosome (from male parent)
(from female parent)
Each chromosomes duplicates (DNA replication)
forming two pairs of chromatids during interphase Telephase I

2 chsomatids Fig. 8 Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I

(HE: centromere

Meiosis I

Moiosis II Anaphase II Mataphase II Prophase II Interkinesis

(n) (n) (n) (n)

Telophase I Interphase
HAPLOD GAMETES
Fig. 9 Anaþhase Il, Prophase Il, Metahase Il, Telophase II
Fig. 7 Basic Characteristics of Meiosis
Metaphase Il: Chromosomes ine up separately around the
Metaphase I: The bivalents become arranged around the equator of the spindle.
quarter of the spindle, attached by their centromeres. Anaphase II: The centromeres divide and the spindle
Anaphase I: Spindle fibre pull homologous chromosomes and fibres pull the chromatids to opposite poles, centromeres
centromeres towards opposite poles of the spindles, separat first.
3.30 Life Sciences

Telophase I: Four daughter cells are forme. The chro

mosomes uncoil, lengthen and become very indistinct.
Spindle fibre disappears and the centrioles replicate.
Nuclear envelopes re-form around each nucleus, which
now possess half the number of chromosomes of the
original parent cell (haploid). Subsequent cleavage
(animals) or cell wall formation (in plants) will pro
duce four daughter cells from the original single parent
cell.

Pairs of homologous
Nucleus chromosomes
Nuclear
envelope
Natural
chromosomes
Parental
chromosomes Centromeres

(a) Early phorphase I (b) prophase I

(c) Crossing over (d) Rotation occurs

and chiasma
during process changes shape of
chromatids

Fig. 10 Prophase I