Discrete Mathematics Reviewer

📘 Discrete 🔹 Logical Operators

(Connectives)
Mathematics
●​ Negation (¬p): "not p"​
Reviewer
●​ Conjunction (p ∧ q): "p and q"​

📌 Part 1: Logic ●​ Disjunction (p ∨ q): "p or q"​

🔹 What is Logic?
●​ Exclusive OR (XOR) (p ⊕ q): "p
or q but not both"​

Logic is the study of reasoning, ●​ Conditional (Implication) (p

especially the structure of propositions → q): "If p then q"​
and their truth values. It underlies
computational thinking and is essential ●​ Biconditional (p ↔ q): "p if and
in computer science. only if q"​

🔹 Propositions
●​ Proposition: A declarative
🔹 Truth Tables
statement that is either TRUE or Truth tables list all possible
FALSE.​ combinations of truth values for
propositions and show the outcome of

✅
○​ Examples:​ logical operations.

❌
"1 + 1 = 2",​
"What is your name?"
(not a proposition)​
🔹 Logical Equivalences
●​ Tautology: Always true (e.g., p
∨ ¬p)​

●​ Contradiction: Always false

(e.g., p ∧ ¬p)​

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●​ Contingency: Sometimes true,

sometimes false​

🔹 Related Implications
●​ Contrapositive: ¬q → ¬p​
🔹 Translating English to Logic
Example:
●​ Inverse: ¬p → ¬q​
“If a student has COVID, all
●​ Converse: q → p​ classes will be suspended.”​
→ (∃x V(x)) → (∀c S(c))

🔹 De Morgan's Laws 📌 Part 2: Proofs

●​ ¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q​
🔹 What is a Proof?
●​ ¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q​
A proof is a logical argument
demonstrating that a specific statement
follows necessarily from previously
accepted statements.
🔹 Predicate Logic ●​ Valid Argument: Conclusion
●​ Predicate: A function that follows logically from premises​
returns a proposition (e.g., P(x): x
> 0)​ ●​ Fallacy: Invalid argument​

●​ Quantifiers:​

○​ Universal (∀x): “for all x”​

○​ Existential (∃x): “there

exists an x”​

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●​ Trivial: Conclusion is always true​

🔹 Rules of Inference ✅ Proof by Counterexample

Examples:
Disprove universal statement by
●​ Modus Ponens:​ providing a single counterexample
If p → q and p, then q​
✅ Proof of Equivalence
●​ Modus Tollens:​ Prove both implications: p → q and q →
If p → q and ¬q, then ¬p​ p

✅ Existence & Uniqueness Proofs

●​ Show at least one element exists

🔹 Methods of Proof (existence)​

✅ Direct (Conditional) Proof ●​ Show only one such element

exists (uniqueness)​
Assume hypothesis → logically derive
conclusion

✅ Indirect (Contrapositive) Proof 🔹 The Pigeonhole Principle

Prove ¬q → ¬p instead of p → q
If more than k items are placed into k
✅ Proof by Contradiction containers, at least one container must
hold more than one item.
Assume the opposite of the conclusion,
derive a contradiction Example:​

✅ Proof by Cases Among 22 days, at least 4 fall on the

same weekday.​
→ ⌈22/7⌉ = 4
Prove statement by considering multiple
exhaustive cases

✅ Vacuous & Trivial Proofs

●​ Vacuous: Hypothesis is always
false​

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📚 Sample Problems 🟦 1. SETS

1.​ Modus Ponens Example:​

○​ If it rains, it floods.​ 📚 Definitions

○​ It rains.​ ●​ Set: A collection of distinct
objects (e.g., {1, 2, 3}).​
○​ ∴ It floods.​
●​ Element: A member of a set.​
2.​ Counterexample:​
●​ Empty Set: ∅ or { } — a set with
○​ Statement: “The square of no elements.​
every integer is positive.”​
●​ Universal Set (U): The set that
○​ Counterexample: 0² = 0 contains all elements under
(not positive)​ consideration.​

3.​ Predicate Logic Example:​

🧩 Ways to Specify Sets
○​ "All students in this class
●​ Description Method: “The set
paid tuition."​
of vowels in the English alphabet”​

○​ "Noli did not pay."​

●​ Roster Method: V = {a, e, i, o,
u}​
○​ ∴ Noli is not in this class.
●​ Rule/Set Builder Method: A =
{x | x is a vowel}​

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🔢 Special Sets of Numbers ●​ Difference (A − B): Elements

in A not in B.​
●​ ℕ: Natural numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, …}​
●​ Complement (A'): Elements in
●​ ℤ: Integers {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}​ U not in A.​

🧠 Logical Equivalents
●​ ℚ: Rational numbers​

●​ ℝ: Real numbers​
●​ A ∪ B ↔ A OR B​
●​ ℂ: Complex numbers​
●​ A ∩ B ↔ A AND B​

🧮 Set Relationships ●​ A' ↔ NOT A​

✍️ Examples
●​ Subset (A ⊆ B): All elements of
A are in B.​

●​ Proper Subset (A ⊂ B): A ⊆ B ●​ (A ∪ B)’ = A’ ∩ B’​

and A ≠ B.​
●​ De Morgan’s Laws apply to set
●​ Superset (B ⊇ A): B contains operations​
all elements of A.​

📏 Cardinality
📊 Venn Diagrams ●​ |S| = number of elements in set S​
Used to visually represent set
relationships including intersections, ●​ Infinite sets: ℕ, ℤ, ℝ​
unions, and complements.

➕ Set Operations ●​ |∅| = 0​

●​ Union (A ∪ B): All elements in

A or B.​

●​ Intersection (A ∩ B): Elements

in both A and B.​

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🔢 Inclusion-Exclusion
Principle

●​ |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B|​

🔁 Properties of Relations
●​ Reflexive: ∀a ∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R​
●​ For 3 sets:​
●​ Symmetric: If (a, b) ∈ R, then
∣A∪B∪C∣=∣A∣+∣B∣+∣C∣−∣A∩ (b, a) ∈ R​
B∣−∣A∩C∣−∣B∩C∣+∣A∩B∩C∣
|A ∪ B ∪ C| = |A| + |B| + |C| − ●​ Transitive: If (a, b) ∈ R and (b,
|A ∩ B| − |A ∩ C| − |B ∩ C| + |A c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R​
∩ B ∩ C|

📌 Cartesian Product 🧩 Closures

●​ A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B}​ ●​ Reflexive Closure: Add (a, a) to
R for all a ∈ A​
●​ Not commutative: A × B ≠ B × A​
●​ Symmetric Closure: Add (b, a)
if (a, b) ∈ R​

🟩 2. RELATIONS ●​ Transitive Closure: Add pairs

to satisfy transitivity​

📚 Definition ●​

●​ Relation: A correspondence
between elements of two sets.
🟥 3. FUNCTIONS
🖼 Representations 📚 Definition
●​ A Function is a relation where
●​ Ordered pairs
each input has exactly one
●​ Tables
output.
●​ Graphs
●​ Equations
●​ Mapping diagrams​

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🧩 Terminology Types of Sequences

●​ Domain: Set of all inputs.​ Arithmetic Progression (AP)

●​ Co-domain: Set of possible ●​ Constant difference between

outputs.​ consecutive terms.​

●​ General form:
●​ Range: Set of actual outputs.​
●​ Example: 3, 6, 9, 12, … (common
difference d = 3)​

🎯 Key Concepts
Geometric Progression (GP)
●​ Each element in the domain
maps to one and only one value in ●​ Constant ratio between consecutive
the range.​ terms.​

●​ Not all relations are functions. ●​ General form:

●​ Example: 1, -2, 4, -8, ... (common
ratio r=−2)​

📘 SEQUENCES &
Means

●​ Arithmetic Mean: Average of

SUMMATION numbers:

Definitions
●​ Geometric Mean: for two
●​ Sequence: A function whose numbers a and b​
domain is a set of integers. The
values of the function, denoted by
ana_n, are the terms of the Applications
sequence.​
●​ Financial calculations (e.g., interest).​
●​ Real Valued Sequences:
Sequences where each term is a ●​ Computer science algorithms (e.g.,
real number.​ sorting, loops).​

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●​ Modeling natural phenomena.​ ●​ Example: For an arithmetic

sequence:

📗 RECURRENCES Summation Properties

Objectives

●​ Define and explain recurrence

relations.​
Tetrominoes
●​ Determine applications of recurrence
relations.​ ●​ Tetromino: A figure made of 4
squares.​
●​ Differentiate recurrence relations
and closed-form formulas.​ ●​ Types: O (square), Z, L, T, I
(straight).​

Recurrence Relation
Tetromino Problems:
●​ Defines a sequence recursively
●​ Can an 8x8 board be tiled with
using preceding terms.​
I-tetrominoes? (Explore even area
coverage.)​
●​ Example: Fibonacci sequence:
●​ Why can't one O-tetromino and
fifteen L-tetrominoes cover an 8x8
board?​
Recursion

●​ A technique where a function calls

itself with a simpler input.​

●​ Useful for solving problems with

self-similar substructures.​

Closed-Form Formula

●​ A direct formula to compute

without recursion.​

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●​ Subtree: Tree consisting of a node

🌳 TREES & 🔹 GRAPHS

and its descendants.​

Tree Isomorphism

●​ Two trees are isomorphic if one can

TREES be transformed into the other by
flipping child nodes.​
●​ A tree is a connected, acyclic graph.​

●​ Has a root node and branches

downwards.​

Properties Expression Tree

●​ Vertices, Edges, Paths: ●​ Binary tree representing arithmetic

Components of the tree.​ expressions.​

●​ Parent/Child Relationships: ●​ Internal nodes = operators; Leaf

Defines node connections.​ nodes = operands.​

Types of Trees Applications

●​ Ordered Tree: Nodes have an order ●​ Expression evaluation​

(e.g., left < root < right).​
●​ Binary search trees​
●​ Full Tree: Each node has 0 or 2
children.​ ●​ Network routing and file systems​

●​ Complete Tree: All levels filled

except possibly the last, filled left to
right.​
GRAPHS
●​ Almost Complete Tree: Similar to
complete, but some gaps at the last ●​ A graph consists of a set of vertices
level.​ and edges.​

●​ Can be directed or undirected.​

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Properties Applications

●​ Degrees: Number of edges ●​ Social networks​

connected to a vertex.​
●​ Computer networks​
●​ Path: Sequence of edges.​
●​ Scheduling problems​
●​ Cycle: A path that starts and ends at
the same vertex.​ ●​ Route finding algorithms (e.g., GPS)​

●​ Connected Graph: Path exists

between every pair of vertices.​ ​

●​ Complete Graph: Every vertex is

connected to every other vertex.​

●​ Spanning Tree: A tree that includes

all the vertices of the graph.​

●​ Forest: A collection of disjoint trees.​

●​ Bipartite Graph: Vertices can be

divided into two sets with edges only
between sets.​

Special Graphs

●​ Weighted Graph: Edges have

associated weights.​

●​ Directed Graph (Digraph): Edges

have direction.​

●​ Graph of Special Relations:

Represents logic or mathematical
relationships.​

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