UNIT II

TRANSACTION FLOW TESTING AND DATA FLOW TESTING

TRANSACTION FLOW TESTING

INTRODUCTION:
✓ A transaction is a unit of work seen from a system user's point of view.
✓ A transaction consists of a sequence of operations, some of which are performed by a
system, persons or devices that are outside of the system.
✓ Transaction begins with Birth-that is they are created as a result of some external act.
✓ At the conclusion of the transaction's processing, the transaction is no longer in the
system.
✓ Example of a transaction: A transaction for an online information retrieval system
might consist of the following steps or tasks:
o Accept input (tentative birth)

o Validate input (birth)

o Transmit acknowledgement to requester

o Do input processing

o Search file

o Request directions from user

o Accept input

o Validate input

o Process request

o Update file

o Transmit output

o Record transaction in log and clean up (death)

TRANSACTION FLOW GRAPHS:

o Transaction flows are introduced as a representation of a system's processing.

o The methods that were applied to control flow graphs are then used for functional

testing.
o Transaction flows and transaction flow testing are to the independent system tester

what control flows are path testing are to the programmer.

o The transaction flow graph is to create a behavioral model of the program that leads

to functional testing.

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 o The transaction flow graph is a model of the structure of the system's behavior
(functionality).
o An example of a Transaction Flow is as follows:

Figure 3.1: An Example of a Transaction Flow

USAGE:
o Transaction flows are indispensable for specifying requirements of complicated

systems, especially online systems.

o A big system such as an air traffic control or airline reservation system has not

hundreds, but thousands of different transaction flows.

o The flows are represented by relatively simple flowgraphs, many of which have a

single straight-through path.

o Loops are infrequent compared to control flowgraphs.

o The most common loop is used to request a retry after user input errors. An ATM
system, for example, allows the user to try, say three times, and will take the card
away the fourth time.

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 COMPLICATIONS:
o In simple cases, the transactions have a unique identity from the time they're created

to the time they're completed.

o In many systems the transactions can give birth to others, and transactions can also

merge.
I. Births: There are three different possible interpretations of the decision symbol, or nodes
with two or more out links. It can be a Decision, Biosis or a Mitosis.
1. Decision: Here the transaction will take one alternative or the other alternative
but not both. (See Figure 3.2 (a))
2. Biosis: Here the incoming transaction gives birth to a new transaction, and both
transaction continue on their separate paths, and the parent retains it identity.
(See Figure 3.2 (b))
3. Mitosis: Here the parent transaction is destroyed and two new transactions are
created.(See Figure 3.2 (c))

Figure 3.2: Nodes with multiple out links

II. Mergers: Transaction flow junction points are potentially as troublesome as transaction
flow splits. There are three types of junctions:
(1) Ordinary Junction (2) Absorption (3) Conjugation

1 Ordinary Junction: An ordinary junction which is similar to the junction in a control

flow graph. A transaction can arrive either on one link or the other. (See Figure 3.3 (a))

2 Absorption: In absorption case, the predator transaction absorbs prey transaction. The
prey gone but the predator retains its identity. (See Figure 3.3 (b))

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3 Conjugation: In conjugation case, the two parent transactions merge to form a new
daughter. In keeping with the biological flavor this case is called as conjugation.(See
Figure 3.3 (c))

Figure 3.3: Transaction Flow Junctions and Mergers

We have no problem with ordinary decisions and junctions. Births, absorptions, and
conjugations are as problematic for the software designer as they are for the software
modeler and the test designer; as a consequence, such points have more than their share of
bugs. The common problems are: lost daughters, wrongful deaths, and illegitimate births.

TRANSACTION FLOW TESTING TECHNIQUES:

➢ GET THE TRANSACTIONS FLOWS:

✓ Complicated systems that process a lot of different, complicated transactions

should have explicit representations of the transactions flows, or the equivalent.

✓ Transaction flows are like control flow graphs, and consequently we should

expect to have them in increasing levels of detail.

✓ The system's design documentation should contain an overview section that

details the main transaction flows.

✓ Detailed transaction flows are a mandatory pre requisite to the rational design of a

system's functional test.

➢ INSPECTIONS, REVIEWS AND WALKTHROUGHS:

✓ Transaction flows are natural agenda for system reviews or inspections.

✓ In conducting the walkthroughs, you should:

o Discuss enough transaction types to account for 98%-99% of the transaction

the system is expected to process.

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 o Discuss paths through flows in functional rather than technical terms.
o Ask the designers to relate every flow to the specification and to show how

that transaction, directly or indirectly, follows from the requirements.

✓ Make transaction flow testing the corner stone of system functional testing just as
path testing is the corner stone of unit testing.
✓ Select additional flow paths for loops, extreme values, and domain boundaries.
✓ Design more test cases to validate all births and deaths.
✓ Publish and distribute the selected test paths through the transaction flows as early
as possible so that they will exert the maximum beneficial effect on the project.

➢ PATH SELECTION:
✓ Select a set of covering paths (c1+c2) using the analogous criteria you used for

structural path testing.

✓ Select a covering set of paths based on functionally sensible transactions as you

would for control flow graphs.

✓ Try to find the most tortuous, longest, strangest path from the entry to the exit of

the transaction flow.

➢ PATH SENSITIZATION:
✓ Most of the normal paths are very easy to sensitize-80% - 95% transaction flow

coverage (c1+c2) is usually easy to achieve.

✓ The remaining small percentage is often very difficult.

✓ Sensitization is the act of defining the transaction. If there are sensitization

problems on the easy paths, then bet on either a bug in transaction flows or a
design bug.
➢ PATH INSTRUMENTATION:
✓ Instrumentation plays a bigger role in transaction flow testing than in unit path

testing.
✓ The information of the path taken for a given transaction must be kept with that

transaction and can be recorded by a central transaction dispatcher or by the

individual processing modules.
✓ In some systems, such traces are provided by the operating systems or a running

log.

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 BASICS OF DATA FLOW TESTING:

➢ DATA FLOW TESTING:

✓ Data flow testing is the name given to a family of test strategies based on selecting

paths through the program's control flow in order to explore sequences of events
related to the status of data objects.
✓ For example, pick enough paths to assure that every data object has been

initialized prior to use or that all defined objects have been used for something.
✓ Motivation: It is our belief that, just as one would not feel confident about a

program without executing every statement in it as part of some test, one should
not feel confident about a program without having seen the effect of using the
value produced by each and every computation.
➢ DATA FLOW MACHINES:
✓ There are two types of data flow machines with different architectures.

(1) Von Neumann machines (2) Multi-instruction, multi-data machines

(MIMD).

✓ Von Neumann Machine Architecture:

o Most computers today are von-neumann machines.

o This architecture features interchangeable storage of instructions and data in

the same memory units.

o The Von Neumann machine Architecture executes one instruction at a time

in the following, micro instruction sequence:

o Fetch instruction from memory

o Interpret instruction

o Fetch operands

o Process or Execute

o Store result

o Increment program counter

o GOTO 1

✓ Multi-instruction, Multi-data machines (MIMD) Architecture:

o These machines can fetch several instructions and objects in parallel.

o They can also do arithmetic and logical operations simultaneously on

different data objects.

o The decision of how to sequence them depends on the compiler.

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➢ BUG ASSUMPTION:
The bug assumption for data-flow testing strategies is that control flow is generally
correct and that something has gone wrong with the software so that data objects are
not available when they should be, or silly things are being done to data objects.
✓ Also, if there is a control-flow problem, we expect it to have symptoms that can be

detected by data-flow analysis.

✓ Although we'll be doing data-flow testing, we won't be using data flow graphs as

such. Rather, we'll use an ordinary control flow graph annotated to show what
happens to the data objects of interest at the moment.
➢ DATA FLOW GRAPHS:
✓ The data flow graph is a graph consisting of nodes and directed links.

✓ We will use a control graph to show what happens to data objects of interest at

that moment.
✓ Our objective is to expose deviations between the data flows we have and the data

flows we want.

Figure 3.4: Example of a data flow graph

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✓ Data Object State and Usage:
o Data Objects can be created, killed and used.

o They can be used in two distinct ways: (1) In a Calculation (2) As a part of a

Control Flow Predicate.

o The following symbols denote these possibilities:

1. Defined: d - defined, created, initialized etc

2. Killed or undefined: k - killed, undefined, released etc
3. Usage: u - used for something (c - used in Calculations, p - used in a
predicate)
1. Defined (d):
o An object is defined explicitly when it appears in a data declaration.

o Or implicitly when it appears on the left hand side of the assignment.

o It is also to be used to mean that a file has been opened.

o A dynamically allocated object has been allocated.

o Something is pushed on to the stack.

o A record written.

2. Killed or Undefined (k):

o An object is killed on undefined when it is released or otherwise made

unavailable.
o When its contents are no longer known with certitude (with absolute

certainty / perfectness).
o Release of dynamically allocated objects back to the availability pool.

o Return of records.

o The old top of the stack after it is popped.

o An assignment statement can kill and redefine immediately. For

example, if A had been previously defined and we do a new assignment

such as A : = 17, we have killed A's previous value and redefined A
3. Usage (u):
o A variable is used for computation (c) when it appears on the right hand

side of an assignment statement.

o A file record is read or written.

o It is used in a Predicate (p) when it appears directly in a predicate.

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DATA FLOW ANOMALIES:
An anomaly is denoted by a two-character sequence of actions. For example, ku means
that the object is killed and then used, where as dd means that the object is defined twice
without an intervening usage.
What is an anomaly is depend on the application.
There are nine possible two-letter combinations for d, k and u. some are bugs, some are
suspicious, and some are okay.
1 dd :- probably harmless but suspicious. Why define the object twice without an

intervening usage?
2 dk :- probably a bug. Why define the object without using it?

3 du :- the normal case. The object is defined and then used.

4 kd :- normal situation. An object is killed and then redefined.

5 kk :- harmless but probably buggy. Did you want to be sure it was really killed?

6 ku :- a bug. the object does not exist.

7 ud :- usually not a bug because the language permits reassignment at almost any time.

8 uk :- normal situation.

9 uu :- normal situation.

In addition to the two letter situations, there are six single letter situations.We will use a
leading dash to mean that nothing of interest (d,k,u) occurs prior to the action noted along
the entry-exit path of interest.
A trailing dash to mean that nothing happens after the point of interest to the exit.

They possible anomalies are:

1 -k :- possibly anomalous because from the entrance to this point on the path, the
variable had not been defined. We are killing a variable that does not exist.
2 -d :- okay. This is just the first definition along this path.
3 -u :- possibly anomalous. Not anomalous if the variable is global and has been
previously defined.
4 k- :- not anomalous. The last thing done on this path was to kill the variable.
5 d- :- possibly anomalous. The variable was defined and not used on this path. But
this could be a global definition.
6 u- :- not anomalous. The variable was used but not killed on this path. Although
this sequence is not anomalous, it signals a frequent kind of bug. If d and k mean
dynamic storage allocation and return respectively, this could be an instance in
which a dynamically allocated object was not returned to the pool after use.

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DATA FLOW ANOMALY STATE GRAPH:
Data flow anomaly model prescribes that an object can be in one of four distinct states:

0. K :- undefined, previously killed, does not exist

1. D :- defined but not yet used for anything
2. U :- has been used for computation or in predicate
3. A :- anomalous

These capital letters (K, D, U, A) denote the state of the variable and should not be
confused with the program action, denoted by lower case letters.

Unforgiving Data - Flow Anomaly Flow Graph: Unforgiving model, in which once a
variable becomes anomalous it can never return to a state of grace.

Figure 3.5: Unforgiving Data Flow Anomaly State Graph

Assume that the variable starts in the K state - that is, it has not been defined or does not
exist. If an attempt is made to use it or to kill it (e.g., say that we're talking about opening,
closing, and using files and that 'killing' means closing), the object's state becomes
anomalous (state A) and, once it is anomalous, no action can return the variable to a
working state.

If it is defined (d), it goes into the D, or defined but not yet used, state. If it has been
defined (D) and redefined (d) or killed without use (k), it becomes anomalous, while usage
(u) brings it to the U state. If in U, redefinition (d) brings it to D, u keeps it in U, and k
kills it.

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Forgiving Data - Flow Anomaly Flow Graph: Forgiving model is an alternate model
where redemption (recover) from the anomalous state is possible

Figure 3.6: Forgiving Data Flow Anomaly State Graph

This graph has three normal and three anomalous states and he considers the kk sequence
not to be anomalous. The difference between this state graph and Figure 3.5 is that
redemption is possible. A proper action from any of the three anomalous states returns the
variable to a useful working state.

The point of showing you this alternative anomaly state graph is to demonstrate that the
specifics of an anomaly depends on such things as language, application, context, or even
your frame of mind. In principle, you must create a new definition of data flow anomaly
(e.g., a new state graph) in each situation. You must at least verify that the anomaly
definition behind the theory or imbedded in a data flow anomaly test tool is appropriate to
your situation.

STATIC Vs DYNAMIC ANOMALY DETECTION:

Static analysis is analysis done on source code without actually executing it. For example:
source code syntax error detection is the static analysis result.

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Dynamic analysis is done on the fly as the program is being executed and is based on
intermediate values that result from the program's execution. For example: a division by
zero warning is the dynamic result.

If a problem, such as a data flow anomaly, can be detected by static analysis methods, then
it doesn’t belongs in testing - it belongs in the language processor.
There is actually a lot more static analysis for data flow analysis for data flow anomalies
going on in current language processors.
For example, language processors which force variable declarations can detect (-u) and
(ku) anomalies. But still there are many things for which current notions of static analysis
are INADEQUATE.
Why Static Analysis isn't enough? There are many things for which current notions of
static analysis are inadequate.
They are:

▪ Dead Variables: Although it is often possible to prove that a variable is dead or alive at
a given point in the program, the general problem is unsolvable.
▪ Arrays: Arrays are problematic in that the array is defined or killed as a single object,
but reference is to specific locations within the array. Array pointers are usually
dynamically calculated, so there's no way to do a static analysis to validate the pointer
value. In many languages, dynamically allocated arrays contain garbage unless
explicitly initialized and therefore, -u anomalies are possible.
▪ Records and Pointers: The array problem and the difficulty with pointers is a special
case of multipart data structures. We have the same problem with records and the
pointers to them. Also, in many applications we create files and their names
dynamically and there's no way to determine, without execution, whether such objects
are in the proper state on a given path or, for that matter, whether they exist at all.
▪ Dynamic Subroutine and Function Names in a Call: subroutine or function name is
a dynamic variable in a call. What is passed, or a combination of subroutine names and
data objects, is constructed on a specific path. There's no way, without executing the
path, to determine whether the call is correct or not.
▪ False Anomalies: Anomalies are specific to paths. Even a "clear bug" such as ku may
not be a bug if the path along which the anomaly exists is unachievable. Such
"anomalies" are false anomalies. Unfortunately, the problem of determining whether a
path is or is not achievable is unsolvable.

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▪ Recoverable Anomalies and Alternate State Graphs: What constitutes an anomaly
depends on context, application, and semantics. How does the compiler know which
model I have in mind? It can't because the definition of "anomaly" is not fundamental.
The language processor must have a built-in anomaly definition with which you may or
may not (with good reason) agree.
▪ Concurrency, Interrupts, System Issues: As soon as we get away from the simple
single- task uniprocessor environment and start thinking in terms of systems, most
anomaly issues become vastly more complicated.

How often do we define or create data objects at an interrupt level so that they can be
processed by a lower-priority routine? Interrupts can make the "correct" anomalous and
the "anomalous" correct. True concurrency (as in an MIMD machine) and pseudo
concurrency (as in multiprocessing) systems can do the same to us. Much of integration
and system testing is aimed at detecting data-flow anomalies that cannot be detected in
the context of a single routine.

Although static analysis methods have limits, they are worth using and a continuing
trend in language processor design has been better static analysis methods, especially
for data flow anomaly detection. That's good because it means there's less for us to do
as testers and we have far too much to do as it is.

DATA FLOW MODEL:

The data flow model is based on the program's control flow graph - Don't confuse that with
the program's data flow graph.
Here we annotate each link with symbols (for example, d, k, u, c, and p) or sequences of
symbols (for example, dd, du, ddd) that denote the sequence of data operations on that link
with respect to the variable of interest. Such annotations are called link weights.
The control flow graph structure is same for every variable: it is the weights that change.
Components of the model:
1. To every statement there is a node, whose name is unique. Every node has at least
one outlink and at least one inlink except for exit nodes and entry nodes.
2. Exit nodes are dummy nodes placed at the outgoing arrowheads of exit statements
(e.g., END, RETURN), to complete the graph. Similarly, entry nodes are dummy
nodes placed at entry statements (e.g., BEGIN) for the same reason.

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3. The outlink of simple statements (statements with only one outlink) are weighted by
the proper sequence of data-flow actions for that statement. Note that the sequence
can consist of more than one letter. For example, the assignment statement A:= A +
B in most languages is weighted by cd or possibly ckd for variable A. Languages
that permit multiple simultaneous assignments and/or compound statements can
have anomalies within the statement. The sequence must correspond to the order in
which the object code will be executed for that variable.
4. Predicate nodes (e.g., IF-THEN-ELSE, DO WHILE, CASE) are weighted with the p
- use(s) on every outlink, appropriate to that outlink.
5. Every sequence of simple statements (e.g., a sequence of nodes with one inlink and
one outlink) can be replaced by a pair of nodes that has, as weights on the link
between them, the concatenation of link weights.
6. If there are several data-flow actions on a given link for a given variable, then the
weight of the link is denoted by the sequence of actions on that link for that variable.
7. Conversely, a link with several data-flow actions on it can be replaced by a
succession of equivalent links, each of which has at most one data-flow action for
any variable.
Let us consider the example:

Figure 3.7: Program Example (PDL)

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Figure 3.8: Unannotated flow graph for example program in Figure 3.7

Figure 3.9: Control flow graph annotated for X and Y data flows.

Figure 3.10: Control flow graph annotated for Z data flow.

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 Figure 3.11: Control flow graph annotated for V data flow.

STRATEGIES OF DATA FLOW TESTING:

✓ INTRODUCTION:
o Data Flow Testing Strategies are structural strategies.

o In contrast to the path-testing strategies, data-flow strategies take into account

what happens to data objects on the links in addition to the raw connectivity of the
graph.
o In other words, data flow strategies require data-flow link weights (d,k,u,c,p).

o Data Flow Testing Strategies are based on selecting test path segments (also

called sub paths) that satisfy some characteristic of data flows for all data objects.
o For example, all sub paths that contain a d (or u, k, du, dk).

o A strategy X is stronger than another strategy Y if all test cases produced under Y

are included in those produced under X - conversely for weaker.

✓ TERMINOLOGY:
1. Definition-Clear Path Segment, with respect to variable X, is a connected
sequence of links such that X is (possibly) defined on the first link and not
redefined or killed on any subsequent link of that path segment. ll paths in
Figure 3.9 are definition clear because variables X and Y are defined only on the
first link (1,3) and not thereafter. In Figure 3.10, we have a more complicated
situation. The following path segments are definition-clear: (1,3,4), (1,3,5),
(5,6,7,4), (7,8,9,6,7), (7,8,9,10), (7,8,10), (7,8,10,11). Subpath (1,3,4,5) is not
definition-clear because the variable is defined on (1,3) and again on (4,5). For
practice, try finding all the definition-clear subpaths for this routine (i.e., for all
variables).

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 2. Loop-Free Path Segment is a path segment for which every node in it is visited
atmost once. For Example, path (4,5,6,7,8,10) in Figure 3.10 is loop free, but path
(10,11,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12) is not because nodes 10 and 11 are each visited twice.
3. Simple path segment is a path segment in which at most one node is visited
twice. For example, in Figure 3.10, (7,4,5,6,7) is a simple path segment. A simple
path segment is either loop-free or if there is a loop, only one node is involved.
4. A du path from node i to k is a path segment such that if the last link has a
computational use of X, then the path is simple and definition-clear; if the
penultimate (last but one) node is j - that is, the path is (i,p,q,...,r,s,t,j,k) and link
(j,k) has a predicate use - then the path from i to j is both loop-free and
definition- clear.
STRATEGIES:
The structural test strategies discussed below are based on the program's control flow
graph. They differ in the extent to which predicate uses and/or computational uses of
variables are included in the test set. Various types of data flow testing strategies in
decreasing order of their effectiveness are:

1. All - du Paths (ADUP): The all-du-paths (ADUP) strategy is the strongest data-flow
testing strategy discussed here. It requires that every du path from every definition of
every variable to every some test.

For variable X and Y: In Figure 3.9, because variables X and Y are used only on link
(1,3), any test that starts at the entry satisfies this criterion (for variables X and Y, but not
for all variables as required by the strategy).

For variable Z: The situation for variable Z (Figure 3.10) is more complicated because the
variable is redefined in many places. For the definition on link (1,3) we must exercise
paths that include subpaths (1,3,4) and (1,3,5). The definition on link (4,5) is covered by
any path that includes (5,6), such as subpath (1,3,4,5,6, ...). The (5,6) definition requires
paths that include subpaths (5,6,7,4) and (5,6,7,8).

For variable V: Variable V (Figure 3.11) is defined only once on link (1,3). Because V
has a predicate use at node 12 and the subsequent path to the end must be forced for both
directions at node 12, the all-du-paths strategy for this variable requires that we exercise

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all loop-free entry/exit paths and at least one path that includes the loop caused by (11,4).

Note that we must test paths that include both subpaths (3,4,5) and (3,5) even though
neither of these has V definitions. They must be included because they provide alternate
du paths to the V use on link (5,6). Although (7,4) is not used in the test set for variable V,
it will be included in the test set that covers the predicate uses of array variable V() and U.

The all-du-paths strategy is a strong criterion, but it does not take as many tests as it might
seem at first because any one test simultaneously satisfies the criterion for several
definitions and uses of several different variables.

2. All Uses Strategy (AU):

The all uses strategy is that at least one definition clear path from every definition of
every variable to every use of that definition be exercised under some test.

Just as we reduced our ambitions by stepping down from all paths (P) to branch coverage
(C2), say, we can reduce the number of test cases by asking that the test set should
include at least one path segment from every definition to every use that can be reached
by that definition.

For variable V: In Figure 3.11, ADUP requires that we include subpaths (3,4,5) and (3,5)
in some test because subsequent uses of V, such as on link (5,6), can be reached by either
alternative. In AU either (3,4,5) or (3,5) can be used to start paths, but we don't have to
use both. Similarly, we can skip the (8,10) link if we've included the (8,9,10) subpath.

Note the hole. We must include (8,9,10) in some test cases because that's the only way to
reach the c use at link (9,10) - but suppose our bug for variable V is on link (8,10) after
all? Find a covering set of paths under AU for Figure 3.11.

3. All p-uses/some c-uses strategy (APU+C) :

For every variable and every definition of that variable, include at least one definition
free path from the definition to every predicate use; if there are definitions of the
variables that are not covered by the above prescription, then add computational use
test
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 cases as required to cover every definition.

For variable Z: In Figure 3.10, for APU+C we can select paths that all take the upper link
(12,13) and therefore we do not cover the c-use of Z: but that's okay according to the
strategy's definition because every definition is covered.

Links (1,3), (4,5), (5,6), and (7,8) must be included because they contain definitions for
variable
Z. Links (3,4), (3,5), (8,9), (8,10), (9,6), and (9,10) must be included because they contain
predicate uses of Z. Find a covering set of test cases under APU+C for all variables in this
example - it only takes two tests.

For variable V:In Figure 3.11, APU+C is achieved for V by

(1,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12[upper], 13,2) and (1,3,5,6,7,8,10,11,12[lower],
13,2). Note
that the c-use at (9,10) need not be included under the APU+C criterion.

4. All c-uses/some p-uses strategy (ACU+P) :

The all c-uses/some p-uses strategy (ACU+P) is to first ensure coverage by
computational use cases and if any definition is not covered by the previously selected
paths, add such predicate use cases as are needed to assure that every definition is
included in some test.

For variable Z: In Figure 3.10, ACU+P coverage is achieved for Z by path

(1,3,4,5,6,7,8,10, 11,12,13[lower], 2), but the predicate uses of several definitions are not
covered. Specifically, the (1,3) definition is not covered for the (3,5) p-use, the (7,8)
definition is not covered for the (8,9), (9,6) and (9, 10) p-uses.

The above examples imply that APU+C is stronger than branch coverage but ACU+P
may be weaker than, or incomparable to, branch coverage.

5. All Definitions Strategy (AD):

The all definitions strategy asks only every definition of every variable be covered by at
least one use of that variable, be that use a computational use or a predicate use.

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 For variable Z: Path (1,3,4,5,6,7,8, . . .) satisfies this criterion for variable Z, whereas
any entry/exit path satisfies it for variable V.
From the definition of this strategy we would expect it to be weaker than both ACU+P
and APU+C.

6. All Predicate Uses (APU), All Computational Uses (ACU) Strategies :

The all predicate uses strategy is derived from APU+C strategy by dropping the
requirement that we include a c- use for the variable if there are no p-uses for the
variable. The all computational uses strategy is derived from ACU+P strategy by
dropping the requirement that we include a p-use for the variable if there are no c-uses for
the variable.
It is intuitively obvious that ACU should be weaker than ACU+P and that APU should be
weaker than APU+C.

ORDERING THE STRATEGIES:

Figure 3.12compares path-flow and data-flow testing strategies. The arrows denote that
the strategy at the arrow's tail is stronger than the strategy at the arrow's head

Figure 3.12: Relative Strength of Structural Test Strategies.

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 o The right-hand side of this graph, along the path from "all paths" to
"all statements" is the more interesting hierarchy for practical applications.
o Note that although ACU+P is stronger than ACU, both are incomparable to
the predicate-biased strategies. Note also that "all definitions" is not comparable
to ACU or APU.

SLICING AND DICING:

o A (static) program slice is a part of a program (e.g., a selected set of

statements) defined with respect to a given variable X (where X is a simple
variable or a data vector) and a statement i: it is the set of all statements that
could (potentially, under static analysis) affect the value of X at statement i -
where the influence of a faulty statement could result from an improper
computational use or predicate use of some other variables at prior statements.
o If X is incorrect at statement i, it follows that the bug must be in the
program slice for X with respect to i
o A program dice is a part of a slice in which all statements which are known to
be correct have been removed.
o In other words, a dice is obtained from a slice by incorporating
information obtained through testing or experiment (e.g., debugging).
o The debugger first limits her scope to those prior statements that could
have caused the faulty value at statement i (the slice) and then eliminates from
further consideration those statements that testing has shown to be correct.
o Debugging can be modeled as an iterative procedure in which slices are
further refined by dicing, where the dicing information is obtained from ad hoc
tests aimed primarily at eliminating possibilities. Debugging ends when the dice
has been reduced to the one faulty statement.
o Dynamic slicing is a refinement of static slicing in which only statements
on achievable paths to the statement in question are included.
 DOMAIN TESTING

1. Domains and Paths:

o INTRODUCTION:
➢ Domain: In mathematics, domain is a set of possible values of an independent

variable or the variables of a function.

➢ Programs as input data classifiers: domain testing attempts to determine

whether the classification is or is not correct.

➢ Domain testing can be based on specifications or equivalent implementation
information.
➢ If domain testing is based on specifications, it is a functional test technique.

➢ If domain testing is based implementation details, it is a structural test

technique.
➢ For example, you're doing domain testing when you check extreme values of

an input variable.
All inputs to a program can be considered as if they are numbers. For example, a
character string can be treated as a number by concatenating bits and looking at them as
if they were a binary integer. This is the view in domain testing, which is why this
strategy has a mathematical flavor.
THE MODEL: The following figure is a schematic representation of domain testing.
o Before doing whatever it does, a routine must classify the input and set it moving
on the right path.
o An invalid input (e.g., value too big) is just a special processing case called 'reject'.
o The input then passses to a hypothetical subroutine rather than on calculations.
o In domain testing, we focus on the classification aspect of the routine rather than
on the calculations.
o Structural knowledge is not needed for this model - only a consistent, complete
specification of input values for each case.
o We can infer that for each case there must be atleast one path to process that case.

o A DOMAIN IS A SET:
oAn input domain is a set.
o If the source language supports set definitions (E.g. PASCAL set types and C

enumerated types) less testing is needed because the compiler does much of it for
us.
o Domain testing does not work well with arbitrary discrete sets of data objects.

o Domain for a loop-free program corresponds to a set of numbers defined over

the input vector.
o DOMAINS, PATHS AND PREDICATES:
o In domain testing, predicates are assumed to be interpreted in terms of input

vector variables.
o If domain testing is applied to structure, then predicate interpretation must be

based on actual paths through the routine - that is, based on the implementation
control flowgraph.
o Conversely, if domain testing is applied to specifications, interpretation is based

on a specified data flowgraph for the routine; but usually, as is the nature of
specifications, no interpretation is needed because the domains are specified
directly.
o For every domain, there is at least one path through the routine.

o There may be more than one path if the domain consists of disconnected parts or
if the domain is defined by the union of two or more domains.
o Domains are defined their boundaries. Domain boundaries are also where most

domain bugs occur.

o For every boundary there is at least one predicate that specifies what numbers
 belong to the domain and what numbers don't.
For example: in the statement IF x>0 THEN ALPHA ELSE BETA we know
that numbers greater than zero belong to ALPHA processing domain(s) while
zero and smaller numbers belong to BETA domain(s).
o A domain may have one or more boundaries - no matter how many variables
define it.
For example: if the predicate is x2 + y2 < 16, the domain is the inside of a
circle of radius 4 about the origin. Similarly, we could define a spherical
domain with one boundary but in three variables.
o Domains are usually defined by many boundary segments and therefore by many
predicates. i.e. the set of interpreted predicates traversed on that path (i.e., the
path's predicate expression) defines the domain's boundaries.

o A DOMAIN CLOSURE:
o A domain boundary is closed with respect to a domain if the points on the
boundary belong to the domain.
o If the boundary points belong to some other domain, the boundary is said to be
open.
o Figure 4.2 shows three situations for a one-dimensional domain - i.e., a domain
defined over one input variable; call it x
o The importance of domain closure is that incorrect closure bugs are frequent
domain bugs. For example, x >= 0 when x > 0 was intended.
 o DOMAIN DIMENSIONALITY:
Every input variable adds one dimension to the domain.
o

o One variable defines domains on a number line.

o Two variables define planar domains.

o Three variables define solid domains.

o Every new predicate slices through previously defined domains and cuts them in

half.
o Every boundary slices through the input vector space with a dimensionality which

is less than the dimensionality of the space.

o Thus, planes are cut by lines and points, volumes by planes, lines and points and

n-spaces by hyperplanes.
o BUG ASSUMPTION:
o The bug assumption for the domain testing is that processing is okay but the

domain definition is wrong.

o An incorrectly implemented domain means that boundaries are wrong, which

may in turn mean that control flow predicates are wrong.

o Many different bugs can result in domain errors. Some of them are:

Domain Errors:
o Double Zero Representation: In computers or Languages that have a distinct
positive and negative zero, boundary errors for negative zero are common.
o Floating point zero check: A floating point number can equal zero only if the
previous definition of that number set it to zero or if it is subtracted from itself or
multiplied by zero. So the floating point zero check to be done against a epsilon
value.
o Contradictory domains: An implemented domain can never be ambiguous or
contradictory, but a specified domain can. A contradictory domain specification
means that at least two supposedly distinct domains overlap.
o Ambiguous domains: Ambiguous domains means that union of the domains is
incomplete. That is there are missing domains or holes in the specified domains.
Not specifying what happens to points on the domain boundary is a common
ambiguity.
o Over specified Domains: he domain can be overloaded with so many conditions
that the result is a null domain. Another way to put it is to say that the domain's
 path is unachievable.
o Boundary Errors: Errors caused in and around the boundary of a domain.
Example, boundary closure bug, shifted, tilted, missing, extra boundary.
o Closure Reversal: A common bug. The predicate is defined in terms of >=. The
programmer chooses to implement the logical complement and incorrectly uses <=
for the new predicate; i.e., x >= 0 is incorrectly negated as x <= 0, thereby
shifting boundary values to adjacent domains.
o Faulty Logic: Compound predicates (especially) are subject to faulty logic
transformations and improper simplification. If the predicates define domain
boundaries, all kinds of domain bugs can result from faulty logic manipulations.

o RESTRICTIONS TO DOMAIN TESTING: Domain testing has restrictions, as do

other testing techniques. Some of them include:
o Co-incidental Correctness: Domain testing isn't good at finding bugs for

which the outcome is correct for the wrong reasons. If we're plagued by
coincidental correctness we may misjudge an incorrect boundary. Note that this
implies weakness for domain testing when dealing with routines that have
binary outcomes (i.e., TRUE/FALSE)
o Representative Outcome: Domain testing is an example of partition testing.

Partition-testing strategies divide the program's input space into domains such
that all inputs within a domain are equivalent (not equal, but equivalent) in the
sense that any input represents all inputs in that domain. If the selected input is
shown to be correct by a test, then processing is presumed correct, and
therefore all inputs within that domain are expected (perhaps unjustifiably) to
be correct. Most test techniques, functional or structural, fall under partition
testing and therefore make this representative outcome assumption. For
example, x2 and 2x are equal for x = 2, but the functions are different. The
functional differences between adjacent domains are usually simple, such as x

+ 7 versus x + 9, rather than x2 versus 2x.

o Simple Domain Boundaries and Compound Predicates: Compound
predicates in which each part of the predicate specifies a different boundary are
not a problem: for example, x >= 0 AND x < 17, just specifies two domain
boundaries by one compound predicate. As an example of a compound
predicate that specifies one boundary, consider: x = 0 AND y >= 7 AND y <=

14. This predicate specifies one boundary equation (x = 0) but alternates

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 closure, putting it in one or the other domain depending on whether y < 7 or y >
14. Treat compound predicates with respect because they’re more complicated
than they seem.
o Functional Homogeneity of Bugs: Whatever the bug is, it will not change the
functional form of the boundary predicate. For example, if the predicate is ax >=
b, the bug will be in the value of a or b but it will not change the predicate to ax
>= b, say.
o Linear Vector Space: Most papers on domain testing, assume linear
boundaries - not a bad assumption because in practice most boundary
predicates are linear.
o Loop Free Software: Loops are problematic for domain testing. The trouble
with loops is that each iteration can result in a different predicate expression
(after interpretation), which means a possible domain boundary change.

2. Nice & Ugly Domains:

NICE DOMAINS:
o Where do these domains come from?
Domains are and will be defined by an imperfect iterative process aimed at
achieving (user, buyer, voter) satisfaction.

o Implemented domains can't be incomplete or inconsistent. Every input will be

processed (rejection is a process), possibly forever. Inconsistent domains will be
made consistent.
o Conversely, specified domains can be incomplete and/or inconsistent. Incomplete
in this context means that there are input vectors for which no path is specified
and inconsistent means that there are at least two contradictory specifications over
the same segment of the input space.
o Some important properties of nice domains are: Linear, Complete, Systematic,
Orthogonal, Consistently closed, Convex and Simply connected.
o To the extent that domains have these properties domain testing is easy as testing
gets.

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 o The bug frequency is lesser for nice domain than for ugly domains.

o LINEAR AND NON LINEAR BOUNDARIES:

o Nice domain boundaries are defined by linear inequalities or equations.

o The impact on testing stems from the fact that it takes only two points to
determine a straight line and three points to determine a plane and in general
n+1 points to determine a n-dimensional hyper plane.
o In practice more than 99.99% of all boundary predicates are either linear or can
be linearized by simple variable transformations.

o COMPLETE BOUNDARIES:

o Nice domain boundaries are complete in that they span the number space from
plus to minus infinity in all dimensions.
o Figure 4.4 shows some incomplete boundaries. Boundaries A and E have gaps.
o Such boundaries can come about because the path that hypothetically
corresponds to them is unachievable, because inputs are constrained in such a
way that such values can't exist, because of compound predicates that define a
single boundary, or because redundant predicates convert such boundary values
into a null set.
 o The advantage of complete boundaries is that one set of tests is needed to
confirm the boundary no matter how many domains it bounds.
o If the boundary is chopped up and has holes in it, then every segment of that
boundary must be tested for every domain it bounds.

o CLOSURE CONSISTENCY:

o Figure 4.6 shows another desirable domain property: boundary closures are
consistent and systematic.
o The shaded areas on the boundary denote that the boundary belongs to the domain
in which the shading lies - e.g., the boundary lines belong to the domains on the
right.
o Consistent closure means that there is a simple pattern to the closures - for
example, using the same relational operator for all boundaries of a set of parallel
boundaries.
 OCONVEX:

o A geometric figure (in any number of dimensions) is convex if you can take two
arbitrary points on any two different boundaries, join them by a line and all points on that
line lie within the figure.
o Nice domains are convex; dirty domains aren't.

o You can smell a suspected concavity when you see phrases such as: ". . . except if

. . .," "However . . .," ". . . but not. . . ." In programming, it's often the buts in the
specification that kill you.

o SIMPLY CONNECTED:

o Nice domains are simply connected; that is, they are in one piece rather than pieces
all over the place interspersed with other domains.
o Simple connectivity is a weaker requirement than convexity; if a domain is
convex it is simply connected, but not vice versa.
o Consider domain boundaries defined by a compound predicate of the (boolean)
form ABC. Say that the input space is divided into two domains, one defined by
ABC and, therefore, the other defined by its negation .
o For example, suppose we define valid numbers as those lying between 10 and 17
inclusive. The invalid numbers are the disconnected domain consisting of
numbers less than 10 and greater than 17.
o Simple connectivity, especially for default cases, may be impossible.

UGLY DOMAINS:
o Some domains are born ugly and some are uglified by bad specifications.

o Every simplification of ugly domains by programmers can be either good or bad.

o Programmers in search of nice solutions will "simplify" essential complexity out

of existence. Testers in search of brilliant insights will be blind to essential

complexity and therefore miss important cases.
o If the ugliness results from bad specifications and the programmer's
simplification is harmless, then the programmer has made ugly good.
o But if the domain's complexity is essential (e.g., the income tax code), such

"simplifications" constitute bugs.

o Nonlinear boundaries are so rare in ordinary programming that there's no
information on how programmers might "correct" such boundaries if they're
 essential.

o AMBIGUITIES AND CONTRADICTIONS:

o Domain ambiguities are holes in the input space.

o The holes may lie within the domains or in cracks between domains.

3. Domain Testing:

DOMAIN TESTING STRATEGY: The domain-testing strategy is simple, although

possibly tedious (slow).

1. Domains are defined by their boundaries; therefore, domain testing concentrates

test points on or near boundaries.
2. Classify what can go wrong with boundaries, then define a test strategy for each
case. Pick enough points to test for all recognized kinds of boundary errors.
3. Because every boundary serves at least two different domains, test points used to
check one domain can also be used to check adjacent domains. Remove
redundant test points.
4. Run the tests and by posttest analysis (the tedious part) determine if any
boundaries are faulty and if so, how.
5. Run enough tests to verify every boundary of every domain.
o DOMAIN BUGS AND HOW TO TEST FOR THEM:

o An interior point (Figure 4.10) is a point in the domain such that all points
within an arbitrarily small distance (called an epsilon neighborhood) are also in
the domain.
o A boundary point is one such that within an epsilon neighborhood there are
points both in the domain and not in the domain.
o An extreme point is a point that does not lie between any two other arbitrary but

distinct points of a (convex) domain.

o An on point is a point on the boundary.

o If the domain boundary is closed, an off point is a point near the boundary but in the
adjacent domain.
o If the boundary is open, an off point is a point near the boundary but in the domain
being tested; see Figure 4.11. You can remember this by the acronym COOOOI:
Closed Off Outside, Open Off Inside.
PROCEDURE FOR TESTING: The procedure is conceptually is straight forward. It
can be done by hand for two dimensions and for a few domains and practically
impossible for more than two variables.

1. Identify input variables.

2. Identify variable which appear in domain defining predicates, such as control
flow predicates.
3. Interpret all domain predicates in terms of input variables.

4. For p binary predicates, there are at most 2p combinations of TRUE-FALSE

values and therefore, at most 2p domains. Find the set of all non null domains.
The result is a boolean expression in the predicates consisting a set of AND terms
joined by OR's. For example ABC+DEF+GHI...... Where the capital letters
denote predicates. Each product term is a set of linear inequality that defines a
domain or a part of multiply connected domains.
5. Solve these inequalities to find all the extreme points of each domain using any
of the linear programming methods.
4. DOMAIN AND INTERFACE TESTING

➢ INTRODUCTION:

o Recall that we defined integration testing as testing the correctness of the

interface between two otherwise correct components.
o Components A and B have been demonstrated to satisfy their component tests,
and as part of the act of integrating them we want to investigate possible
inconsistencies across their interface.
o Interface between any two components is considered as a subroutine call.
o We're looking for bugs in that "call" when we do interface testing.
o Let's assume that the call sequence is correct and that there are no type
incompatibilities.
o For a single variable, the domain span is the set of numbers between (and
including) the smallest value and the largest value. For every input variable we
want (at least): compatible domain spans and compatible closures (Compatible
but need not be Equal).

➢ DOMAINS AND RANGE:

o The set of output values produced by a function is called the range of the
function, in contrast with the domain, which is the set of input values over
which the function is defined.
o For most testing, our aim has been to specify input values and to predict
and/or confirm output values that result from those inputs.
o Interface testing requires that we select the output values of the calling
routine i.e. Caller’s range must be compatible with the called routine's
domain.
o An interface test consists of exploring the correctness of the following
mappings:

Caller domain --> caller range (caller unit test)

Caller range --> called domain (integration test)
Called domain --> called range (called unit test)
 ➢ CLOSURE COMPATIBILITY:

o Assume that the caller's range and the called domain spans the same
numbers - for example, 0 to 17.
o Figure 4.16 shows the four ways in which the caller's range closure and the
called's domain closure can agree.
o The thick line means closed and the thin line means open. Figure 4.16
shows the four cases consisting of domains that are closed both on top (17)
and bottom (0), open top and closed bottom, closed top and open bottom,
and open top and bottom.

Fig: Range / Domain Closure Compatibility.

Fig: Equal-Span Range / Domain Compatibility Bugs.

INTERFACE RANGE / DOMAIN COMPATIBILITY TESTING:

For interface testing, bugs are more likely to concern single variables rather than
peculiar combinations of two or more variables.
Test every input variable independently of other input variables to confirm
compatibility of the caller's range and the called routine's domain span and closure of
every domain defined for that variable.
There are two boundaries to test and it's a one-dimensional domain; therefore, it
requires one on and one off point per boundary or a total of two on points and two off
points for the domain - pick the off points appropriate to the closure (COOOOI).
Start with the called routine's domains and generate test points in accordance to
the domain-testing strategy used for that routine in component testing.
Unless you're a mathematical whiz you won't be able to do this without tools for more
than one variable at a time.